Plant nutrition of horticultural

plants under stress

Classes are performed as part of the project entitled
“Zintegrowany Program Rozwoju SGGW na rzecz Rozwoju
Regionalnego” (Integrated SGGW Development Program for
Regional Development), co-funded with the Operational
Program: Knowledge Education Development, Priority axis III
Higher education for economy and development, Measure 3.5
Comprehensive Programs for Higher Education Institutions.
 K+S KALI GmbH

Dr. Pavel Čermák

Prof. Ing. Tomáš Lošák, Ph.D.
the Czech Republic

designated for your personal internal use only K+S Group

 Agriculture
● photosynthesis = process, when very low
content of CO2 (+ water, chlorophyl and light
radiation) are accumulated by plants and
converted into sugar

● 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + E = C6H12O6 + 6 O2

• Chlorophyl
• Nutrients
What all do the plants need?

1. Energy
Sun radiation (carbohydrates
production, etc.), warm for faster
metabolism

2. Gases
• Carbon oxides (H2CO3, CO2) as a
building stone of plant biomass
• Oxygen (O2) for breathing
Macronutrients

3. Water
Dissolving agent, transport medium
Micronutrients
4. Mineral nutrients (salts)

Source: K+S KALI GmbH

 Abiotic
components Climate

Biotic
components
Plants Animals

Microorganisms

Soil

AGROECOSYSTEM
Plants and abiotic stress
Abiotic stress

Salinity Plant
metabolism
disorders
Nutrients
deficiency Risk of yield
reduction

Reduced use of
Nutrients
production
surplus
factors
(e.g. arable land)

Source: K+S KALI GmbH

Plants and abiotic stress

Abiotic stress
Plant
Drought metabolism
disorders
Heat
Risk of yield
reduction
High light
Reduced use of
Frost production
factors
pH (e.g. arable land)

Source: K+S KALI GmbH

Abilites of potassium and magnesium to
overcome abiotic stress
Abiotic stress
Plant metabolism
Drought
disorders
K
Heat Risk of yield
Mg
reduction
High light Reduced use of
production
Frost factors
(e.g. arable land)

Low pH

Source: K+S KALI GmbH

Optimal doses of nutrients and their help for
overcoming of abiotic stress
Source:Mehmet Senbayram
Stress

Normal status
Maximum resistance
Stress Recovery phase 1 Recovery phase 2
reaction

Optimum nutrient
supplies

Nutrients
defficiency
Minimum resistance
Acute demages Chronical damages

Taken and changed according Larcher (2003), Physiological Plant Ecology

Humus theory of plant nutrition

Albrech Thaer
1752 - 1828 (Ryant et al., 2003)
Mineral theory of plant nutrition

The Liebig Museum in Giessen

Justus von Liebig

1803 - 1873
Lecture in the lab of the Liebig Museum
(Steffens, 2015)
No fertilization P K N P N K N P K

Effect of a mineral fertilization on growth

of rye grass (Lolium perenne L.)
and mustard (Sinapis alba L.)
Justus-Liebig-Museum in Gießen, 2009
(Steffens, 2015)
Liebig´s law of the minimum

... states that since the barrel cannot be

filled completely because of different
stave levels, plants cannot achieve an
optimal yield. This is caused by the
growth factor which is permitted by the
most limiting nutrient (for instance
potassium).

“The growth and yield of plants are

limited by the nutrient which is in
shortest supply”

Source: K+S KALI GmbH

Nutrient interactions

Different nutrient interactions

Interaction

Strong antagonismus

Weak antagonismus

Synergy

Source: K+S KALI GmbH

 Soil salinity is the global problem especially in arid regions
(Szabolcs, In: Plant and Crop Stress, M. Pessarakli, ed. 1994)

14
(Schubert., JLU Giessen)
Compatible solutes

Quartinary ammonium compounds

Salt stress

Polyhydric alcohols

Amino acids

Recovery/Adaption
(modified after: de Oliveira et al., 2013)
15
(Richter) (Buchanan, 2008; Richter)
 Effect of salt stress on the
growth of cv. Pioneer 3906 in
container technique

Salt stress
(11 dS m-1)

Control

(Schubert., JLU Giessen)

The Biphasic Model
(Munns 1993: Plant Cell Environ. 16, 15-24)
NaCl
Growth rate
Resistant
genotype

Sensitive genotype

Phase I Phase II
Time
17
(Schubert., JLU Giessen)
Phase I
Osmotic problems

(Schubert., JLU Giessen)

18
The Biphasic Model
(Munns 1993: Plant Cell Environ. 16, 15-24)
NaCl
Growth rate
Resistant
genotype

Sensitive genotype

Phase I Phase II
Time
19
(Schubert., JLU Giessen)
 Phase II:
Ion toxicity

(Schubert., JLU Giessen)

SR 15 (Conrol) SR 15 (Salt)

(Schubert., JLU Giessen)

Growth of maize in the rotation white lupin fallow in the
P0-, rock phosphate- and CaHPO4 treatment (Steffens et al. 2004)

P0 RP CaHPO4
Growth of maize in the rotation wheat fallow in the
P0-, rock phosphate- and CaHPO4 treatment (Steffens et. al, 2004)

P0 RP CaHPO4
Growth of white lupin related to P application (0.6 g P/pot)
and P fertilizer (Steffens et. 2004)

Control, P0 Rock phosphate CaHPO4

Optimum Low amount Only foliar
amount of od Mg = application of
Mg unfertilized Mg
Mengutay et al., 2013, Plant Soil
Seeds with low Seeds after foliar Seeds with
Mg = without application of Mg adequate amount of
fertilization Mg = fertilized

Ceylan et al., 2016, Plant Soil

Abilites of potassium and magnesium to overcome
abiotic stress from drought
Abiotic stress

K
Mg

Drought

Source: K+S KALI GmbH

 Hydrometeorological extremes

DROUGHT
flooding, storm,
periods of heat, spring frost,
winter frost hales

Žalud et al., 2017

Drought and its classification

Agricultural

Meteorological Hydrological

Socio-
economical

Žalud et al., 2017

Effect of organic matter doses on rain infiltration

20

15

10

0
0 5 10 15

Barzegar et al., 2002

Consequences of huge drought in Germany, 2011

Winter wheat in Harber, Germany (Hildesheimer Börde) 1.6. 2011

Source: K+S KALI GmbH
Consequences of huge drought in Germany, 2011

Source: K+S KALI GmbH

Potassium can make the difference -
K reduces the susceptibility to drought stress

+K

-K

Photo: W. Grzebisz
 Effect of different doses of K on spring barley yield in dry
year 2003 compared to normal year 2002 (Langwedel)
0 50 100 150 kg/ha K2O
6
S, Podsol, 20 - 30 ppm K2O (CAL) + 26 %
20 – 30 ppm Mg (CaCl2) (= +1,05 t/ha)
5 + 19 %
After harvest residures remain + 17 %
Yield (t/ha)

+ 85 %
4
+ 76 % (= +1,61 t/ha)
+ 61 %
3

0
2003 2002

34
Source: K+S KALI GmbH
 The effect of potassium on drought stress (June respectively
July – 4 weeks) during the main growth periods of triticale
- Brody, Poland, 1993 - 1995, n = 3 -

+5%
+ 20 %

+ 49 %
Yield, t ha-1

+ 63 %

Fertilisation:
N: 120 kg ha-1 - P2O5: 50 kg ha-1 - K2O: 150 kg ha-1 Source: K+S KALI GmbH
Water, a scarce resource – scarcer in the future!

Water availability on the Earth

Water per capita

36
K+S KALI GmbH
Potassium and magnesium saves water - 4 functions

Reduced inproductive
Transpiration K water losses

Formation of
Assimilation transport K + Mg
roots and yield

Exploration of a larger
Root growth Mg soil volume

Increased water
Pore size distribution K storage volume

Source: K+S KALI GmbH

Potassium regulates the transpiration and enables
this way an effective water use

Function of potassium in stomas (pores)

Open stoma Close stoma

Source: K+S KALI GmbH

Potassium regulates the transpiration and enables
this way an effective water use

-K +K
Reduced functions of stomas Full function of stomas

 Uncontrolled water losses  Controlled transpiration,

during transpiration Adequte water use

Source: K+S KALI GmbH

Effect of potassium nutritiion on transpiration rate at oilseed rape
Intensity of transpiration (l m-2 ) d-1

Maximum water capacity in the soil

Source: Research project of K+S KALI GmbH and University of Gießen; published in: Fritz, 2009
Transpiration coefficient at potatoes according
to type of fertilization (Ryant et al., 2003)

Variant Water consumption

L / kg dry matter
Not fertilized 693

Mineral fertilizers 357

Farmyard manure 428

Mineral fertilizers + 320

farmyard manure
Potassium and Magnesium save water - 4 Functions

Reduced inproductive
Transpiration K
water losses

Formation of
Assimilate transport K + Mg
roots and yield

Exploration of a larger
Root growth Mg soil volume

Increased water
Pore size distribution K storage volume

Source: K+S KALI GmbH

K+S KALI GmbH
Relative distribution
of carbohydrates between shoot and roots (%)
84 97 99
Share of
carbohydrates
in shoots
in percent
Potassium and magnesium
facilitates the transportation of
+K/+Mg -K -Mg carbohydrates from shoots to
roots

Better root penetration of the

Share of soil volume
carbohydrates
in roots
in percent
16 3 1
Source: Cakmak, Sabanci University Istanbul
Sugar export from leaves as affected by K supply

Control K-
deficiency

Phloem Export
(mg glucose equiv. g-1 DW 8 h-1)

3.4 1.6

Source: K+S KALI GmbH

Potassium and Magnesium save water - 4 Functions

Reduced inproductive
Transpiration K
water losses

Formation of
Assimilate transport K + Mg
roots and yield

Exploration of a larger
Root growth Mg soil volume

Increased water
Pore size distribution K storage volume

Source: K+S KALI GmbH

 Day 20

Mg low Mg sufficient

Source: Cakmak , 2010 Quelle: Cakmak, 2010 46

Rooting depth of sugar beets with different K and
Mg supply
Days after sowing (d)
N.a.N. 26 28 31 35 38 44 49 53
0

20
Rooting depth (cm)

40

60

80
without fertiliser
Fertilisation with Korn-Kali®
100
(300 kg K2O ha-1)

Source: Research project of K+S KALI GmbH and University Halle-Wittenberg; published in: Damm, 2012
 Root depth at varying potassium fertilization
Unfertilized 300 kg K2O
as Korn-Kali®

0 0

20 20

40 40

60 60

80 80

Root depth in [cm] Root depth in [cm]

Source: K+S KALI GmbH
Potassium and Magnesium save water - 4 Functions

Reduced inproductive
Transpiration K
water losses

Formation of
Assimilate transport K + Mg
roots and yield

Exploration of a larger
Root growth Mg soil volume

Increased water
Pore size distribution K storage volume

Source: K+S KALI GmbH

Potassium improves the water storage capacity of the soil

-K +K
Unfavorable pore size distribution with water Higher amount of medium sized pores
drained or intensively bound allows to store water and keep it available

Pores too Medium sized

large – pores – Water
Water is is stored and
drained kept available
immediately for plants

Pores too
small –
Water is
intensively
bound to „Potassium bridge“
matrix

Source: K+S KALI GmbH

Results of the pedologic surveys

Potassium increases the water storage capacity of

soils!
• Potassium affects soil porosity so that it is protected
against water loss due to drainage water
• Potassium promotes the formation of medium pores
facilitating higher water storage
• More water is therefore potentially available to plants

Source: K+S KALI GmbH

Potassium and magnesium alleviate heat stress

Abiotic stress

K
Mg

Heat

Source: K+S KALI GmbH

 Effect of Mg nutrition on heat stress tolerance of
maize plants

Low Adequate Low Adequate

Mg Mg Mg Mg

25 OC 35 OC

Source: M. Mengutay et al, 2013

Plants with low Mg supply are very sensitive to temperature stress

Low Mg K+S Adequate

KALI GmbHMg Low Mg Adequate Mg

25 OC 35 OC

Stress induced by heat at wheat with low

content of Mg K+S Group
Magnesium alleviates hot temperature stress
Mg – defficiencies are obvious at high temperature

Low Mg Adequate Mg Low Mg Adequate Mg

25 OC 35 OC

M. Mengutay et al, 2013

Effect of magnesium nutrition on heat stress in
maize plants

50
24oC
Maize
35oC 44
Chlorophyll, SPAD 40

37

30

23
20

13
10
Low Mg Adequate Mg

M. Mengutay et al, unpublished

Potassium and magnesium alleviate high light stress

Abiotic stress

K
Mg

High Light

Source: K+S KALI GmbH

Global net radiation
A challenge in many regions
Mg-deficient plants highly sensitive to high light
Mg – defficient leaves in the shade or in the light

In the light

In the shade

Cakmak and Kirkby, 2008, Physiol Plant

Mg-deficient plants highly sensitive to high light (sun) radiation

High radiation Low radiation

Cakmak and Kirkby, 2008, Physiol Plant

Enhancement of photooxidative damage in K-
deficient leaves

NON-SHADED

SHADED

Partially shaded K-deficient bean leaves

Marschner and Cakmak, 1989
Potassium and magnesium alleviate frost stress

Abiotic stress

K
Mg

Frost

Source: K+S KALI GmbH

Temperatures up to minus 28°C caused severe
damage to crops in 2012

Frost damage
Barley after the cold
weeks in February
2012 in Germany

Diagnosis: Turning
Triticale

Winter-kill
Damage on oilseed rape became
obvious a few weeks later

Source: K+S KALI GmbH

What causes frost damage?
Three mechanisms in the plant

Ice crystallisation
Cells are destroyed by ice crystals

Cellular dehydration
Plants „die of thirst“

Frost heaving
Breaking of the roots

Source: K+S KALI GmbH

Ice crystallisation: K lowers the freezing point
and helps in accumulation of osmoprotectant sugars

Acclimation No Acclimation

Cell wall
Membrane
Cellular content damage
Potassium

Assimilates,
e.g. sugar

Storage of osmotically active Insufficient storage of osmotically

substances (sugar, potassium) active substances
 Turgor increases  Turgor decreases
 Antifreeze, ice crystallisation  Cell membrane is ruptured and
only in the apoplast destroyed by ice crystals
Source: K+S KALI GmbH
Acclimation - Fit for frost

Frost survival rate of oilseed rape shoot tissue after different acclimation periods
100%
86%

71%
Survival rate (%).

24%

0%
No acclimation After one acclimation After two acclimation
day at 4 ° C days at 4 ° C

24 hours at - 9 ° C

Frost period
After Burbulis et al, 2008
What causes frost damage?
Three mechanisms in the plant

Ice crystallisation
Cells are destroyed by ice crystals

Cellular dehydration
Plants „die of thirst“

Frost heaving
Breaking of the roots

Source: K+S KALI GmbH

Cellular dehydration:
K and Mg protect the plant

Water loss through

evaporation

Potassium regulates
water balance of plants

Limited
access
to water in
frozen soil Magnesium promotes
root growth

Source: K+S KALI GmbH

What causes frost damage?
Three mechanisms in the plant

Ice crystallisation
Cells are destroyed by ice crystals

Cellular dehydration
Plants „die of thirst“

Frost heaving
Breaking of the roots

Source: K+S KALI GmbH

Frost heaving: Alternate freezing and thawing
– a breaking test for roots

Cold Nights Mild Days

The soil Temperature rises

freezes and the soil
expands.

Alternate freezing
and thawing can
break the roots.

Source: K+S KALI GmbH

Frost damage -
How to prevent it

100 percent protection is not possible

But you can minimize the risk!

• Choose varieties with an adequate frost

tolerance depending on your location

• Consolidation of the seedbed

• Allow an adequate, but not exceeding

plant development before onset of winter

• Ensure an adequate supply of

Potassium and Magnesium

Source: K+S KALI GmbH

Potassium and magnesium alleviate adverse effects
of acid soils
Abiotic stress Mg reduces toxicities

• Mg reduces
K Manganese uptake
(cation antagonism)

Mg • Mg increases Mn
tolerance
Low pH
• Mg increases Al
tolerance

Source: K+S KALI GmbH

Effect of proton stress (pH) on root elongation
growth of maize

74
Effect of Kieserit on growth of maize under acid soil

Source: K+S KALI GmbH

 Soil alkalinity is caused by:

 a high content of sodium (Na+) ions in the soil

 application of fertilisers with a high content of sodium

 a high content of calcium carbonate in the soil which

causes calcium chlorosis in plants (blockade of iron
uptake – Fe)

(Ryant et al., 2003)

In some cases, optimal plant nutrition helps to
alleviate biotic stress
Biotic stress

Fungi

Virus

Insects

Bacteria

Nematodes

Parasites
Magnesium (and sulphur) against disease attack

Phytophrora attack in potato „Princess“

Germany, Bureau of Agriculture Northrhine Westfalia, 2004)

without EPSO Top® with 2 x 25 kg ha-1 EPSO Top®

14.06. (BBCH 57)
= Magnesium sulphate
26.06. (BBCH 65)
Source: K+S KALI GmbH
Conclusion: Nutrients to prepare your crops for the
future challenges

● Almost all abiotic stresses and some

K
biotic stresses threatening efficient
crop production can be mitigated
Mg
by adequate macro- and micronutrients supply

● All nutriens are thus able to

reduce the risk of yield declines

● In the future, stress periods with one or more

stress factors will increase due to climatic changes

 We need an increased awareness of these threats and need to

take the roles of all nutrients in stress alleviation into account
in fertilisation management.

Source: K+S KALI GmbH

Thank you for your attention!
Classes are performed as part of the project entitled
“Zintegrowany Program Rozwoju SGGW na rzecz Rozwoju
Regionalnego” (Integrated SGGW Development Program for
Regional Development).
Project co-financed by the European Social Fund under the Knowledge Education Development Program for
2014-2020, Priority Axis III: Higher education for economy and development, task no. 3.5 Higher education
comprehensive programs.