Classical Mechanics Block 1/4

UNIT-1: Fundamentals
Newton’s laws of motion, frames of references, projectile motion with and without air resis-
tance, Oscillations- Simple harmonic motion, damped and driven harmonic motions.
1.0 Objectives
After studying this unit you will be able to
• State and explain Newton’s laws of motion
• Explain the need of frames of references
• Explain projectile motion with and without air resistance
• Explain the simple harmonic oscillations, damped and forced oscillations
1.1 Introduction
Mechanics is the description of motion of a system. The aim of mechanics is to find the position,
velocity, acceleration, momentum, kinetic energy and many other properties associated with a
physical system at any point of time. These variables are often expressed as functions of time
and those expressions are called as equations of motion. Hence, we can equivalently say that
the aim of the mechanics is to find the equations of motion of physical system.
1.2 Newton’s laws of motion
Newton’s laws of motion provide one of earliest descriptions of motion of particles, system
of particles or any system in general. According to the description of Newtonian approach, a
system under study is separated from everything else in the universe, that is also called sur-
rounding. The system may get influenced by the surrounding. The sum total of these influences
is called as force. Hence a force on a system is a mechanical influence on the system. Newton’s
laws of motion describe the motion of the system when there is no force acting on the system
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
as well as when there is a force acting on the system. There are three laws of motion given by
Newton, they can be termed as: Law of inertia; law of action; and law of action and reaction.
1.2.1 Law of inertia
The Newton’s first law is also called law of inertia. It is defined as ‘Every particle or a system
continues to be in the state of rest or in uniform motion whenever there is no external force
acting on the system’. According to Newton’s first law of motion, an object at rest tends to
stay at rest and an object in uniform motion (motion with constant velocity) tends to stay in
the uniform motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an
unbalanced force.
Objects often tend to resist changes in their state of motion. This tendency of opposing any
changes in their states of motion is described as inertia. An object with higher inertia maintains
its state of rest or uniform motion more effectively than an object with lesser inertia. For all
translational motion, one can show that the inertia is equal to the mass. An object with higher
mass has a greater tendency to resist changes in its state of motion and an object with lesser
mass has lesser tendency to resist changes in its state of motion. Forces are said to be balanced
when the net force on the object are zero. That is when all the forces are added up the resultant
force is zero.
The first law defines the property of inertia. Hence it is also known as law of inertia. The
Newton’s first law as well as the property of inertia can be witnessed almost everyday in our
surroundings.
A person sitting or standing in a bus tend to fall backward when the bus suddenly starts to
move. This is due to inertia of rest. When the bus suddenly starts, the lower part of the body of
the passenger which is in contact with the bus moves along with the bus while the upper part of
the body tends to retain its state of rest due to inertia. As a result, the passenger falls backward.
Similarly, when moving bus suddenly stops, the passengers sitting or standing in the bus are
thrown forward due to inertia of motion. When a branch of a tree is vigorously shaken the fruits
and seeds in it fall down due to inertia of rest.
1.2.2 Law of action
We defined the force as the mechanical influence of surroundings on a system. Many a times
even though there are several forces acting on a particle or a system, there may be no net effect
2
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
as they balance their effects. An influence in action can be observed only when the forces are
unbalanced. The presence of an unbalanced forces influence the system to change its state of
motion. Newton’s second law describes motion of objects in the presence unbalanced forces.
The Newton’s second law states that ‘The rate of change of momentum of a particle is directly
proportional to the net force acting on the particle and it takes place along the direction of the
force’.
~F = d~p
dt
The linear momentum is the product of mass and velocity. For most of the particles for which
the mass can be treated as constant, the above expression becomes,
~F = d~p = d(m~v) = m d~v

dt dt dt
~F = m~a
Note that ~F here is the net force acting on the object. The net force is the sum of all the forces
acting on an object. The first law refers to the simple case when the net external force on a
body is zero. The second law of motion refers to the general situation when there is net external
force acting on the body. It relates the net external force to the acceleration of the body. Thus,
Newton’s second law says the net force on a body is equal to the product of the body’s mass
and its acceleration.
The acceleration produced in an object is directly proportional to the force acting and in-
versely proportional to the mass of the object.
1.2.3 Law of action and reaction
Newton’s third law describes the interaction between to particles or objects. During such an
interaction a force acts on each body due to the other body. This implies there must be two
objects participating in the interaction. One being pushed (or pulled) and another doing the
pushing (or pulling). Thus, forces result from interactions between objects. These forces are
always exist in pairs. Newton’s third law describes these pair of forces and states as ‘for every
action there is an equal and opposite reaction’.
In every interaction, there is a pair of forces acting on the two interacting objects. Forces
3
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
always come in pairs - equal and opposite action-reaction force pairs. For two interacting objects
A and B we can write the Newton’s third law,
~FAB = −~FBA
The negative sign indicate that these two forces are in opposite directions. We call the forces
between two interacting bodies a third-law force pair. A third-law force pair exists when any
two bodies interact in any situation. This is true if two objects are stationary or even if they are
moving with constant velocity or with an acceleration.
1.3 Frames of references
A frame of reference includes the minimum necessary mathematical tools to describe the motion
of a particle or a system of particles. It usually includes a coordinate system and a clock to
describe where and when the particle is at any instant of time. There are two types of frames of
references: An inertial frame of reference and a non inertial frame of reference.
A frame of reference in which Newton’s laws of motion are valid are known as inertial frames
of references. In such frames of references, an object changes its state of motion only when there
is a net force acts on the object. Any frame of reference at rest and moving with constant velocity
is a inertial frame of reference. Any frame moving with constant velocity with respect to an
inertial frame of reference is also an inertial frame of reference.
Figure 1.1: Inertial frames of reference
A frame of reference in which Newton’s first law is not valid is known as non-inertial frame
of reference. In such frames of references, an object may change its state of motion even when
4
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
there is no unbalanced force acting on the object. An accelerated or a rotating frame of reference
is a non-inertial frame of reference.
Consider two frames of references S and S0 moving with relative velocity v along x-axis as
shown in figure 1.1. The observes in the two frames will give two different coordinates to the
same particle at a point P as observed by both. The coordinates are related to each other by
transformation equations
x 0 = x − vt; y0 = y; z0 = z; t0 = t
These equations are known as Galilean transformations.

During the description of motion of a particle or a system of particles when we use the term
‘observer’, it means with respect to a frame of reference fixed to the observer. More details about
the frames of reference will be studied in Unit-13.
1.4 Projectile motion
A projectile motion is the motion of an object projected in uniform gravitational field like of
earth’s gravitational field on its surface. When an object is thrown at an angle of inclination
with the horizontal, the path of the object is known as projectile.
1.4.1 Projectile motion without air resistance
v~◦
α
Figure 1.2: Projectile motion without air resistance
Let a body be projected at an angle α with the horizontal with a velocity v~◦ . The motion will
remain in the vertical plane of the velocity vector v~◦ . Let us take the x-axis along the horizontal
5
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
and the y-axis upward along the vertical direction in the plane of motion. We write the initial
conditions as
x (t = 0) = 0; and y ( t = 0) = 0
ẋ (t = 0) = v◦ cos α = U and ẏ(t = 0) = v◦ sin α = V
There is a uniform gravitational force acting on the body vertically downwards and there is
no force acting on it along horizontal direction. Hence the equations of motion of the projectile
will be
m ẍ = 0, and mÿ = −mg
Integrating the above equations we obtain
ẋ = C1 and ẏ = − gt + C2
Using the initial conditions, we can show that C1 = U and C2 = V. Then,
ẋ = U and ẏ = − gt + V
Upon integration and using the initial conditions again we get,
1
x = Ut and y = − gt2 + Vt
2
The above two equations together provide the trajectory of the particle. we can combine
x
them to obtain the equation of the path as t = and hence,
U
V 1 x 2
y=x − g
U 2 U
We have
V
= tan α
U
and
6
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
1 1 1 1
2
= 2 2
= 2 sec2 α = 2 (1 + tan2 α)
U v◦ (cos α) v◦ v◦
Substituting these expressions in the equation of trajectory we get,
gx2
y = x tan α − 2
(1 + tan2 α)
2v◦
This is the equation of a parabola. Hence, when there is no air resistance, all projectile motion
follow a parabolic path. We can define the maximum distance covered by the body as the range
R, the expression for which can be shown to be
v◦ 2 sin 2α
R=
g
The time required to cover this distance equal to range will be
2V 2v◦ sin α
T= =
g g
1.4.2 Projectile motion with air resistance
Without air resistance
With air
resistance
Figure 1.3: Projectile motion with air resistance
Consider the motion of a projectile in the atmosphere in which the retarding force is offered
by the air resistance. Let us assume that the retarding force is proportional to the instantaneous
velocity. In this case, the equations of motion of the projectile in the component form will be
m ẍ = −km ẋ and mÿ = −mg − kmẏ
The first equation can be modified as
7
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
d ẋ d ẋ
ẍ = −k ẋ =⇒ = −k ẋ =⇒ = −k dt
dt ẋ
Upon integration, we get,
ln( ẋ ) = −kt + C1
If the initial velocity along x-direction at t = 0 is v◦ cos α = U,
ln( ẋ ) = −kt + U =⇒ ẋ = Ue−kt
Integrating once again to obtain the expression for x,
U −kt
x=− e + C2
k
U
Using the initial condition that x = 0 when t = 0, we can show that C2 = . Then the
k
definite solution to the above equation will be
U v◦ cos α
x= (1 − e−kt ) = (1 − e−kt )
k k
Consider the second equation
dẏ
mÿ = −mg − kmẏ =⇒ ÿ = − g − k ẏ =⇒ = − g − kẏ
dt
dẏ
= −dt
g + k ẏ
On integration,
1
ln( g + k ẏ) = −t + C
k
The constant C can be obtained using the initial condition, t = 0, ẏ = v◦ sin α = V. Therefore,
1
C = ln( g + kV ). Then the above equation becomes,
k
1 1 1 1
ln( g + k ẏ) = −t + ln( g + kV ) =⇒ ln( g + k ẏ) − ln( g + kV ) = −t
k k k k
8
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
g + kẏ g + k ẏ
ln = −kt =⇒ = e−kt
g + kV g + kV
g g + kV −kt
g + k ẏ = ( g + kV )e−kt =⇒ ẏ = − + e
k k
Integrating once again,
g ( g + kV ) −kt
y = − t− e + C0
k k2
The value of the constant of integration C 0 can be obtain by the fact that y = 0 when t = 0 as
g + kV
C0 =
k2
Then the final solution to the equation will become,
gt g + kV
y=− + (1 − e−kt )
k k2
Thus the equations of the coordinates of the projectile as a functions of time will become
U gt g + kV
x= (1 − e−kt ) and y=− + (1 − e−kt )
k k k2
The path of the projectile is definitely not a parabola, but a much complex curve that depends
on several parameters.
1.5 Oscillations
Oscillations are one of the fundamental motion types found in nature. Subatomic particles such
as protons, neutrons, pions and even quarks execute oscillations. The oscillations are the basis
of atomic and molecular spectra including IR, UV, NMR and many other spectroscopic investi-
gations. The working of coupled electrical circuits are based on oscillations. Hence it is highly
important to understand the oscillations in their fundamental description.
1.5.1 Simple harmonic motion
Simple harmonic motion is the simplest of all oscillatory motions. If a particle is executing
oscillatory motion about a mean position xo , if the instantaneous displacement of the particle
at any point of time is x and instantaneous acceleration of the particle is a, then the oscillatory
9
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
motion is said to be simple harmonic motion if
• The magnitude of acceleration at any point of time is always directly proportional to the
displacement at that instant and
• The acceleration is always directed towards the mean position.
Mathematically, the motion is said to be simple harmonic if
aα−x
The negative sign indicates that the acceleration is always directed towards mean position.
The simple harmonic motion can also be defined in terms of restoring force that is responsible to
maintain the particle at mean position that tries to bring it back to mean position whenever it is
displaced from it as an oscillatory motion is said to be simple harmonic in nature if the restoring
force that is always directed towards mean position is directly proportional to the instantaneous
displacement of the particle.
Fα−x
A simple example of simple harmonic motion can be taken as the motion of a particle at-
tached to a spring as shown in Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.4: A mass attached to a spring executing simple harmonic oscillations
Let a mass m attached to a spring of spring constant k is displaced from its mean posi-
tion. Whatever may be the direction of displacement, either an extension or compression is
produced in the spring upon displacement that results in the development of a restoring force
in the spring. We know form Hooke’s law, the restoring force developed in the spring is propor-
tional to the displacement of the mass.
10
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
~F α − ~x
We introduce the spring constant as the constant of proportionality in the above equation,
~F = −k~x
d2 x
This is the well known Hooke’s law. We also know that F = ma = m , that gives,
dt2
d2 x d2 x k
m 2
= m ẍ = −kx =⇒ 2
= ẍ = − x
dt dt m
r
k k
Let, = ω 2 , where ω = is the angular frequency of the simple harmonic oscillations.
m m
Then above equation reduces to
d2

2 2 2
ẍ = −ω x =⇒ ẍ + ω x = 0 =⇒ +ω x=0
dt2
The above equation is a second order homogeneous differential equation that represents the
simple harmonic motion. One can confidently say any motion that satisfies above differential
equation is known as simple harmonic motion. To find the solutions to above differential equa-
tion we have to determine the roots of auxiliary equation (that is λ2 + ω 2 = 0) that turns out to
be ±iω. The general solution to the above differential equation can be written as
x (t) = A eiωt + Be−iωt
Initial conditions determine the value of the constants of integration A and B in above equa-
tion. Let us assume the particle was at extreme position with an amplitude of xo when t = 0
and was momentarily at rest, that means the velocity was zero at its extreme position.
Then applying the initial conditions to the general solution, we get,
x = A eiωt + Be−iωt =⇒ xo = Ae0 + Be0 =⇒ xo = A + B
ẋ = A eiωt (iω ) + Be−iωt (−iω ) =⇒ 0 = Ae0 (iω ) − Be0 (iω ) =⇒ 0 = A − B

xo xo
Solving the above two equations gives us, A = and B = . Using these values of
2 2
constants in the general solution we can rewrite the expression for instantaneous displacement
11
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
of the particle as
xo iωt xo −iωt eiωt + e−iωt

x= e + e = xo = xo cos ωt
2 2 2
Note that we got the instantaneous displacement expression as
x (t) = xo cos ωt
If the initial conditions had been chosen as particle being at mean position when t = 0 and
velocity being maximum, then we would have got
x (t) = xo sin ωt
as the solution. Note that these are harmonic functions. Because the instantaneous displace-
ment of a particle executing this kind of motion is represented by simplest harmonic function
(single sine or cosine or even combination of them, but single frequency), the motion is called
simple harmonic motion. A sample representation of instantaneous displacement of a particle
executing simple harmonic oscillation is provided in Figure 1.5. Hence, one can also define sim-
ple harmonic motion as one in which the instantaneous displacement is either sine or cosine
function of time.
Figure 1.5: Sinusoidal representation of the motion of a particle executing simple harmonic
oscillations
12
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
1.5.2 Damped oscillations
Suppose that a resistive or a damping force is present in addition to the restoring force which is
necessary to produce the oscillations. We assume that the damping force is proportional to the
velocity of the particle and is given by Fdamp = −2mµ ẋ with positive value of µ. The quantity
2mµ represents the damping force per unit velocity and is so chosen to simplify the calculations.
The equation of motion, then becomes
m ẍ = −kx − 2mµ ẋ =⇒ ẍ + 2µ ẋ + ω◦2 x = 0

k
Where, ω◦2 = as before.
m
The above equation is a second order homogeneous linear differential equation whose solu-
tions can be determined by finding the roots of its auxiliary equation that is α2 + 2µα + ω◦2 = 0
p
The two roots of the auxiliary equation will be α = −µ ± µ2 − ω◦2 = µ ± λ. With λ =
p
µ2 − ω◦2 . Then the solution of the above differential equation can be written as
x = Ae−(µ+λ)t + Be−(µ−λ)t = e−µt ( Ae−λt + Be+λt )
This is the general solution for the a damped oscillator. Depending on the values of µ and
ω◦ , different situations arises.
Case I: Over-damped motion
If µ > ω◦ , we can observe that µ > λ and λ is a positive number. Then the solution turns
out to be product of an exponential decay term e−µt and a combination of an exponential decay
and growth terms ( Ae−λt + Be+λt ).
With an initial condition of x = x◦ and ẋ = v◦ at t = 0, we can show that
v◦ + (µ − λ) x◦ v◦ + (µ + λ) x◦
A=− and B=
2λ 2λ
When both xo and vo are positive, B, the coefficient of growth term is positive and A, the
coefficient of decay is negative. Moreover, the magnitude of B is greater than that of A.
If on the other hand, vo is negative, such that vo < −(µ + λ) xo , B will be negative and A
will be positive. Furthermore, magnitude-wise A is greater than B. Since the term containing A
decays more rapidly than the term containing B, the term containing B will be predominant after
some time when the term containing A becomes insignificant. Thus, the positive displacement
13
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
will become negative crossing the equilibrium position and once again will tend monotonically
to the equilibrium position as shown in the figure 1.6.
Case II: Critically damped motion
If µ = ω◦ , we can observe that
lambda = 0. Then expression for the displacement will be
x = ( A + B)e−µt
Note that the solution turns out to be an exponential decay because of the presence of the
term e−µt . Hence under this condition the displacement of the particle decreases exponentially
with time towards mean position.
Case III: Under-damped motion
If µ < ω◦ , we can observe that λ becomes an imaginary number. Let us call it as ω 0 =
p
ωo2 − µ2 . Then the solution of the oscillator becomes
0 0
x = e−µt ( Aeiω t + Be−iω t )
0 0
The terms eiω t and e−iω t are essentially oscillatory functions. Hence the motion will be
oscillatory. However, the presence of exponential decay term e−µt indicates that the amplitude
of the oscillations decreases exponentially. The variation of displacement of a particle executing
damped oscillations with under-damped condition is shown in the figure 1.6.
Over damped
Critically damped
Displacement
Under damped
Time
Figure 1.6: Representation of under damped, critically damped and over damped motion
14
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
1.5.3 Forced oscillations
We saw in the previous section that a damped system would oscillate under certain conditions.
The amplitude of oscillation goes on decreasing since the energy is dissipated in overcoming the
resistive force. If the oscillations are to be maintained, energy must be supplied to the system
to make up for the losses. If this is done by applying an external driving force which is time
dependent, the oscillations are called the forced oscillations. The equation of motion of such a
system is written as
F (t)
m ẍ = −kx − 2mµ ẋ + F (t) =⇒ ẍ + 2µ ẋ + ω◦2 x =
m
Let us assume the driving force is sinusoidal as F (t) = Fo sin ωt
Then the equation of motion of the particle executing the forced oscillations will become
Fo sin ωt
ẍ + 2µ ẋ + ω◦2 x =
m
This is a linear inhomogeneous differential equation and can be solved in may different
ways. The simplest method is to assume a solution as x = A sin(ωt − θ ) and determine the
constants A and θ in accordance with the differential equation and the initial conditions.
Substituting the x = A sin(ωt − θ ), ẋ = A cos(ωt − θ ) ω and ẍ = − A sin(ωt − θ ) ω 2 in the
above differential equation we get
Fo
− Aω 2 sin(ωt − θ ) + wµAω cos(ωt − θ ) + ωo2 A sin(ωt − θ ) = sin ωt
m
The right hand term in the above equation can be modified by adding and subtracting θ as
Fo Fo Fo Fo
sin ωt = sin (ωt − θ ) + θ = sin(ωt − θ ) cos θ + cos(ωt − θ ) sin θ
m m m m
Therefore
− Aω 2 sin(ωt − θ ) + wµAω cos(ωt − θ ) + ωo2 A sin(ωt − θ )
Fo Fo
= sin(ωt − θ ) cos θ + cos(ωt − θ ) sin θ
m m
Comparing the coefficients of sin(ωt − θ ) and cos(ωt − θ ) on the two sides of the above
15
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
equation, we can write,
Fo Fo
− Aω 2 + ωo2 A = cos θ and 2µAω = sin θ
m m
On solving the above two equations we can get the expressions for A and θ as
Fo /m 2µω
A= p and θ = tan−1
(ωo2 − ω 2 )2 + 4µ2 ω 2 (ωo2 − ω 2 )
With these constants, we can write the expression for the instantaneous position of the par-
ticle executing the forced oscillations as
Fo /m
x= p sin(ωt − θ )
(ωo2 − ω 2 )2 + 4µ2 ω 2
1.5.4 Resonance
Resonance is a condition in forced oscillations in which the amplitude of the oscillations in-
creases and becomes maximum at certain frequency of the periodic force applied.
This maximum point can be determined using the expression for amplitude and investigat-
ing for the maximum of the function.
Fo /m
A= p
(ωo2 − ω 2 )2 + 4µ2 ω 2
dA d2 A
The amplitude becomes maximum when = 0 and < 0. Hence at maximum,
dω dω 2
dA d h Fo −1/2 i
= (ωo2 − ω 2 ) − 4µ2 ω 2 =0
dω dω m
=⇒
− Fo h 2 2 2 2 2 −3/2
2 2 2
i
(ωo − ω ) + 4µ ω 2(ωo − ω ) · 2ω + 4µ · 2ω = 0
2m
=⇒
− Fo 2(ωo2 − ω 2 ) · 2ω + 4µ2 · 2ω

3/2 = 0
2m (ωo2 − ω 2 )2 + 4µ2 ω 2
=⇒
16
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
2(ωo2 − ω 2 ) · 2ω + 4µ2 · 2ω = 0

=⇒
2(ωo2 − ω 2 ) + 4µ2 = 0 =⇒ ω 2 = ωo2 − 2µ2
Hence the amplitude of the oscillation becomes maximum when the frequency of the peri-
p
odic driving force becomes ω = ωo2 − 2µ2 . This is called resonance.
Further, we can propose that the damping is very less and ωo2 >> 2µ2 under which the
resonance will occur when ω = ωo . In words, The amplitude becomes maximum when the
frequency of the driving force becomes equal to the natural frequency of the oscillator.
1.6 Check your progress
Check your progress by answering the questions below.
1. What is inertia?
2. Newton’s third law says that for every action there is .
3. What is an inertial frame of reference?
4. What is a simple harmonic oscillation?
5. Explain the phenomena of resonance.
1.7 Keywords
• Inertia
• Frame of reference
• Newtonian mechanics
• Free and forced oscillations
17
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
1.8 Worked examples
1. A stone of mass 200 g is thrown in a direction that makes 60 degree angle with the hori-
zontal with an initial velocity 30 ms−1 . Determine the range of the stone assuming there is
no air friction.
Answer:
Data:
m = 200g = 0.2kg
vo = 30ms−1
θ = 60o
We know the expression for the range of the projectile
v2o sin 2θ
R=
g
302 sin 120

R= = 79.53m
9.8
2. A spherical metal ball is thrown with an initial velocity of 40 ms−1 along 45o with hor-
izontal plane. Assuming the acceleration due to gravity as 9.8 ms−2s and coefficient of
resistance as 0.5, determine the range of the ball. Compare the value when there is no air
friction.
Answer:
Data:
vo = 40ms−1
g = 9.8ms−2
θ = 45o
k = 0.5
Because there is no direct expression for the range, we should find by the fact that the ver-
tical displacement becomes zero upon reaching the horizontal plane. Using the following
function we shall calculate the time of flight and the horizontal distance covered with that
time of flight would be the range of the ball.
18
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
U gt g + kV
x= (1 − e−kt ) and y=− + (1 − e−kt )
k k k2
If y = 0, we get,
gt g + kV
= 2
(1 − e−kt )
k k
9.8t 9.8 + 0.5 × 40 × sin 45

= (1 − e−0.5t )
0.5 0.52
19.6t = 95.76(1 − e−0.5t )
Expanding the exponential term upto second order term (This is just an approximation.
Higher order terms provide higher accuracy)
0.52 t2
19.6t = 95.76 1 − (1 − 0.5t + )
2
On solving the above equation, we get, t = 2.3625s
To find the range of the ball, let us find the horizontal distance travelled in this duration
of time,
U 40 × cos 45
x= (1 − e−kt ) = (1 − e−0.5×2.3625 ) = 39.592m
k 0.5
In the absence of the air friction, the range would have been
402 sin 90
R= = 163.26m
9.8
Note that how much reduction in the range is caused by the air friction.
3. A sphere of mass 200 g is attached to a massless spring of spring constant 3.2 Nm−1 is set
into simple harmonic oscillations with with an amplitude of 8 cm. If there is a damping
coefficient of 0.5 is present due to air friction, check whether the oscillator is over damped
or critically damped or under damped. If under damped also determine the frequency of
oscillations.
Answer: We know
19
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
√
r r
k 3.2
ωo = = = 16 = 4second
m 0.2
Given µ = 0.5. This is less than ωo , Therefore the situation in under damped. The fre-
quency of oscillation will be
q p √
ω0 = ωo2 − µ2 = 42 − 0.52 = 15.75 = 3.9686Hz
4. A mass of 250 g attached to a massless spring resonates at 3.2 Hz. If there is a damping
with coefficient of 1.2, determine the spring constant.
Answer: We know the expression for the resonance frequency as
ω 2 = ωo2 − 2µ2 =⇒ ωo2 = ω 2 + 2µ2
k
ωo2 == = 3.22 + 2 × 1.22 = 13.12
m
∴ k = 13.12 × 0.25 = 3.28Nm−1
1.9 Questions for self study
1. State and explain Newton’s laws of motion with examples.
2. What are inertial and non inertial frames of references?
3. Describe the motion of a projectile without air resistance and determine the range and time
of flight.
4. Describe the motion of a projectile with air friction. Determine the horizontal and vertical
distance travelled as a function of time.
5. What are simple harmonic oscillations? Determine the expression for the instantaneous
displacement of a simple harmonic oscillator.
6. What are damped oscillations? Provide the theory of damped oscillations.
7. Describe the forced oscillations and explain the phenomena of resonance.
20
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
1.10 Answers to check your progress
1. Inertia is a property that is responsible to maintain the state of motion of a body.
2. Newton’s third law says that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
3. A frame of reference in which Newton’s laws are valid is called an inertial frame of refer-
ence.
4. An oscillation motion in which the instantaneous acceleration is always proportional to

the displacement and directed towards the mean position is called simple harmonic oscil-
lation.
5. Under forced oscillations, when the frequency of the driving force becomes equal to the
natural frequency of the oscillating system, the amplitude of the oscillation becomes max-
imum. This phenomena is known as resonance.
1.11 References
• Herbert Goldstein, Charles Poole, John Safko, (2010) Classical Mechanics. Pearson Educa-
tion.
• G. Aruldhas, (2008) Classical Mechanics. Prentice Hall of India pvt. Ltd.
• R. G. Takwale and P. S. Puranik (2006) Introduction to Classical Mechanics. Tata McGraw-

Hill Publishing Company Ltd.
• N. C. Rana and P. S. Joag (2005) Classical Mechanics. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Com-
pany Ltd.
21
UNIT-2: Conservation Laws
Mechanics of a particle and system of particles, conservation of energy and momentum, con-
straints, generalized coordinates.
2.0 Objectives
• Describe the mechanics of a single particle.
• State and prove conservation of linear and angular momentum of single and a system of
particles.
• State and prove conservation of energy of a single and system of particles.
• Define the center of mass and describe the dynamics of center of mass.
• Describe the constraints of motion and their classification.
• Describe the need for generalized coordinates.
2.1 Introduction
Mechanical description of any physical system that consists of a large number of particles can
be easily understood when the mechanics of a single particle is known. In this section we shall
understand the mechanics of single particle in Newtonian approach.
2.2 Mechanics of a single particle
Let ~r be the position vector of a particle of mass m. Then the velocity of the particle will be
d~r
~v =
dt
The linear momentum of the particle will be
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
d~r
~p = m ~v = m
dt
As the particle gets influenced by the external objects and fields which we together call as
surrounding, the particle may experience various forces. The vector sum of these forces will be
non zero when they are not balanced. Let ~F denote the net external force acting on the particle.
Then from Newton’s second law,
~F = d~p
dt
When the force acting on the particle is known as a function of time, above equation provides
a means of finding the equations of motion of the particle.
d~v ~ d2~r ~
m = F (t) =⇒ m = F (t)
dt dt2
d2~r ~
m − F (t)
dt2
The above equation is a differential equation that represents the equation of motion of the
particle. If the force acting on the particle is known as a definite function of time and if the
initial conditions of the particle are known one can solve the above differential equation through
integration and obtain the expression for ~r as function of time and hence can determine the
position of the particle at any instant. When the position function is known, by differentiating
it we can determine the velocity. Further, all the physical properties associated with the particle
can be calculated using those equation.
2.2.1 Conservation of linear momentum
If ~F = 0, then we get,
d~p
=0 =⇒ ~p = constant
dt
Hence, when the net external force acting on the particle is zero, the linear momentum gets
conserved. This is known as conservation of linear momentum.
This is also another representation of Newton’s first law which says when there is no force
acting on the particle it continues to be in its state of rest or motion with constant velocity.
23
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
Motion with constant velocity also implies motion with constant linear momentum.
2.2.2 Conservation of angular momentum
The angular momentum of the particle with respect to a point O (This point O is the origin of
the frame of reference used to describe the motion) is defined as
~L = ~r × ~p
If there is a force ~F acting on the particle, we can define the moment of the force, or the torque
with respect to the point O as
~ = ~r × ~F
N
Consider the rate of change of angular momentum
d~L d d~p d~r

= (~r × ~p) = ~r × + × ~p
dt dt dt dt
d~L d~p
= ~r × + ~v × m ~v
dt dt
The second term consists of cross product between two parallel vectors and hence becomes
zero. Hence,
d~L d~p
= ~r ×
dt dt
d~p ~
From Newton’s second law we know = F. Therefore,
dt
d~L
= ~r × ~F = N
~
dt
Thus the rate of change of angular momentum is equal to the torque acting on the parti-
cle. Hence, if the total external torque acting on the particle becomes zero, then the angular
momentum remains constant.
Thus the conservation of angular momentum states that, when the total external torque act-
ing on a particle becomes zero, the angular momentum of the particle gets conserved.
24
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
2.2.3 Conservation of energy
During the course of motion, let us assume the particle moves from position 1 to position 2
under the influence of the external force. Then the work done by the force upon this motion will
be the integral of dot product between the force ~F and displacement d~s.
Z 2
W12 = ~F · d~s
1
If we assume the mass of the particle as constant, the above integral can be written as
d~p d~v
Z Z Z
~F · d~s = · ~vdt = m · ~vdt
dt dt
d~v 1d 2
We can show that · ~v = (v ). Then the work done expression will become,
dt 2 dt
d ( v2 )
Z 2 Z 2
m m m 2
W12 = dt = d ( v2 ) = (v − v21 )
2 1 dt 2 1 2 2
1 2 1 2
W12 = mv − mv = T2 − T1 (2.1)
2 2 2 1
Thus we can observe that the work done in moving the particle from position 1 to position 2
is equal to the difference in the kinetic energy of the particle at the two positions.
If the work done by the force field to take the particle from position 1 to position 2 along any
possible path between the two position remains same, then the force is said to be conservative
in nature. In other words, if the total work done in taking the particle from position 1 to position
2 along a path and to bring back the particle to position 1 along a different path is zero, then the
force field is said to be conservative.
I
~F · d~s = 0
If the force field is conservative in nature, the force can be expressed as the negative gradient
of a scalar function. This scalar function is called potential.
~ V (~r )
~F = −∇
The work done by the force can be taken as
25
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
~ V (~r ) · d~s = −dV

~F · d~s = −∇
Then the work done in taking the particle from position 1 to position 2 would be
Z 2 Z 2
W12 = ~F · d~s = − dV
1 1
W12 = −(V2 − V1 ) = V1 − V2 (2.2)
From equation 2.1 and 2.2 we can conclude that,
T2 − T1 = V1 = V2 =⇒ T1 + V1 = T2 + V2
Thus we can conclude that the sum of kinetic and potential energies at position 1 and posi-
tion 2 are equal to each other. Generalizing the argument we can show that the sum of kinetic
and potential energies, which we often call as total mechanical energy is constant at every point
along the path of the particle. Hence, when the forces acting on the particle are conservative in
nature, the total energy remains constant at every point of the motion.
2.3 Mechanics of a system of particles
Consider a system of N number of particles. Let mi and ~ri be the mass and position of ith particle
respectively. Let ~F ext be the external force acting on the system. Let M = ΣiN=1 mi be the total
mass of the system. We define center of mass of the system as a point where the total mass
can be assumed to be concentrated. It is also the point about which the mass distribution is
symmetrical. The position vector of the center of mass is defined as
N
~R = ∑i mi ri = 1 Σmi ri (2.3)
∑iN mi M
Each particle in the system experiences two forces: an external force and an internal force
due to all other particles. Let ~Fiext be the external force on ith particle and ~Fijint be the internal
force on ith particle due to jth particle. Then the total force acting on the ith particle would be
~Fitot = ~Fiext + ∑ ~Fijint , i 6= j (2.4)

j
26
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
From Newton’s second law we know that the rate of change of momentum is equal to the
total force acting on the system. Hence,
d~p
= ~p˙ = ~Fiext + ∑ ~Fijint , i 6= j (2.5)
dt j
The first term on the right hand side of the equation 2.5 represents the external force on the
ith particle and the second term is the vector sum of all the internal forces due to the ineraction of
the remaining N − 1 particles with ith particle. From Newton’s third law we should remember
that these interaction forces are equal and opposite. That means, Fijint = − Fjiint .
The total rate of change of momentum of the whole system can be taken by taking the sum-
mation over i in equation 2.5
N N N
∑ ~p˙ i = ∑ ~Fiext + ∑ ~Fijint (2.6)
i i i,j
In the above expression the second term in the right hand side consists of terms that come
in pair wise. For example, if there is a term ~F13
int , there will also be a term ~ int . From Newton’s
F31
third law, we know that the sum of these two terms and hence all the pairs become zero as the
interaction forces are equal and opposite. hence, the second term in the right hand side of the
above equation becomes zero.
N N
∑ ~p˙ i = ∑ ~Fiext (2.7)
i i
N N N N
d~p d~vi d2~ri
∑ dti = ∑ mi dt
= ∑ mi dt2
= ∑ ~Fiext (2.8)
i i i i
N N
d2
dt2 ∑ mi~ri = ∑ ~Fiext (2.9)
i i
From the definition of center of mass we know ∑iN mi~ri = M~R. Hence, we can write
d2 ~R
M 2 = M~R¨ = ~F ext (2.10)
dt
27
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
2.3.1 Conservation of linear momentum
The total linear momentum of the system can be taken as the sum of the linear momentum of
each particle.
N
d N
∑ i i dt ∑ mi~ri = M ~R˙
m ~
r˙ = (2.11)
i i
Hence, we can say that the linear momentum of center of mass is the linear momentum of
the whole system of particles. From equation 2.12 we can show that when the total external
force acting on the system becomes zero,
d2 ~R d~R
M = M~R¨ = 0 =⇒ M = M ~R˙ = constant (2.12)
dt2 dt
This is nothing but the conservation of linear momentum of the system of particles. Hence
we can state the law of conservation of linear momentum of system of particles as ‘When to
total external force acting on the system becomes zero, then the total linear momentum of the
system remains conserved’. Further, we can observe that the center of mass moves with constant
velocity when the total external force is zero.
2.3.2 Conservation of angular momentum
The total angular momentum of the system about any point will be equal to the vector sum of
the angular momenta of individual particles. Let ~li represent the angular momentum of the ith
particle about some point. Then,
~li = ~ri × ~pi
In the above equation ~ri is the position vector of ith particle from the given point. Hence the
total angular momentum of the system of particle can be obtained by taking the vector sum of
the individual momenta as
N N
~L = ∑~li = ∑~ri × ~pi
i i
~ be the total torque acting on the system, then,

Let N
28
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
~ N N N
~ = d L = d ∑~ri × ~pi =
N ∑~r˙ i × ~pi + ∑~ri × ~p˙ i
dt dt i i i
In the first term, ~r˙ i × ~pi = ~r˙ i ×~r˙ i = 0

Further, ∑iN ~ri × ~p˙ i = ∑iN ~ri × (~Fiext + ∑ N ~ int
j Fij )
Consider
N N N
∑ ~ri × ∑ Fij = ∑~ri × ~Fijint
~ int

i j ij
In the above expression, the terms always come in pairs. Hence one can write,
N N N
1
∑~ri × ~Fijint = ∑~ri × ~Fijint + ∑~r j × ~Fjiint

ij
2 ij ij
From Newton’s third law, we know that ~Fij = −~Fji , Hence,
N N N
1 1 N 1 N
∑~ri × ~Fijint = ∑ i ij ∑ j ij
~ int ~ int
∑ i j ~ int
∑~rij × ~Fijint

~
r × F − ~
r × F = (~
r −~
r ) × F ij =
ij
2 ij ij
2 ij
2 ij
If the force of interaction between the ith and jth particle is along the line joining the two
particles, ~Fij will be parallel to ~rij . In that case, the above expression becomes zero. This is also
known as strong law of action and reaction. Hence any interaction forces that obey strong law
of action and reaction will be along the line joining the particles interacting.
Then the torque acting on such a system of particles and hence the rate of change of angular
momentum will be
~ N
~ = dL =
N ∑~ri × ~Fiext
dt i
Because the above torque depends only on external force, we shall call this as external torque.
Hence, for a system of particles in which the interaction forces obey strong action and reaction
law, the rate of change of angular momentum is equal to the total external torque acting on the
system.
d~L ~ ext
=N
dt
29
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
If the total external torque acting on the system becomes zero, the total angular momentum
of the system remains constant.
Thus the conservation of angular momentum of a system of particles can be stated as ‘the
total angular momentum of a system of particles gets conserved when the total external torque
acting on the system becomes zero and the internal forces obey strong action and reaction law’.
2.3.3 Conservation of energy
In order to find the energy of the system, let us find the work done by all the forces - external as
well as internal - in moving the system from initial configuration 1 to final configuration 2. The
total work done in moving the system is equal to the sum of the work done in moving all the
particles from configuration 1 to configuration 2. Thus,
N Z 2 N Z 2
W12 = ∑ 1
~Fi · d~si = ∑
1
~Fi · d~ri
i i
N Z 2 N Z 2
W12 = ∑ 1
~Fiext · d~ri + ∑
1
~Fijint · d~ri
i ij
If the internal and the external forces are conservative, then they can be expressed in terms
of corresponding potential energies. Thus, total force ~Fi on the ith particle can be written as,
~Fi = ~Fiext + ∑ ~Fijint = −∇i Vi (2.13)

j
Where the potential energy Vi = Viext + Viint is the sum of the potential energy functions of
the external and internal forces. In the equation 2.13, the symbol ∇i is
∂
∇i = ∑ eî
i
∂xi
and represents the gradient operator performing differentiation with respect to xi , compo-
nents of position vector ~ri of the ith particle. The operator can be written separately as
~Fiext = −∇
~ i Viext and ~Fijint = −∇
~ ij Vijint
1
Because the internal forces always exist in pairs, we can show that V int = ∑ij Vijint . The
2
1
factor occurs due to the fact that each term is being taken twice while summing over i and j.
2
30
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
The work done by the external forces will be
Z 2 Z 2 Z 2 2
∑ ~Fiext · d~ri = − ∑ ~ i Viext · d~ri = ∑
∇ dViext = − ∑ Viext (2.14)

i 1 i 1 i 1 i 1
Z 2
∑ 1
~Fiext · d~ri = V1ext − V2ext (2.15)
i
Similarly, the work done by the internal forces will be
Z 2 Z 2 Z 2
∑ ~Fijint · d~ri = 1 ∑ ~Fijint · d~rij = − 1 ∑ ~ ij Vijint · d~rij
∇
ij 1 2 ij 1 2 ij 1
Z 2 Z 2 2
∑ ~Fijint · d~ri = − 1 ∑ dVijint = −V int = V1int − V2int

ij 1 2 ij 1 1
The total potential energy of the system is then given by
V = V ext + V int
In terms of the total potential energy of the system the work done is
2
W12 = −V = V1 − V2 (2.16)

1
The work done W12 can be expressed in terms of the difference between the kinetic energy
of the system in the initial and final configurations as follows:
Z 2 Z 2 Z 2 ˙ Z 2
d d~ri d~vi
W12 = ∑ 1
~Fi · d~ri = ∑
1 dt
(mi~r˙ i ) ·~r˙ i dt = ∑ mi 1 dt
·~r˙ i dt = ∑ mi 1 dt
· ~vi dt
i i
1 d(v2i )
Z 2 Z 2 2
1
∑ mi d ∑ mi vi = T = T2 − T1
2

W12 = dt = (2.17)

1 2 dt 1 i
2 1
From the above two equations 2.16 and 2.17 we can conclude that
V1 − V2 = T2 − T1 =⇒ T1 + V1 = T2 + V2
Thus the conservation of energy of the system of particles.
31
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
2.4 Constraints of motion
A motion that cannot proceed arbitrarily in any manner is called a constrained motion. This
conditions which restrict the motion of the system are called constraints. For example, gas
molecules in a container are constrained by the walls of the container. A particle placed on
the surface of a sphere is restricted by the constraint so that it can only move on the surface or
in the region exterior to the sphere. There are two main types of constraints: holonomic and
non-holonomic.
2.4.1 Holonomic constraints
In holonomic constraints, the conditions of constraint are expressed as equations connecting the
coordinates and time. If there are N number of particles in a system and there are k number
of holonomic constraints, then there exist k number of independent equations connecting the
position coordinates of N number of particles as
f 1 (~r1 ,~r2 ,~r3 ...~r N , t) = 0
f 2 (~r1 ,~r2 ,~r3 ...~r N , t) = 0
f 3 (~r1 ,~r2 ,~r3 ...~r N , t) = 0
...
f k (~r1 ,~r2 ,~r3 ...~r N , t) = 0
For example,
• In a rigid body, the distance between any two particles of the body remains constant. The
equation of constraint will be
|~ri −~r j |2 = c2ij
• The motion of an ant on the surface of a spherical surface. If x, y and z are the coordinates
of the ant and a is the radius of the sphere, then the equation of constraint will be
x 2 + y2 + z2 = a2
32
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
2.4.2 Non-holonomic constraints
Non-holonomic constraints are those which are not expressible in the form of an equation. The
coordinates in this case are restricted either by inequalities or some differential equations. Some-
times, expressing non-holonomic constraints may not be possible using any mathematical ex-
pressions.
For example,
• The motion of a a gas molecule inside a spherical ball. If x, y and z are the coordinates
of the molecule and a is the radius of the sphere, then the constraint is expressed as an
inequality.
x 2 + y2 + z2 ≤ a2
• Motion of a vertical disc rolling on a horizontal plane is constrained by equations,
ẋ = v sin θ and ẏ = −v cos θ with v = aφ̇
Where, θ is the angle made by the line joining the point of contact of the disc with the
horizontal plane with x-axis parallel to y-axis. φ is the angle of rotation of the disc about
its axis.
2.4.3 Scleronomous and Rheonomous constraints
Constraints are further classified as scleronomous and rheonomouns. A scleronomous

constraint is one that is independent of time whereas a rheonomous constraint contains
time as an explicit variable.
The motion of the bob attached to a pendulum with an inextensible string of length l is
constrained by the equation
x 2 + y2 = l 2
This is scleronomous constraint.
If the length of the pendulum is either increased or decreased as a function of time, then
the constraint will turn out to be rheonomous.
x2 + y2 = lt2
33
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
2.5 Generalized coordinates
The number of independent ways in which a mechanical system can move without violating any
constraint is called number of degrees of freedom of the system. In other words, the degrees of
freedom is the minimum number of variables required to describe the position/configuration
of a system. If there are N number of particles in a system with no constraints, each particle
would require three variables to specify their position, then the minimum number of variables
required to specify the complete configuration of the system will be 3N.
When there are constraints present in the motion of a system the motion becomes restricted.
This intern creates an interdependency among various position coordinates. As a result of this
the degrees of freedom of the system decreases. If there are K number of constraints present in
the above example of a system of N number of particles, we will have K number of equations or
inequalities that make the variables interdependent. Hence we can make K number of variables
as dependent and the minimum number of variables required to describe the configuration of
the system will become, 3N − K.
But the interesting question is which among 3N variables must be selected as independent
and which must be treated as dependent variables? Often we will have complete freedom in
selecting and deciding the independent variables. In order to provide a general description, any
3N − k variables are chosen as independent variables and they are called generalized coordi-
nates.
q1 , q2 , q3 , . . . . . , q3N −K
In general these qk ’s can be position coordinates, combination of position coordinates or

any other variables associated with the system. That is the reason they are called generalized
coordinates. The old position coordinates are expressed as functions of generalized coordinates
and the generalized coordinates are often expressed as functions of position coordinates as
~ri = ~ri (q1 , q2 , q3 , ...q3N −K , t) with i = 1, 2, 3...N
qk = qk (~r1 ,~r2 ,~r3 ...~r N , t) with k = 1, 2, 3...3N − K
The time derivatives of these generalized coordinates are defined as generalized velocities:
q̇1 , q̇2 , q̇3 ,...q̇3N −K
34
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
2.5.1 Configuration space
To describe the motion of system of N number of particles having K number of constraints we

require 3N − K number of generalized coordinates. Hence in a 3N − K dimensional space, the
system can be represented by a point. This 3N − K dimensional space where the generalized
coordinates are taken as axes is called configuration space. As different particles of the system
moves the system traces a trajectory in configuration space. The path of the actual motion does
not necessarily resemble the path in the configuration space.
1. When the linear and angular momenta of a particle gets conserved?
2. State the law of conservation of linear and angular momenta of a system of particles.
3. What is the necessary condition for energy to be conserved for a system of particles.
4. What are constraints of motion?
5. What are generalized coordinates.
2.7 Keywords
• Conservation of linear momentum
• Conservation of angular momentum
• Conservation of energy
• Strong action and reaction law
• Constraints
• Generalized coordinates
35
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
2.8 Worked examples
1. Three particles of masses 2kg, 2.5kg and 3.5kg are placed at points (2,0,2), (0,3,2) and (-2,-
2,0) respectively. Determine the coordinates of the center of mass.
Answer:
Data:
m1 = 2kg r1 = (2, 0, 2)
m2 = 2.5kg r2 = (0, 3, 2)
m3 = 3.5kg r3 = (−2, −2, 0)
We know the expression for the position vector of center of mass is
∑i mi~ri
R=
∑i mi
m1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) + m2 ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) + m3 ( x3 , y3 , z3 )
R=
m1 + m2 + m3
2(2, 0, 2) + 2.5(0, 3, 2) + 3.5(−2, −2, 0) 4 − 7, 7.5 − 7, 4 + 5

R= = = (−0.375, 0.0625, 1.125)
2 + 2.5 + 3.5 8
The coordinates of center of mass is (-0.375, 0.0625, 1.125)
2. Show that the number of generalized coordinates required to describe a rigid body is 6.
Answer:
Data:
A rigid body is defined as a system of particles in which the distance between any two
particle is fixed.
The number of generalized coordinates required to describe a system is equal to its degrees
of freedom. To find the degrees of freedom of a rigid body, let us start with a single particle.
The degrees of freedom of a single particle is 3 as it can move in any combination of three
mutually perpendicular directions in three dimensional space.
36
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
If there are two such particles, the total degrees of freedom will be 6 (three for each par-
ticle). Let us introduce a constraint saying the distance between the two particle is fixed.
Then number of constraint is 1
Then the degree of freedom of this two particle system will be 3N − k = 3 × 2 − 1 = 5.
Now let us introduce another particle with a constraint that the distance of the new particle
from the previous two particles are fixed. Hence the total number of particles is 3 and total
number of constraints is 3. Then the degree of freedom would be 3N − k = 3 × 3 − 3 = 6.
Let us introduce the fourth particle with constraints that its distance from the other three
particles are fixed. Hence the total number of constraints will be 6. Then the degrees of
freedom would be 3N − k = 3 × 4 − 6 = 6
For any new particle introduced, the number of constraints also increase proportionately
that keeps the degrees of freedom of rigid body at 6. Hence the number of generalized
coordinates required to describe the motion of the rigid body is 6.
3. A particle of mass 200g is moving with an initial velocity of 15 ms−1 along x-axis. If a force
of 2 N is applied on to the particle for 2.5 seconds along y-axis, determine the final velocity
and kinetic energy of the particle.
Answer: The particle is initially moving along x direction with a velocity of 15 ms−1 . It
will continue to move with that velocity unless a force parallel to x-axis is not applied.
v x = 15ms−1
The force of 2 N is being applied along y-axis produces an acceleration of a = F/m =

2/0.2 = 10ms−2 . Hence after 4 seconds, the velocity along y-axis will be,
1 2 1
vy = at = × 10 × 2.52 = 31.25ms−1
2 2
Then the final velocity will be ~v = 15î + 31.25 ĵ
The kinetic energy will be
1 1
T= m(v2x + v2y ) = × 0.2 × (152 + 31.252 ) = 120.15J
2 2
4. Check whether the force field ~F = ( x2 − xy)î + (y2 − xy) ĵ is conservative or not.
Answer: For a conservative force field the force can be obtained as negative gradient of
potential. If V is the potential, then
37
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
~F = Fx î + Fy ĵ = − ∂V î − ∂V ĵ
∂x ∂y
Then we can write
∂V ∂V
= xy − x2 and = xy − y2
∂x ∂x
Now if we integrate the above equations and if we can get the same potential function we
can conclude that is the potential function to derive the above force and hence the force
field is conservative in nature.
Z Z
2
Vx = ( xy − x )dx and Vy = ( xy − y2 )dy
x2 y x3 xy2 y3
Vx = − + f (y) and Vy = − + f (x)
2 3 2 3
We can not combine the above two to obtain one common function. Hence the given force
field is not conservative.
1. State prove the law of conservation of linear momentum of a single particle.
2. State and prove the law of conservation of angular momentum of a single particle.
3. State and prove the law of conservation of energy of a single particle.
4. State prove the law of conservation of linear momentum of a system of particles.
5. State and prove the law of conservation of angular momentum of a system of particles.
6. State and prove the law of conservation of energy of a system of particles.
7. What are constraints? Explain the various types of constraints.
8. What are generalized coordinates? Explain their significance.
38
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
1. When the total external force acting on a particle becomes zero, its linear momentum gets
conserved. When the total external torque acting on a particle becomes zero, the angular
momentum of a particle gets conserved.
2. When the total external force acting on the system of particle becomes zero, the linear
momentum of the system of particle gets conserved. When the total external torque acting
on the system becomes zero and when the internal forces obey strong action and reaction
law, the angular momentum of the system gets conserved.
3. The energy of a system of particles gets conserved when both internal and external forces
are conservative in nature.
4. Conditions imposed on motion of a system are known as constraints.
5. Generalized coordinates are variables that are equal to degrees of freedom in number used
to describe the configuration of any physical system.
2.11 References
tion.

pany Ltd.
39
UNIT-3: Lagrangian Formulation
D’ Alembert’s principle and Lagrange’s equations of motion, Hamilton’s principle of least ac-
tion, Lagrange’s equations from Hamilton’s principle, velocity dependent potentials.
3.0 Objectives
• Describe the principle of virtual displacement and virtual work.
• Obtain the equations of motion from D’Alembert’s principle of virtual work.
• Describe the Hamilton’s principle of least action.
• Deduce the Lagrange’s equations of motion using Hamilton’s principle of least action.
• Describe the velocity dependent potential.
3.1 Introduction
Newton’s laws of motion provide a deterministic approach to find the equations of motion
of physical system. This means when all the forces acting on a physical system are specified
and when the initial conditions are known, the equations of motion that describe the posi-
tion/configuration of the system can be uniquely determined. This is evident, but may not
be easy at all the time. Knowing the initial conditions is not a problem, but specifying all the
forces acting on the system may not be possible at all the time. The forces due to external force
fields may be easy to determine, but the forces due to constraints are often difficult to determine.
For example, when a circular disc rolls on a horizontal surface, it experiences a constraint force
due to the normal reaction from the surface. When a molecule is bound inside a container, the
walls of the container exert force on the molecules whenever they tend to go away from the
container. These forces are often difficult to specify. On the other hand, these constraint forces
do not directly contribute to the motion, but without specifying them the equations of motion
can not be determined in Newtonian mechanics.
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
Analytical mechanics that includes several different formalism provide alternative approaches
to Newtonian mechanics. Lagrangian formulation is one of them that is highly effective an
useful to find the equations of motion of physical systems when the forces of constraints are
unknown. The formalism is so defined that the constraint forces are not necessary to find the
equations of motion of the system.
3.2 D’ Alembert’s principle of virtual work
Consider a system described by n generalized coordinates q j ( j = 1, 2, 3, ...n). Suppose the sys-

tem undergoes a certain displacement in the configuration space in such a way that it does not
take any time and that it is consistent with the constraints on the system. Such displacements
are called virtual displacement because they do not represent actual motion of the system, the
work doen by the forces of constraint in such a virtual displacement is zero. If this case, the
virtual displacement is taken at right angles to the direction of the force i.e., along the surface,
so that the work done by the force during the virtual displacement is zero.
Let the virtual displacement of the ith particle of the given system be δ~ri . If the given system
is in equilibrium, the resultant force acting on the ith particle of the system must be zero, i.e.
~Fi = 0. It is the obvious that virtual work ~Fi · δ~ri = 0 for the ith particle and hence it is also zero
for all the particles of the system. Thus
dW = ∑ ~Fi · δ~ri = 0
i
The resultant force ~Fi acting on the ith particle is made up of the two forces: ~F a , the applied
force and ~f i , the force of constraint. Hence we can write,
~Fi = ~Fia + ~f i
Then the corresponding work done under virtual displacement would be
∑ ~Fia · δ~ri + ∑ ~fi · δ~ri = ∑ ~Fi · δ~ri = 0

i i i
Because the virtual displacement of the system is consistent with the forces of constraints,
the work done due to constraint forces on virtual displacement becomes zero.
41
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
∑ ~fi · δ~ri = 0
i
With this restriction we arrive at the principle of virtual work which states that the virtual
work done by the applied forces acting on a system in equilibrium is zero. Thus we have
∑ ~Fi · δ~ri = 0
i
This is also known as D’Alembert’s principle of virtual work.

It should be noted that all the coordinates and hence the virtual displacements δ~ri are not
independent of each other. In fact, some of these must be connected by the equations of con-
straints. Hence we cannot treat virtual displacements δ~ri as completely arbitrary and equate
their coefficients. For this purpose, we shall have to transform coordinates ~ri to independent
generalized coordinates q j . There is another point that needs consideration. Most of the systems
we come across in mechanics are not in static equilibrium. hence the principle must be modi-
fied to include the dynamic systems as well. This can be achieved by considering the Newton’s
equation of motion as,
~Fi = ~p˙ =⇒ ~Fi − ~p˙ = 0

i i
=⇒
∑(~Fi − ~p˙ i) · δ~ri = 0
3.3 Lagrange’s equations of motion from D’ Alembert’s principle
In order to obtain a constraint independent equations of motion, we have to transfer the D’Alembrt’s
principle of virtual work in terms of generalized coordinates. We know that position coordinates
can be expressed as functions of generalized coordinates as
~ri = ~ri (q j ) i = 1, 2, 3...N and j = 1, 2, 3...n = 3N − k
consider an infinitesimal virtual displacement δ~ri at a particular instant of time t.
42
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
∂~r
δ~ri = ∑ ∂qij δq j
j
The variation with respect to the time is absent in the above equation because the virtual
displacement is assumed to take place at fixed instant of time. Further, the velocities are given
by
∂~r ∂~r
~vi = ~r˙ i = ∑ i q̇ j + i
j
∂q j ∂t
∂q j
In the above equation, q̇ j = are the generalized velocities. It should be noted that since
∂t
generalized coordinates q j need not have the dimensions of length, generalized velocities need
not have the dimensions of velocity.
The virtual work done by forces ~Fi in terms of virtual displacements δ~ri is given by
δW = ∑ ~Fi · δ~ri
i
∂~r
δW = ∑ ∑ ~Fi · ∂qij δq j
j i
∑ ~Fi · δ~ri = ∑ Q j δq j (3.1)

i j
∂~r
Where Q j = ∑i ~Fi · i represents the jth component of the generalized force.
∂q j
Consider the second term in the modified D’Alembert’s principle of virtual work
d ∂~r
∑ ~p˙ i · δ~ri = ∑ dt (mi~r˙ i ) · δ~ri = ∑ mi~rï · ∂qij δq j
i i i,j
The coefficient of δq j on the right hand side of the above equation can be written as
∂~r hd ∂~ri d ∂~ri i

∑ mi~rï · ∂qij = ∑ dt mi~ri · ∂q j − mi~ri · dt ∂q j
˙ ˙ (3.2)
i i
In the above expression,
d ∂~ri ∂2~ri ∂2~ri ∂~r˙ i

dt ∂q j
= ∑ ∂q j ∂qk k ∂q j ∂t ∂q j
q̇ + = (3.3)
k
43
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
Similarly we can also show that
∂~r˙ i ∂~r
= i (3.4)
∂q̇ j ∂q j
Using expression in equations 3.3 and 3.4 in equation 3.2, we get,
∂~r hd ∂~r˙ i ∂~r˙ i i

∑ mi~rï · ∂qij = ∑ dt i i ∂q̇ j
m ~
r˙ · − m ~˙
r
i i ·
∂q j
(3.5)
i i
dh ∂ 1 i h ∂ 1 i
=
dt ∂q̇ j ∑ 2 i i − ∂q j
m |
~ ˙
r | 2
∑2 i i
m |
~ ˙
r | 2
(3.6)
i i
1
The term ∑i mi |~r˙ i |2 is nothing but the total kinetic energy of the system of particles. Let

2
this kinetic energy be denoted by T. Then we have
∂~r d ∂T ∂T
∑ mi~rï · ∂qij =
dt ∂q̇ j
−
∂q j
(3.7)
i
Now combining the equations 3.1 and 3.7 we can rewrite the D’Alembert’s principle of vir-
tual work as
h d ∂T ∂T i
∑ dt ∂q̇ j − ∂q j − Q j δq j = 0 (3.8)
j
Because each generalized coordinate is independent of other generalized coordinates, we

can equate each term of the above summation to zero. Thus we can write,
d ∂T ∂T
− − Qj = 0 (3.9)
dt ∂q̇ j ∂q j
The above equation is actually a collection of n number of equations which together are
called Lagrange’s equations of motion.
If the forces acting on the particles are conservative in nature, they can be expressed as neg-
ative gradient of a scalar potential as
~ iV
~Fi = −∇
The generalized force will be
44
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
∂~r ~ i V · ∂~ri = − ∂V
Qj = ∑ ~Fi · ∂qij = ∑ −∇
∂q j ∂q j
i i
Using the above expression for the generalized force in the Lagrange’s equation we can write,
d ∂T ∂T ∂V
− + =0 (3.10)
dt ∂q̇ j ∂q j ∂q j
d ∂T ∂( T − V )
− =0 (3.11)
dt ∂q̇ j ∂q j
If we assume that the potential energy is just a function of position not velocity. Then the
derivative of the potential with respect to the velocity, will be zero. This is true for generalized
∂V
velocities also. Then addition or subtraction of in the above equation will not contribute
∂q̇ j
∂V
in any manner. Hence we shall include in the first term of the above equation to attain a
∂q̇ j
uniformity. Note that this can not be done for velocity dependent potentials. Then we get
d ∂( T − V ) ∂( T − V )
− =0 (3.12)
dt ∂q̇ j ∂q j
In the above equation we shall define a new function called Lagrangian of the system as the
difference between the kinetic and potential energy function as, L = T − V. Then the Lagrange’s
equations of motion in terms of the Lagrangian of the system will become
d ∂L ∂L
− =0 (3.13)
dt ∂q̇ j ∂q j
These equations are also known as Euler-Lagrange’s equations of motion.
3.4 Hamilton’s principle of least action
Hamilton’s principle of least action is stated as follows ‘Of all the possible paths along which a
dynamical system may move from one point to another within a given interval of time consis-
tent with constraints, the actual path followed is that which minimizes the time intgral of the
Lagrangian’.
The principle can alternatively stated as:
The motion of a system from an instant t1 to another instant t2 is such that the line integral
R t2
t1 Ldt with L = T − V is an extremum for the actual path of the motion. In terms of calculus of
45
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
variation, we can state the Hamilton’s principle as
Z t2
δJ = δ Ldt = 0
t1
3.5 Lagrange’s equations of motion from Hamilton’s principle
The fundamental problem of the calculus of variations is easily generalized to the case where f
is a function of many independent variables yi , and their derivatives ẏi . Then the variation of
the integral J
Z 2
δJ = δ f (y1 ( x ); y2 ( x ); ..., ẏ1 ( x ); ẏ2 ( x )..., x )dx
1
is obtained by considering J as a function of parameter α that labels a possible set curves

y1 ( x, α). Thuswe may introduce α by setting
yi ( x, α) = yi ( x, 0) + αηi ( x )
The variation of Jcan be taken as
Z 2 ∂ f ∂y
∂J ∂ f ∂ẏi
∂α
dα =
1
∑ ∂yi ∂α dα + ∂ẏi ∂α dα dx
i
Again we integrate by parts the integral involved in the second sum of the above equation
δ f ∂2 y i
Z 2 Z 2
∂ f ∂yi 2 ∂yi d ∂ f
dx = − dx
1 ∂ẏi ∂α ∂ẏi ∂α 1 1 ∂α dx ∂ ẏ
The first term of the above expression vanishes because all curves pass through the fixed end
points. The the variation in the integral J becomes,
Z 2 h ∂f d ∂ f i
δJ =
1
∑ ∂yi
−
dx ∂ẏi
δyi dx (3.14)
i
Because each yi are independent, the coefficients of each δyi vanish in above equation. Hence,
∂f d ∂f
− (3.15)
∂yi dx ∂ẏi
According to Hamilton’s principle of least action, the integral
46
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
Z 2
I= L(qi , q̇i , t)dt
1
Then the corresponding equations of motion can be obtained from the above integral func-
tion by replacing f by L, yi by qi .
∂L d ∂L
− =0 (3.16)
∂qi dt ∂q̇i
These are nothing but Euler Lagrange equations of motion.
3.6 Velocity dependent potentials
When the potentials depend on the velocity, the expression for the generalized force will be
∂U d ∂U
Qj = − +
∂q j dt ∂q̇ j
In the above expression, U (q j , q̇ j ) is called generalized potential or the velocity dependednt

potential.
Then the Lagrangian of the system can be taken as
L = T−U
And the Lagrangian equations of motion will be
∂L d ∂L
− =0
∂qi dt ∂q̇i
3.6.1 Velocity dependent potential of electromagnetic fields
Whenever the force acting on a particle of system of particles becomes a function of velocity, the
corresponding potentials used to derive the force also become velocity dependent potentials. We
come across velocity dependent potential when we consider the electromagnetic forces acting
on moving charges.
Consider an electric charge, q of mass m moving at a velocity ~v, in an region where both
electric field of intensity ~E and magnetic field of intensity ~B are present. The force experienced
by the charge is also known as Lorentz force is given by
47
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
F = q[~E + (~v × ~B)]
Both ~E( x, y, z, t) and ~B( x, y, z, t) are continuous functions of space and time and are derivable
~ ( x, y, z, t) as
from a scalar potential φ( x, y, z, t) and a vector potential A
~
~ φ − ∂A
~E = −∇ and ~ ×A
~B = ∇ ~
∂t
The force on the charge can be derived from the following velocity-dependent potential en-
ergy
~ · ~v
U = qφ − q A
Then the Lagrangian of the charged particle will be
1 2 ~ · ~v
L = T−U = mv − qφ + q A
2
We can find the equations of motion of the charged particle using the above Lagrangian when
the definite functional form of the scalar and vector potentials are known. With this general
description also we can compute the equations of motion that will conclude in the expression
for the Lorentz force.
1. What is virtual displacement?
2. State D’Alembert’s principle of virtual work.
3. State the Hamilton’s principle of least action.
4. What are velocity dependent potentials?
3.8 Keywords
• Virtual displacement
48
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
• Virtual work
• Lagrangian
• Equations of motion
• Velocity dependent potential
3.9 Worked examples
1. Consider a particle moving in space. Using the spherical polar coordinates (r, θ, φ) as the
generalized coordinates, express the virtual displacements δx, δy and δz in terms of r, θ
and φ
Answer:
In terms of spherical polar coordinates (r, θ, φ), we have the expressions for x, y and z as
x = r sin θ cos φ y = r sin θ sin φ z = r cos θ

∂x ∂x ∂x
= sin θ cos φ = r cos θ cos φ = −r sin θ sin φ
∂r ∂θ ∂φ
∂y ∂y ∂y
= sin θ sin φ = r cos θ sin φ = r sin θ cos φ
∂r ∂θ ∂φ
∂z ∂z ∂z
= cos θ = −r sin θ =0
∂r ∂θ ∂φ
The virtual displacement about x, y and z will be
∂x ∂x ∂x
δx = δr + δθ + δφ
∂r ∂θ ∂φ
δx = sin θ cos φδr + r cos θ cos φδθ − r sin θ sin φδφ
Similarly,
∂y ∂y ∂y
δy = δr + δθ + δφ
∂r ∂θ ∂φ
δx = sin θ sin φδr + r cos θ sin φδθ + r sin θ cos φδφ
∂z ∂z ∂z
δz = δr + δθ + δφ
∂r ∂θ ∂φ
δx = cos θδr + −r sin θδθ
49
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
2. Consider the motion of a particle of mass m moving in space. Selecting the cylindrical
coordinates (ρ, φ, z) as the generalized coordinates, calculate the generalized force compo-
nents acting if a force ~F = Fx î + Fy ĵ + Fz k̂ acts on it.
Answer:
We know that the generalized force is defined as
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z
Qj = ∑ Fi ∂q ji = Fx
∂q j
+ Fy
∂q j
+ Fz
∂q j
i
Then,
∂x ∂y ∂z
Qρ = Fx + Fy + Fz
∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ
∂x ∂y ∂z
Qφ = Fx + Fy + Fz
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
∂x ∂y ∂z
Q j = Fx + Fy + Fz
∂z ∂z ∂z
To find the generalized force, let us find the transformation partial derivatives,
x = ρ cos φ y = ρ sin φ z=z
Therefore,
∂x ∂y ∂z
= cos φ = sin φ =0
∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ
∂x ∂y ∂z
= −ρ sin φ = ρ cos φ =0
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
∂x ∂y ∂z
=0 =0 =1
∂z ∂z ∂z
Then the components of generalized force will be
Qρ = Fx cos φ + Fy sin φ = Fρ
Qφ = − Fx ρ sin φ + Fy ρ cos φ = ρFφ
Qz = Fz
3. Two equal masses m connected by a massless rigid rod of length l forming a dumb-bell is
rotated in the xy plane. Find the Lagrangian of the system.
50
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
Answer:
Figure 3.7: A dumbbell in xy-plane
The system has three degrees of freedom. The cartesian coordinates x1 , y1 and the θ can be
selected as the generalized coordinates. From the figure we can write,
x2 = x1 + l cos θ and y2 = y1 + l sin θ
=⇒
ẋ2 = ẋ1 − l sin θ θ̇ and ẏ2 = ẏ1 + l cos θ θ̇
The kinetic energy of the system will be
1 1
T= m( ẋ12 + ẏ21 ) + m( ẋ22 + ẏ22 )
2 2
substituting the expression for ẋ2 and ẏ2 in the above expression,
1
T = m( ẋ12 + ẏ21 ) + m(l 2 θ̇ 2 − 1l ẋ1 θ̇ sin θ + 2l ẏ1 θ̇ cos θ )
2
The potential energy of the system is given by
V = mgy1 + mgy2 = 2mgy1 + mgl sin θ
Then the Lagrangian of the system will be
1
L = m( ẋ12 + ẏ21 ) + m(l 2 θ̇ 2 − 1l ẋ1 θ̇ sin θ + 2l ẏ1 θ̇ cos θ ) − 2mgy1 + mgl sin θ
2
We can use the above Lagrangian to find the equations of motion. If we substitute the
51
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
derivative of the above Lagrangian in the Lagrangian equations of motion we get the equa-
tions of motion as,
2ẍ1 − l θ̈ sin θ − l θ̇ 2 cos θ = 0
2ÿ1 + l θ̈ cos θ − l θ̇ 2 sin θ = 0
l 2 θ̈ − l ẍ1 sin θ + l ÿ1 cos θ + gl cos θ = 0
1. What is virtual displacement? State and Explain D’Alembert’s principle of virtual work.
2. Derive the Lagrangian equations of motion from the D’Alembert’s principle of virtual
work.
3. State and explain Hamilton’s principle of least action.
4. Deduce the Lagrangian equations of motion from Hamilton’s principle of least action.
5. Describe electromagnetic fields as velocity dependent potential.
1. Displacement of the configuration of the system at an instant of time being consistent with
forces of constraints is known as virtual displacement.
2. D’Alembert’s principle of virtual work states as ‘the virtual work done by the external
forces acting on a system in equilibrium is zero’.
3. Hamilton’s principle of least action states that ‘Of all the possible paths along which a
dynamical system may move from one point to another within a given interval of time
consistent with constraints, the actual path followed is that which minimizes the time
integral of the Lagrangian’.
4. Potentials that depend on velocities are called velocity dependent potentials. These arise
when the forces depend on velocity.
52
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
3.12 References
tion.

pany Ltd.
53
UNIT-4: Applications of Lagrangian formulation
Computing Lagrange’s equations, conservation theorems and symmetry properties, determina-

tion of equations of motion for some example problems.
4.0 Objectives
• Describe the method to construct the Lagrangian and use it to find the equations of motion
of a system.
• Use the Lagrangian mechanics to find the equations of motion of several simple mechani-
cal systems.
• Describe the conservation theorems and symmetry in Lagrangian.
4.1 Introduction
We learned about the Lagrangian formulation in the previous unit. In this unit we shall learn
how to use the Lagrangian formulation to determine the equations of motion of some example
systems.
4.2 Constructing Lagrangian
The Lagrangian of a system is defined as a function that is difference between the kinetic and
potential energy functions.
L = T−V
In order to determine the equations of motion using Lagrangian approach the following
steps must be followed.
1. First we have to decide the generalized coordinates of the system. Note that they are not
unique, they are considered based on the mathematical convenience.
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
2. Once the generalized coordinates are decided, kinetic energy and potential energies are
expressed in terms of those generalized coordinates and corresponding generalized veloc-
ities.
3. The Lagrangian is constructed by taking the difference between the kinetic and potential
energy functions.
4. The derivatives of Lagrangian is determined with respect the the generalized coordinates
and generalized velocities.
5. Then the Lagrangian equation of motion
d ∂L ∂L
− =0
dt ∂q̇i ∂qi
is used to determine the equations of motion.
4.3 Determination of equations of motion using Lagrangian formulation
Now let us use the above described method to find the equations of motion of some example
systems.
4.3.1 Free particle in Cartesian coordinate system
Consider a free particle of mass m moving in a three dimensional space. The free particle means
it is not experiencing any king of force. Hence its potential energy will also be zero. Thus the
Lagrangian of the particle is equal to the kinetic energy of the particle.
dx
Let us use the Cartesian coordinates x, y and z as the generalized coordinates. Hence = ẋ,
dt
dy dz
= ẏ and = ż will be the generalized velocities.
dt dt
Then the expression for kinetic energy will be
1 2 1
mv = m ẋ2 + ẏ2 + ż2

T=
2 2
Because the potential energy of the free particle is zero, the Lagrangian can be taken as
1 2
m ẋ + ẏ2 + ż2 − 0

L = T−V =
2
55
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
1 2
m ẋ + ẏ2 + ż2

L=
2
Let us find the derivatives of the Lagrangian with respect to the generalized coordinates and
generalized velocities. Note that there are no generalized coordinates present in the expression
for Lagrangian. Hence all the derivatives of Lagrangian with respect to the coordinates becomes
zero.
∂L ∂L ∂L
= 0, = 0, =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
The derivatives of Lagrangian with respect to the velocities will be
∂L ∂L ∂L
= m ẋ, = mẏ, = mż
∂ ẋ ∂ẏ ∂ż
We know the general equation of motion in Lagrangian formulation,
d ∂L ∂L
− =0 with q1 = x, q2 = y, q3 = z
dt ∂q̇i ∂qi
Using the derivatives of the Lagrangian with respect the the generalized coordinates and
velocities in the above expression we get,
d ∂L ∂L d
− =0 =⇒ m ẋ − 0 = 0 =⇒ m ẍ = 0
dt ∂ ẋi ∂x dt
Similarly,
d ∂L ∂L d
− =0 =⇒ mẏ − 0 = 0 =⇒ mÿ = 0
dt ∂ẏi ∂y dt
d ∂L ∂L d
− =0 =⇒ mż − 0 = 0 =⇒ mz̈ = 0
dt ∂żi ∂z dt
Hence, the equations of motion of the particle will be
m ẍ = 0; mÿ = 0; mz̈ = 0
On integration, the above set of equations will give,
m ẋ = C1x ; mẏ = C1y ; mż = C1z
56
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
Further integration will give us,
mx = C1x t + C2x ; my = C1y t + C2y ; mz = C1z t + C2z
In the above expressions, C’s are constants of integration which can be determined with
known initial conditions. Note that the above equations are equations of straight line. Hence,
we can conclude that the free particle travel along straight line.
If the particle was at origin with coordinates (0, 0, 0) with a initial velocity u x , uy and uz along
x, y and z axes respectively at t = 0, the above general equations of motion reduces to
x = u x t; y = uy t; z = uz t
Note: Similar to generalized coordinates and generalized velocities, we also define general-
ized momenta. However this is not defined as product of mass and generalized velocity but as
the derivative of the Lagrangian with respect to the generalized velocities.
∂L
pj =
∂q̇i
In the above problem, the generalized momenta are same as the linear momenta along x, y
and z axes because we are using Cartesian coordinate system. Further, there are some interest-
ing facts regarding this generalized momenta that we shall discuss after discussing few more
examples.
4.3.2 Free particle in spherical polar coordinate system
Once again consider a free particle of mass m moving in a three dimensional space. Let us use
dr dθ
the spherical polar coordinates r, θ and φ as the generalized coordinates. Hence = ṙ, = θ̇
dt dt
dφ
and = φ̇ will be the generalized velocities.
dt
The three dimensional velocity of the particle in spherical polar coordinate system can be
taken as
~r˙ = ṙr̂ + r θ̇ θ̂ + r sin θ φ̂
Then the kinetic energy of the particle would be
57
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
1 2
m ṙ + r2 θ̇ 2 + r2 sin2 θ φ̇2

T=
2
Because we have considered a free particle, the potential energy is zero. Hence the La-
grangian will be equal to the kinetic energy itself. Thus we can take the Lagrangian as
1 2
m ṙ + r2 θ̇ 2 + r2 sin2 θ φ̇2

L = T−V =
2
Now let us find the derivatives of the Lagrangian with respect to the generalized coordinates
and generalized velocities
∂L 1
= m 0 + 2r θ̇ 2 + 2r sin2 θ φ̇2 = mr (θ̇ 2 + sin2 θ φ̇2 )

∂r 2
∂L 1
= m 0 + 0 + r2 2 sin θ cos θ φ̇2 = mr2 sin 2θ φ̇2

∂θ 2
∂L 1
= m [0 + 0 + 0] = 0
∂φ 2
∂L 1
= m 2ṙ + 0 + 0 = mṙ
∂ṙ 2
∂L 1
= m 0 + r2 2θ̇ + 0 = mr2 θ̇

∂θ̇ 2
∂L 1
= m[0 + 0 + r2 sin2 θ2φ̇] = mr2 sin2 θ φ̇
∂φ̇ 2
Now let us use the above derivatives in Lagrangian equations of motion
d ∂L ∂L
− =0 with q1 = r, q2 = θ, q3 = φ
dt ∂q̇i ∂qi
d ∂L ∂L d
mṙ − mr (θ̇ 2 + sin2 θ φ̇2 ) = 0

− =0 =⇒
dt ∂ṙ ∂r dt
d ∂L ∂L d
mr2 θ̇ − mr2 sin 2θ φ̇2 = 0

− =0 =⇒
dt ∂θ̇ ∂θ dt
58
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
d ∂L ∂L d
mr2 sin2 θ φ̇ − 0 = 0

− =0 =⇒
dt ∂φ̇ ∂φ dt
Thus, we have the three equations of motion of the free particle in spherical polar coordinate
system as
d d d
mṙ = mr (θ̇ 2 + sin2 θ φ̇2 ) mr2 θ̇ = mr2 sin 2θ φ̇2 mr2 sin2 θ φ̇ = 0

dt dt dt
The third equation implies mr2 sin2 θ φ̇ = constant. Let that constant be denoted by lφ and it
represents the generalized momentum with respect to φ. We also call this as azimuthal angular
momentum. Hence we can observed that for a free particle, the azimuthal angular momentum
is conserved. From this equation we can write,
lφ
φ̇ =
mr2 sin2 θ
Using this in the second equation of motion, we get,
d 2
2 2 2
lφ2 lφ2 sin 2θ
mr θ̇ = mr sin 2θ φ̇ = mr sin 2θ =
dt m2 r4 sin4 θ mr2 sin4 θ
4.3.3 Simple harmonic oscillator
Consider a simple harmonic oscillator constructed using a mass attached to a spring as shown
in the figure. Let m be the mass and k be the spring constant. Let the mean position coincides
with the origin and x be the position of the mass at any instant and is the generalized coordinate.
Then ẋ will be the generalized velocity.
Figure 4.8: A mass attached to a spring executing simple harmonic oscillations
The kinetic and potential energies of the oscillator can be taken as
59
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
1 2 1 2
T= m ẋ U= kx
2 2
Then the Lagrangian of the harmonic oscillator will be
1 2 1 2
L = T−U = m ẋ − kx
2 2
The derivative of the Lagrangian with respect to the generalized coordinate and velocity
would be
∂L ∂L
= m ẋ = −kx
∂x ∂ ẋ
Now consider the general form of the Lagrangian equation of motion,
d ∂L ∂L
− =0 with qi = x
dt ∂q̇i ∂qi
Then,
d ∂L ∂L d
− =0 =⇒ (m ẋ ) − (−kx ) = 0
dt ∂ ẋ ∂x dt
This gives us the well known harmonic oscillator equation
m ẍ + kx = 0
The solution of the above equation can be taken as
r
k
x = A sin ωt with ω = and A being the amplitude of the motion
m
4.3.4 Simple pendulum
Consider a simple pendulum constructed using a bob of mass m attached to a inextensible string
of length l suspended from a rigid support. The bob can execute oscillations about a mean
position due to the action of gravity with acceleration due to gravity g. Let θmax be the maximum
angular displacement that will result the bob to reach a height of h with respect to the mean
position. Let the instantaneous angular displacement θ be chosen as generalized coordinate
and θ̇ be the corresponding generalized velocity. Then the expression for kinetic and potential
60
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
energies will be
Figure 4.9: Simple pendulum
1 2 1
T= mv = ml 2 θ̇ 2
2 2
V = mgh = mg(l − l cos θ )
The Lagrangian of the pendulum will be
1 2 1
L = T−V = mv = ml 2 θ̇ 2 − mg(l − l cos θ )
2 2
Let us find the derivatives of the Lagrangian with respect to the generalized coordinate and
velocity.
∂L ∂L
= −mgl sin θ and = ml 2 θ̇
∂θ ∂θ̇
Using the above derivatives in the Lagrangian equation of motion as
d ∂L ∂L
− =0 with qi = θ
dt ∂q̇i ∂qi
d ∂L ∂L d
− =0 =⇒ (ml 2 θ̇ ) + mgl sin θ = 0
dt ∂θ̇ ∂θ dt
The above equation of motion can be simplified as,
g
θ̈ + sin θ = 0
l
61
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
Under oscillations of small amplitude, the angular displacement will be very small and then
we can approximate sin θ ≈ θ. Then the
r equation of motion reduces to equation of simple
g
harmonic motion with a frequency ω = .
l
θ̈ + ω 2 θ = 0
4.3.5 Atwood machine
Figure 4.10: Atwood machine
Atwood’s machine is an illustration of a simple mechanical system with a holonomic con-

straint. It consists of two masses m1 and m2 tied together by means of a light inextensible cord
of length l. The cord passes round a light frictionless pulley and the two masses hang on the
two sides of the pulley. We can observe from the figure below, that there is only one variable x,
since the length of the cord fixed. The kinetic and potential energies of the system are given by
1 1
T= m1 ẋ2 + m2 ẋ2 Here, the velocity of mass m2 is the derivative of l − x that is ẋ
2 2
V = −m1 gx − m2 g(l − x )
The potential energy is negative because the reference is taken at pulley, and the masses are
below it.
1 1
L= m1 ẋ2 + m2 ẋ2 + m1 gx + m2 g(l − x )
2 2
62
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
The derivatives of the Lagrangian with respect to the generalized coordinate and velocity
will be
∂L ∂L
= ( m1 − m2 ) g = (m1 + m2 ) ẋ
∂x ∂ ẋ
Consider the general Lagrangian equation of motion,
d ∂L ∂L
− =0 with qi = x
dt ∂q̇i ∂qi
d ∂L ∂L d
− =0 =⇒ [(m1 + m2 ) ẋ ] − (m1 − m2 ) g = 0
dt ∂ ẋ ∂x dt
m1 − m2
ẍ = g
m1 + m2
On integrating the above equation twice we can write the equation of motion in algebraic
form as
1 m1 − m2 2
x (t) = xo + vo t + gt
2 m1 + m2
4.4 Conservation theorems and symmetry in Lagrangian
So far we have discussed Lagrange’s dynamical equations of motion. If the system under con-
sideration has n degrees of freedom, we get n second order differential equations. The solution
of each equation will need the evaluation of a double integral and hence involve two constants
of integrations. These are usually the initial position qo and initial velocity q̇o . Naturally the
solutions of n differential equations will involve 2n constants.
In many problems, the solution cannot be obtained in terms of known functions. Moreover,
sometimes solutions of the type q j = q j (t) are no interest to us. For example, when we study
the motion of systems consisting of atoms and molecules we are only interested in evaluation of
quantities such as energies and momenta. However, information regarding the physical nature
of the motion of the system can often be extracted without integrating the equations of motion.
On considering the symmetries of the system, one can immediately obtain first integrals of
the equations of motion. The first integrals are constants of motion. These are the first order
differential equations of the type
63
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
f (q1 , q2 , ..., qn ; q̇1 , q̇2 ), ..., q̇n , t) = constant
It is obvious that the first integral contains the first derivatives of q’s. The first integrals
reveal a lot of information regarding the system under consideration.
Consider a system of particles in a conservative force field. Then the potential energy V
depends only upon the position and we have,
∂L ∂L ∂( T − V ) ∂ 1
∂q̇i
=
∂ ẋi
=
∂ ẋi
=
∂ ẋi ∑ 2 m j (ẋ2j + ẏ2j + ż2j ) = mi ẋi = pxi
j
In above equation, p xi is the momentum of ith along xi axis. We can generalize this result and
define the generalized momentum as
∂L
pj =
∂q̇ j
This is often also called canonical momentum or conjugated momentum.
Now consider the Lagrangian equation of motion,
d ∂L ∂L
− =0
dt ∂q̇ j ∂q j
Substituting the expression for canonical momentum in above equation we can write
dp j ∂L dp j ∂L
− =0 =⇒ =
dt ∂q j dt ∂q j
In case any one or more generalized coordinates are absent in the Lagrangian even though
the corresponding generalized velocities are present, the derivative of the Lagrangian with re-
spect to those generalized coordinates becomes zero. Then the time derivative of the corre-
sponding canonical momentum also becomes zero. This results in the constancy of the canonical
momentum.
Thus we can conclude that if any one or more generalized coordinates are absent in the
Lagrangian, then the corresponding canonical momentum gets conserved. Such coordinates are
called cyclic or ignorable coordinates.
If a generalized coordinate representing a translation motion is absent in the Lagrangian,
then the corresponding linear momentum gets conserved. Here we can remember the La-
grangian of a free particle in cartesian coordinate system.
64
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
1 2
m ẋ + ẏ2 + ż2

L=
2
Here, all the three coordinates are absent in the Lagrangian. Hence we don’t have to find the
equations of motion, we can directly conclude that the canonical momenta corresponding to all
the three directions are constant and proceed from there to find the equations of motion.
If a generalized coordinate representing an angular motion is absent in the Lagrangian, then
the corresponding angular momentum is conserved. Here we can remember the Lagrangian of
a free particle in spherical polar coordinate system.
1 2
m ṙ + r2 θ̇ 2 + r2 sin2 θ φ̇2

L = T−V =
2
In the above Lagrangian, the azimuthal angular velocity φ̇ is present, but φ is absent in the
Lagrangian. Hence the corresponding azimuthal angular momentum is a constant of motion.
If the Lagrangian is not an explicit function of time, then the total energy of the system is
conserved. This is also known as homogeneity of time.
∂L
=0 =⇒ Energy is conserved
∂t
1. Define Lagrangian.
2. What is a free particle.
3. Write the Lagrangian of simple harmonic oscillator.
4. On what factors the acceleration in Atwood machine depends?
5. What are cyclic coordinates.
6. What is homogeneity of time? What is its significance?
4.6 Keywords
• Lagrangian
65
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
• Free particle
• Harmonic oscillator
• Simple pendulum
• Atwood machine
• Cyclic or ignorable coordinates
4.7 Worked examples
1. A body of mass m is thrown as projectile. Construct the Lagrangian and determine the
equations of motion.
Answer:
Data:
Let us assume the constant gravitational field acts down the z-axis and for simplicity let
us consider the plane of projectile is in xz-plane. Then let ~r = xî + y ĵ + zk̂ be its position
vector and ~r˙ = ẋî + ẏ ĵ + żk̂ be its velocity. Because the projectile is moving in xz-plane, the
y-coordinate of the particle is zero. As no motion along y-axis, the corresponding velocity
becomes zero.
Then the expression for the kinetic and potential energies of the body will be
1 2 1
T= mv = m( ẋ2 + ż2 ) and V = −mgh = −mgz
2 2
1
L = T−V = m( ẋ2 + ż2 ) + mgz
2
In the above expression, note that the coordinate x is absent. This means it is cyclic and
corresponding conjugate momentum is constant of motion.
∂L
= m ẋ = C1 a constant
∂ ẋ
Hence let us only find the derivative of the Lagrangian with respect to the other coordinate.
66
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
∂L ∂L
= mg and = mż
∂z ∂ż
Now consider the Lagrangian equation of motion
d ∂L ∂L d
− =0 =⇒ mż − mg = 0
dt ∂ż ∂z dt
=⇒
mz̈ = mg
Thus the equations of motion in differential equation form would be
m ẋ = C1 and mz̈ = mg
2. Masses m and 2m are connected by a light inextensible string which passes over a pulley
of mass 2m and radius a. Write the Lagrangian and find the acceleration of the system.
Answer:
The given system is an Atwood machine with only one degree of freedom. Let x be the
distance of mass m from the pulley and is chosen as the generalized coordinate. Let l be
the length of the string and the centre of the pulley is taken as zero for potential energy.
The kinetic energy of the system would be
1 2 1 3 1 ẋ 2 1 I
T= m ẋ + m ẋ2 + Iω 2 = m ẋ2 + I = 3m + 2 ẋ2
2 2 2 2 a 2 a
The potential energy would be
V = −mgx − 2mg(l − x )
1 I
L= 3m + 2 ẋ2 + mgx + 2mg(l − x )
2 a
67
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
Lets find the derivatives of the Lagrangian,
∂L ∂L I
= −mg = 3m + 2 ẋ
∂x ∂ ẋ a
Then the equation of motion of the system will be
d ∂L ∂L I
− =0 =⇒ 3m + 2 ẍ + mg = 0
dt ∂ ẋ ∂x a
The expression for acceleration will be
mg
ẍ = −
I
3m +
a2
ma2
If we assume the pulley is in the form of a disc, then the moment of inertia will be .
2
Then the acceleration will be − g/4.
3. Find the equations of motion of an LC circuit using Lagrangian formulation.
Answer: Consider an LC circuit containing an inductor and a capacitor in series. Let q be

the charge on the plates of capacitor and let q̇ be the current through the circuit.
As the capacitor stores the charges and hence the energy stored in the capacitor can be
taken for potential energy as
q2
V=
2C
Similarly the energy held by the inductor is due to the flow of charges. Hence, the energy
of the inductor can be treated equivalent to the kinetic energy of the system. Lower case l is
used to represent inductance to avoid confusion between the Lagrangian and inductance.
1 2
T= l q̇
2
1 2 q2
L = T−V = l q̇ −
2 2C
68
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
Now consider the Lagrangian equation of motion and use the above Lagrangian in it to
obtain the equations of motion.

d ∂L ∂L d q
− =0 =⇒ (l q̇) − = 0
dt ∂q̇ ∂q dt C
=⇒
1
q̈ − q=0 =⇒ q̈ − ω 2 q = 0
C
1
Where ω = √ . The above equation is a simple harmonic equation and hence indicate
lC
that the current as well as the charge on the plates of capacitor oscillate with a frequency
1
of ω = √ .
lC
1. Explain the procedure to find the equations of motion using Lagrangian formulation
2. Determine the equations of motion of a free particle in cartesian coordinate system.
3. Determine the equations of motion of a free particle in spherical polar coordinate system.
4. Determine the equations of motion of simple harmonic oscillator.
5. Determine the equations of motion of simple pendulum.
6. Obtain an expression for acceleration of both the masses in Atwood machine.
7. Write a note on conservation theorems and symmetry in Lagrangian.
1. Lagrangian is a function that is difference between the kinetic energy and potential energy
functions.
2. A particle on which no forces are acting is called a free particle. In other words, a particle
for which the potential energy is zero is called a free particle.
1 2 1 2
3. L = m ẋ + kx
2 2
69
MPDSC 1.1 KSOU
4. The acceleration in Atwood machine depends on the acceleration due to gravity and the
masses used.
5. Coordinates that are absent in Lagrangian are called cyclic coordinates.
6. Independence of Lagrangian of a system over time is called homogeneity of time. This

leads to the conservation of energy of the system.
4.10 References
tion.

pany Ltd.
70

Classical Mechanics Block 1/4

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Classical Mechanics Block 1/4

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Classical Mechanics Block 1/4

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

UNIT-1: Fundamentals

After studying this unit you will be able to

• State and explain Newton’s laws of motion

• Explain the need of frames of references

• Explain projectile motion with and without air resistance

• Explain the simple harmonic oscillations, damped and forced oscillations

1.2 Newton’s laws of motion

1.2.1 Law of inertia

1.2.2 Law of action

~F = d~p = d(m~v) = m d~v

1.2.3 Law of action and reaction

1.3 Frames of references

Figure 1.1: Inertial frames of reference

These equations are known as Galilean transformations.

1.4 Projectile motion

1.4.1 Projectile motion without air resistance

ẋ (t = 0) = v◦ cos α = U and ẏ(t = 0) = v◦ sin α = V

m ẍ = 0, and mÿ = −mg

Integrating the above equations we obtain

Using the initial conditions, we can show that C1 = U and C2 = V. Then,

Upon integration and using the initial conditions again we get,

1.4.2 Projectile motion with air resistance

Without air resistance

Figure 1.3: Projectile motion with air resistance

m ẍ = −km ẋ and mÿ = −mg − kmẏ

The first equation can be modified as

If the initial velocity along x-direction at t = 0 is v◦ cos α = U,

ln( ẋ ) = −kt + U =⇒ ẋ = Ue−kt

Integrating once again to obtain the expression for x,

1.5.1 Simple harmonic motion

motion is said to be simple harmonic motion if

• The acceleration is always directed towards the mean position.

Mathematically, the motion is said to be simple harmonic if

Figure 1.4: A mass attached to a spring executing simple harmonic oscillations

x (t) = A eiωt + Be−iωt

x = A eiωt + Be−iωt =⇒ xo = Ae0 + Be0 =⇒ xo = A + B

ẋ = A eiωt (iω ) + Be−iωt (−iω ) =⇒ 0 = Ae0 (iω ) − Be0 (iω ) =⇒ 0 = A − B

xo iωt xo −iωt eiωt + e−iωt

1.5.2 Damped oscillations

m ẍ = −kx − 2mµ ẋ =⇒ ẍ + 2µ ẋ + ω◦2 x = 0

x = Ae−(µ+λ)t + Be−(µ−λ)t = e−µt ( Ae−λt + Be+λt )

1.5.3 Forced oscillations

− Aω 2 sin(ωt − θ ) + wµAω cos(ωt − θ ) + ωo2 A sin(ωt − θ )

equation, we can write,

2(ωo2 − ω 2 ) + 4µ2 = 0 =⇒ ω 2 = ωo2 − 2µ2

1.6 Check your progress

Check your progress by answering the questions below.

2. Newton’s third law says that for every action there is .

3. What is an inertial frame of reference?

4. What is a simple harmonic oscillation?

5. Explain the phenomena of resonance.

• Free and forced oscillations

1.8 Worked examples

We know the expression for the range of the projectile

302 sin 120

9.8t  9.8 + 0.5 × 40 × sin 45 

19.6t = 95.76(1 − e−0.5t )

On solving the above equation, we get, t = 2.3625s

Answer: We know the expression for the resonance frequency as

9.8t 9.8 + 0.5 × 40 × sin 45