Infrakingdom Alveolata

General characteristics of Alveolata:

….Animals with membrane - bound sacs called
cortical alveoli (apheisma) lie beneath the outer
plasma membrane.
…With extrusomes a group of organelles whose
job is to secrete material to the exterior (eg.
trichocysts, rhoptries and micronemes) which:

A…used in ciliates and dinoflagellates for

preycapture.
B…used in apicomplexans for formation of
parasitophorous vacuole.
alveoli
 Infrakindgom Alveolata

Phylum Apicomplexa (Sporozoa) Phylum Dinoflagellata Phylum Ciliophora

(According to Apical complex)
Class Dinophyceae Class Noctiluciphyceae
Ex. Peridinium Ex. Noctiluca

I. Class Conoidasida II. Class Aconoidasida

Order Haemospororida
Ex. Plasmodium
Subclass Gregarinasina Subclass Coccidiasina Order Piroplasmorida
Order Eugregarinorida Order Eucoccidiorida Ex. Babesia
EX. Monocystis
EX. Gregarina
Suborder Adeleorina Suborder Eimeriorina
Ex. Hepatozoon Ex. Eimeria
Ex. Sarcocystis
EX. Toxoplasma
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 Phylum Apicomplexa
…The Apicomplexa Levine, 1970 constitute a large protozoan phylum of obligate
eukaryotic intracellular parasites responsible for many serious diseases of humans,
domestic animals and, making these parasites economically important for medical
research. These diseases include:

Human Malaria Coccidiosis (Eimeriosis) Hepatozoonosis

Caused by caused by caused by
Plasmodium spp. Eimeria spp. Hepatozoon Toxoplasmosis
Sarcocystosis
caused by
caused by
Toxoplasma sp.
Sarcocystis sp.
…The name is derived from Api means apex. Complexa means complex (apical complex).
…So it is mean that there is a complex structure present in the apical part of an organism.
….Apical complex consists of:
1- Cytoskeletal elements (conoid, polar rings, subpellicular microtubules)
2- Secretory organelles (rhoptries (for cell penetration), micronemes , dense bodies)

Micropore is a simple cytostome consisting

of an invagination of the plasma membrane.
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 1- Sporozoites (Infective stages)
Motile stages in Phylum Apicomlexa 2- Merozoites (Feeding stages)
3- Microgametes (Male gametes)

Difference between merozoite and sporozoite

…Is The presence of two refractile bodies (Unknown function ) at the two sides of nucleus
in sporozoites

The typical structure of apicomplexan merozoite

Unknown function
The typical structure of apicomplexan sporozoite 5
Functions of the apicoplast (vestigial plastid, nonphotosynthetic plastid in Apicomplexa)
a….Apicoplast acts as a potential drug target for
chemotherapy:
As a drug target for a variety of antibiotics , the
apicoplast can be considered to be an important
organelle in which all cellular processes, such as
DNA replication, transcription, translation, post-
translational modification, catabolism and
anabolism, occur.

b…The "Delayed cell death phenomenon" and

the formation of the parasitophorous vacuole.

c... Essential metabolic functions (Housekeeping

functions) of the apicoplast:
i….The Apicoplast is a site of type II pathway
for fatty acid biosynthesis.
ii…The Apicoplast is a site of non-mevolonate
pathway of isoprenoid biosynthesis. Diagrammatic representation showing the
role of apicoplast in endodygony of
d... The Apicoplast plays an important role in Apicomplexan merozoite.
cell division of apicomplexan parasites.
 Classification of phylum Apicomplexa (Sporozoa)
I. Class Conoidasida
Apicomplexan alveolates in which all organelles of the apical complex are present
Order Eucoccidiorida
Suborder Eimeriorina
….Life cycle may be homoxenous or heteroxenous.
….Macrogamonts and microgamonts develop independently (without syzygy).
Family Eimeriidae
….The common name "coccidian" is applied to any member of this family.
….Most genera distinguished by numbers of sporocysts and sporozoites within oocyst
as following:

A- Eimeria (4 sporocysts in oocyst, each sporocyst with 2 sporozoites)

B- Isospora (2 sporocysts in oocyst, each sporocyst with 4 sporozoites).
C- Cyclospora (2 sporocysts in oocyst, each sporocyst with 2 sporozoites).
D- Caryospora (1 sporocyst in oocyst, with 8 sporozoites).
E- Wenyonella (4 sporocysts in oocyst, each sporocyst with 4 sporozoites).

Oocyst
Sporocyst
Sporozoite A B C D E
…Eimeria sp. infecting Chickens and pigeons, rabbits, etc….

…Is a parasite that infects the

intestinal cells of chickens and
pigeons causing weakness and
also death of infected animals.
…Healthy chickens can be
infected by ingestion of food
contaminated by sporulated
oocysts. After ingestion oocysts
ruptured and sporozoites
generated and attack normal
intestinal cells.
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If we want to diagnose the infection with Eimeria sp. we can examine the feces of
chickens we will see:
By light microscopy:

Sporogony outside host

It is the unsporulted oocyst of Sporulated oocyst of Eimeria sp.

Eimeria sp. released with feces of that can be eaten by a healthy
infected chickens. chicken.

Sporulated oocyst (Eimeria type) 4 sporocysts each with 2 sporozoites with a total of 8
sporozoites.
 Goblet cell response to infection
UNICELLULAR
Goblet cell
Individual secretory cells
(goblet cells)
The image below is of a villus in the small intestine of a
mouse. The section was stained using the periodic
acid-Schiff technique, which stains glycoproteins,
including mucins, bright purple.
Stem cell
Intestinal Villi infected with Eimeria papillata
Alcian blue stain for determination of the goblet cells.
The talent of goblet cells is to secrete mucus, a viscous
fluid composed primarily of highly glycosylated proteins
called mucins suspended in a solution of electrolytes.
Mucus serves many functions, including protection against
shear stress and chemical damage, and, especially in the
respiratory tree, trapping and elimination of particulate
matter and microorganisms.

Distribution and Morphology

Goblet cells are found scattered among other cells in the
epithelium of many organs, especially in the intestinal and
respiratory tracts. In some areas, their numbers are rather
small relative to other cell types, while in tissues such as
the colon, they are much more abundant.
 Important question
A, B, C and D are four groups of
experimental intestinal sections
from mice.
Sections were stained with Alcian blue.

1- Count the number of goblet cells in each group.

2- Mention the non-infected groups (from A,b,C
and D).
3- Which group could be the group treated with an
anti-eimerian drug?
4- Classify the expected parasite inducing the
change in the number of goblet cells?
 Family Sarcocystidae
….Heteroxenous life cycle with the exception for Toxoplasma gondii, may develop directly
in the intestine of the definitive host without the need for intermediate hosts.
….Oocysts with two sporocysts, each with four sporozoites (Isospora type).

Subfamily Sarcocystinae
(Forming Coccidian cyst)
….Obligatory heteroxenous life cycle including two
hosts as:
1- Schizogony (Asexual stages)
in intermediate host with polyzoic cysts containing
septa and metrocytes in striated muscle.

2- Gamogony and sporogony (Sexual stages)

in definitive host in the intestinal wall; sporulation
endogenous.
Sarcocystis sp.
….A large number of Sarcocystis spp. infect
birds as intermediate hosts and man as a final
host.

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 Life cycle of Bradyzoites formation

Sarcocystis spp.

In wall of blood vessels

In volunteer studies with

infected beef, symptoms
appeared 3–6 hours after
eating. These included
anorexia‫فقدان الشهية‬,
nausea‫غثيان‬, abdominal
pain, distension, diarrhea,
vomiting, dyspnea ‫ضيق‬
‫التنفس‬, and tachycardia ‫عم‬
‫انتظام دقات القلب‬.
….We can diagnose the infection with Sarcocystis in either final or intermediate hosts as
follow:

In man (final host):

….If we examine the feces of infected man
we will observe a sporulated oocyst with the
Isospora type (2 sporocysts each with 4
sporozoites).

In Duck, Sheep or Pig (intermediate hosts):

….Intermediate hosts are infected following ingestion of water or food contaminated with sporocysts
from the feces of a final host. After ingestion, sporocysts penetrate the host’s intestinal wall and
migrate to skeletal or cardiac muscles forming sarcocysts as shown.

This is the ultrastructure of

sarcocysts…observe the
large number of merozoites
which are the end products
of schizogony phase
characteristic for
intermediate hosts.
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 II. Class Aconoidasida
….Sporozoan apicomplexa without conoid except in the ookinete stage of a few species.
Order Haemospororida
Ex. Plasmodium sp.
…They are parasites of blood and liver cells of birds and mammals.
…They cause malaria disease.

….There are four species of Plasmodium can cause malaria:

i- P. vivax ……….. Benign tertian malaria.
ii- P. malaria…….. Benign Quartan malaria
iii- P. ovale……….. Benign tertian malaria
iv- P. falciparum….malignant tertian malaria
Life cycle of Plasmodium sp.

Female Anopheles, final host Man, intermediate host (Asexual)

1…Gamogony (Sexual cycle inside 3…Schizogony in liver cells (Exo-
the stomach of mosquitoes). erythrocytic cycle)
2…Sporogony (Asexual cycle inside 4…Schizogony in RBCS (Erythrocytic
the stomach wall of mosquitoes) cycle)