Mathematical Models of Systems

• Development of mathematical models from schematics of physical systems. by applying the fundamental physical
laws of science and engineering.

Transfer functions in the frequency domain,

• Two Methods:
State equations in the time domain.

From mathematical model

equations we will obtain the
relationship between the
a. Block diagram representation of a system; system's output and input.

b. block diagram Representation of an

interconnection of subsystems

Note: The input, r(t), stands for reference input.

The output, c(t), stands for controlled variable.

• Transfer function (mathematical function), is inside each block.

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 1

 Modeling in Frequency Domain
Laplace Transform Review

• A system represented by a differential equation is

difficult to model as a block diagram. Laplace transform can be defined as:

• A differential equation can describe the relationship

between the input and output of a system.
Where 𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔, a complex variable

• By using Laplace transform we can represent the Inverse Laplace transform:

input, output, and system as separate entities.

Multiplication of f(t) by u(t)

yields a time function that
is zero for t < 0.

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 2

Laplace Transform Table
Problem: Find the Laplace transform of

Solution:

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 3

 Laplace Transform Theorems
Table 2.2
Inverse Laplace Transform

Problem: Find inverse Laplace Transform of

Solution:

Frequency shift theorem item 4 of Table 2.2,

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 4

 Inverse Laplace: Partial-Fraction Expansion
A partial-fraction expansion: transform of a complicated function to a sum of simpler terms for which we know the Laplace
transform of each term.
Case 1. (Roots of the Denominator of F(s) Are Real and Distinct)
The order of N(s) > order of D(s) we must perform the division until we obtain a
𝑁(𝑠) remainder whose numerator is of order less than its denominator
Problem: =
𝐷(𝑠)
Solution: 𝑠+1
𝑠2 + 3 𝑠 + 2 𝑠 3 + 4𝑠 2 + 6 𝑠 + 5
− (𝑠 3 +3𝑠 2 + 2 𝑠)
Partial-Fraction Expansion 𝑠2 + 4 𝑠 + 5
Taking the inverse
− (𝑠 2 +3 𝑠 + 2)
Laplace transform,
𝑠+3
(Table 2.2 Item 7)

Final solution:

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 5

 Laplace Transform Solution of
a Differential Equation
Problem: Solve for y(t), if all initial conditions are zero.

Solution: The Laplace transform is,

(Table 2.2 Item 8)

Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get

inverse Laplace transform

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 6

 Inverse Laplace: Partial-Fraction Expansion
Case 2. (Roots of the Denominator of F(s) Are Real and Repeated)
Problem: Find inverse Laplace transform of (1)

To find 𝐾3 , differentiate (3) w.r.t. s:

Solution:
We can write the partial-fraction reduced
expansion as a sum of terms multiplicity
Letting 𝑠 → −2, 𝑤𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐾3 = −2
(2) Therefore, inverse Laplace transform is:

For repeated roots with multiplicity r, we have

To find 𝐾2 , multiply (1) = (2) by (𝑠 + 2)2

(3)

Letting 𝑠 → −2, 𝑤𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐾2 = −2

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 7

 Inverse Laplace: Partial-Fraction Expansion
Case 3. (Roots of the Denominator of F(s) Are Complex or Imaginary)
Problem: Find inverse Laplace transform of
Solution:
This function can be expanded in the following form: Using Item 7 in Table 2.1 and Items 2 and 4 in Table 2.2, we get

𝐾1 is found in the usual way:

To find 𝐾2 and 𝐾3 :
Multiply (1) by 𝑠(𝑠 2 + 2 𝑠 + 5), and put 𝐾1 = 3Τ5 Adding,
3
3 = 𝑠 2 + 2 𝑠 + 5 + 𝐾2 𝑠 2 + 𝐾3 𝑠
5 We have, 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 5 = 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 1 + 4 = 𝑠 + 1 2 + 22
𝑎 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔 = 2
Balancing coefficients(matching)
3
𝐾2 + =0
5
6
𝐾3 + = 0
5
Hence,
CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 8
 Transfer Function
• A Transfer Function is the ratio of the output of a system to the input of a system. It allows us to algebraically combine
mathematical representations of subsystems to yield a total system representation.
𝑅(𝑠) 𝐶(𝑠)
G(s)
input output
• General nth order, linear time-invariant differential equation:

c: output, r: input

Taking Laplace transform,

Transfer function:
We can find the output

𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 𝑅(𝑠)

Block diagram of a transfer function

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 9
 Transfer Function for a Differential Equation

Problem 1: Find the transfer function represented by

Solution:
Taking Laplace transform and assuming zero initial conditions, we have

Transfer function, G(s),

Problem 2: Find the transfer function represented by

Solution:

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 10

 Problem Solving

Problem: Find the ramp response for a system whose transfer function is

Solution: The input (ramp)

Hence,

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 11

 Electric Network Transfer Functions
Apply the transfer function to the mathematical modeling of electronic circuits including passive networks and O-Amp
circuits.

Table 2.3
Voltage-current, voltage-charge, and impedance relationships for capacitors, resistors, and inductors

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 12

 Transfer Function: Single Loop
Problem: Find the transfer function relating capacitor voltage, 𝑉𝑐 (𝑠), to input voltage, 𝑉 𝑠 .

Laplace-transform

input output
input output

RLC network Laplace-transformed

Summing the voltages around the loop, network
𝑑𝑖(𝑡) 1 𝑡
𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖 𝑡 + න 𝑖 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑉(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 0
take the Laplace transform
1
𝑉𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐼(𝑠) 𝑉𝐿 𝑠 = 𝐿 𝑠 𝐼(𝑠) 𝑉𝑅 𝑠 = 𝑅 𝐼(𝑠)
𝐶𝑠
Capacitor Inductor Resistor

We know,
CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 13
 Transfer Function: Single Node
Transfer functions also can be obtained using Kirchhoff's current law and summing currents flowing from nodes. currents
leaving the node are positive and currents entering the node are negative.
𝐼𝑅𝐿
෍ 𝐼𝑖𝑛 = ෍ 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑐 (𝑠) = 𝐼𝑅𝐿 (𝑠) Same current Node

𝐼𝐶
𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑅𝐿
− =0
𝑍𝑐 𝑍𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑅𝐿 = −(𝑉𝑐 − V)
input output

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 14

 Transfer Function: Single Loop
via Voltage Division
Voltage across capacitor is some proportion of
𝑖(𝑡)
the input voltage.

𝑍1
𝑉𝑖 𝑍2 𝑉𝑜

input output
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑍1 + 𝑍2 𝑖 𝑡 (1)
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑍2 𝑖 𝑡 (2)

(2) 𝑉𝑜 𝑍2
(1) =
𝑉𝑖 𝑍1 + 𝑍2

Which one is the easiest? Method 1, method 2, or method 3?

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 15

 Complex Circuits via Nodal Analysis1
𝑉𝐶 (𝑠)
Complex electrical networks (those with multiple loops and nodes). We use nodal analysis to find the transfer function
𝑉(𝑠)
node 𝑉𝐿 (𝑠) node 𝑉𝐶 (𝑠)
𝐼𝑅1 sum currents at the nodes Current from node 𝑉L (𝑠)

𝐼𝐿 𝐼𝑅2 𝐼𝑅2 𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝑅2 = 0

Current from node 𝑉𝐶 (𝑠)

And 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝑅2 = 0
input output
Expressing resistances as conductances,
node 𝑉𝐿 (𝑠) node 𝑉𝐶 (𝑠)
(1)

𝑉𝐿 𝑠 =
𝐺2 + 𝐶𝑠
(2)
(2) in (1) 𝐺2
𝑉𝐶 (𝑠) 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐿𝑠
=
𝑉(𝑠) 𝐺1 + 𝐺2 𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 + 𝐶 + 𝐺2 𝐺1 + 𝐺2 𝐿 − 𝐺2 2 𝐿 𝑆 + 𝐺2

Divide by LC

Transfer function:

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour

16
 Complex Circuits - Mesh Equations via Inspection2
Sum of Sum of Sum of
Sum of applied
impedances impedances impedances
For Mesh 1: × 𝐼1 𝑠 − × 𝐼2 𝑠 − × 𝐼3 𝑠 = voltages around
around common to common to
Mesh 1
Mesh 1 Mesh 1 and mesh2 Mesh 1 and mesh3
Sum of Sum of Sum of
Sum of applied
impedances impedances impedances
For Mesh 2: - × 𝐼1 𝑠 + × 𝐼2 𝑠 − × 𝐼3 𝑠 = voltages around
common to around common to
Mesh 2
Mesh 1 and mesh2 Mesh 2 Mesh 2 and mesh3
Sum of Sum of Sum of
Sum of applied
impedances impedances impedances
For Mesh 3: -
common to
× 𝐼1 𝑠 −
common to
× 𝐼2 𝑠 +
around
× 𝐼3 𝑠 = voltages around
Mesh 3
Mesh 1 and mesh3 Mesh 2 and mesh3 Mesh 3

Similarly, Meshes 3, we obtain

For Mesh 1:
For Mesh 2:

For Mesh 3:

which can be solved simultaneously for any desired transfer

function, for example, 𝐼3 (𝑠)/𝑉(𝑠) Three loop
17
CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour electrical network
 Operational Amplifier
An operational amplifier is an electronic amplifier used as a basic building block to implement transfer functions. It has the
following characteristics:
1. Differential input, 𝑣2 𝑡 − 𝑣1 𝑡
The output, v0(t), is given by: 𝑣0 𝑡 = 𝐴(𝑣2 𝑡 − 𝑣1 𝑡 )
2. High input impedance, 𝑍𝑖 = ∞ (𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙)
3. Low output impedance, 𝑍0 = 0 (𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙)
4. High constant gain amplification, 𝐴 = ∞ (𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙)

a. Operational amplifier;

b. schematic for an inverting operational amplifier;

c. Inverting operational amplifier configured for transfer

function realization. Typically, the amplifier gain, A, is omitted.

as 𝐼𝑎 𝑠 = 0, because of high input impedance

𝑉𝑖 𝑠 = 𝑍1 s 𝐼1 (𝑠)
𝑉𝑜 𝑠 = 𝑍2 s 𝐼2 (𝑠)
𝐼1 𝑠 = −𝐼2 (𝑠)
CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 18
 Problem Solving
Inverting Operational Amplifier
𝑉 𝑠
Problem: Find the transfer function, 𝑉0 , for the circuit below.
𝑖 𝑠

Solution:
For parallel components, Z1 𝑠 is the
reciprocal of the sum of the admittances.

For serial components, Z2 𝑠 is the sum

of the impedances.

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 19

 Non-inverting Operational Amplifier

Using voltage division, 𝐼(𝑠)

𝑉0 𝑠 = 𝑍1 s + 𝑍2 s 𝐼(𝑠)
𝑉1 𝑠 = 𝑍1 s 𝐼(𝑠)

𝑍1 s
We have: 𝑉0 𝑠 = 𝐴 𝑉𝑖 𝑠 − 𝑉 𝑠
𝑍1 s + 𝑍2 s 𝑜
𝑍1 s
𝑉0 𝑠 1 + 𝐴 = 𝐴 𝑉𝑖 𝑠
𝑍1 s + 𝑍2 s

For large A, we disregard '1‘ in the denominator.

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 20

 Problem Solving
Non-Inverting Operational Amplifier
PROBLEM: Find the transfer function, V0(s)/Vi(s), for the Non-inverting operational amplifier circuit

SOLUTION:
We find each of the impedance functions,
𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑠 + 1
=
𝐶1 𝑠
and

Now use the following equation:

𝑉0 (𝑠) 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑠 + 1 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝑠 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝑠
= + =1+
𝑉1 (𝑠) 𝐶1 𝑠 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑠 + 1 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑠 + 1 (𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑠 + 1)(𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑠 + 1)

𝑉0 (𝑠) 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝑠
=1+
𝑉1 (𝑠) 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑠 2 + 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑠 + 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑠 + 1 Non-inverting operational amplifier circuit

Substituting yields

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 21

 Translational Mechanical System Transfer Functions
Mechanical systems (like electrical networks) have three passive linear components: Spring and the mass (energy-storage
elements); and viscous damper (dissipates energy).

Table 2.4
Force-velocity, force-displacement,
and impedance translational
relationships
for springs, viscous dampers, and
mass

𝐾: Spring constant

𝑓𝑉 : Coefficient of viscous friction

M: Coefficient of mass

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 22

 Transfer Functions: One Degree of Freedom
Find the transfer function, X(s)/F(s), for the system the mass is traveling
toward the right

Spring force
Applied force
Viscous
damper force LT

mass force

Free-body diagram of mass, Transformed free body diagram

Mass, spring, and damper system spring, and damper system;
• All the forces impede (obstruct and block) the motion and act to oppose the applied force.
Differential equation of motion (Newton's law) Sum of impedances × X(s) = Sum of applied forces (zero initial conditions)
𝑑 2 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥(𝑡) LT
𝑀 + 𝑓𝑣 + 𝐾𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
Solving for the transfer function yields

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour Transfer function 23

 Transfer Functions: Two Degrees of Freedom
Number of differential equations required to describe the system is equal to the number of linearly independent motions (degrees
of freedom).
a. Forces on M1 due only to motion of M1
• Find the transfer function, X2 (s)/F(s), for the system b. forces on M1 due only to motion of M2
c. all forces on M1

Forces on M1

Two-degrees-of-freedom translational mechanical system

hold M2 and move M1 hold M1 and move M2
Two-degrees-of-freedom : since Each mass can be moved in the horizontal
direction while the other is held still.

The Laplace transform of the equation of motion of M1

(1)
𝐴 𝑋1 𝑠 − 𝐵𝑋2 𝑠 = 𝐹 (1) total force on M1
(superposition or sum)\
CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 24
 Transfer Functions: Two Degrees of Freedom Continued

The Laplace transform of the equation of motion of M2

a. Forces on M2 due only to motion of M2;
b. forces on M2 due only to motion of M1;
c. all forces on M2
𝐷
−𝐶 𝑋1 𝑠 + 𝐷𝑋2 𝑠 = 0 𝑋1 𝑠 = 𝑋 𝑠 (2)
𝐶 2 Forces on M2
2 𝑖𝑛 1 𝐷 𝑋2 𝑠 𝐶
𝐴 𝑋2 𝑠 − 𝐵𝑋2 𝑠 = 𝐹 =
𝐶 𝐹 𝑠 𝐴𝐷 − 𝐶𝐵

Determinant
Transfer function:

where hold M1 and move M2 hold M2 and move M1

total force on M1 (superposition or sum)\

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 25

 Transfer Functions:
Three Degrees of Freedom
• Write, the equations of motion for the mechanical network

• The system has three degrees of freedom, since each of the

three masses can be moved independently while the others
are held still.

• The form of the equations will be similar to electrical mesh equations

Sum of
Sum of Sum of
impedances Sum of
impedances impedances
For M1: connected X1 𝑠 − X2 𝑠 − X3 𝑠 = applied forces
between between
to the motion at x1
x1 and x2 x1 and x3
at x1

Similarly, for M2 and M3, we obtain

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 26

 Nonlinearity

Linear systems have two properties: (1) additivity, and (2) homogeneity.

1. Additivity (superposition):

2. Homogeneity: motor does not respond at very low

input voltages due to frictional
forces exhibits a nonlinearity called
dead zone

Motor dead zone

Amplifier saturation

Some physical nonlinearities

Linear system Nonlinear system
CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 27
 Linearization
• If the system is nonlinear, we must linearize the system before we
can find the transfer function.

• Making linear approximation to a nonlinear system.

• For a nonlinear system operating at point A: 𝑥0 , 𝑓(𝑥0 )

Linear approximation :
related by the Slope 𝑚𝐴 (line)
of the curve at the point A

small changes in the input 𝛿𝑥 small changes in the output 𝛿𝑓(𝑥)

Thus, 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑓 𝑥0 ≈ 𝑚𝐴 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )

𝛿𝑓 𝑥 ≈ 𝑚𝐴 𝛿𝑥 Derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑥0
Linearization about a point A
𝑓 𝑥 ≈ 𝑓 𝑥0 + 𝑚𝐴 𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝑓 𝑥0 + 𝑚𝐴 𝛿𝑥

𝑓 𝑥 ≈ 𝑓 𝑥0 + 𝑚𝐴 𝛿𝑥

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 28

 Linearizing a Function

Problem: Linearize 𝑓 𝑥 = 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 about 𝑥 = 𝜋Τ2.

Solution:
We first find that the derivative of 𝑓 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 𝜋Τ2
𝜋
Slope at 𝑥 = 2

Also

the system can be represented as

𝑓 𝑥 = −5 𝛿𝑥 for small excursions of x about 𝜋Τ2

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 29

 Modeling in The Time Domain
State-space Method
Two approaches are available for the analysis and design of feedback control systems.
1. Frequency domain approach (classical approach):
based on converting a system’s differential equation to a transfer function.
• Advantage: rapidly providing stability and transient response information. Thus
we can immediately see the effects of varying system parameters.

• Disadvantage: limited application. It can be applied only to linear, time-invariant

systems or systems that can be approximated as such.
2. State-space approach (time domain / modern approach): a sudden, forceful
backward movement

Can be used: a) To represent non-linear systems that have backlash, saturation, dead zone.

b) It can handle systems with nonzero initial conditions.

Dead Zone

c) Multiple-inputs, multiple-outputs systems can easily be represented.

Many calculation is needed
d) Many commercial software packages are available.
before actual realization.
CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 30
 RL Network: State-Space Representation
The state-space approach for representing physical systems (state equations and the output equations are a viable (feasible) representation of the
system.).
loop equation
1. Select a state variable (possible system variable) : say 𝑖(𝑡). (State Equation)

2. Write differential equation (in terms of the state

variable 𝑖(𝑡)).
3. Take Laplace transform:
𝑉(𝑠) 𝐿 𝑖(0)
solve for 𝐼 𝑠 : 𝐼 𝑠 = +
(𝐿𝑠 + 𝑅) 𝐿𝑠 + 𝑅
We can determine RL network
1 𝐿 𝑖(0) the state variable
If 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑉 𝑠 = 1Τ𝑠. 𝐼 𝑠 = +
𝑠(𝐿𝑠 + 𝑅) 𝐿𝑠 + 𝑅
𝐴 𝐵 𝐿 𝑖(0) 1 1 1 𝑖(0)
𝐼 𝑠 = + + 𝐼 𝑠 = − +
𝑠 𝐿𝑠 + 𝑅 𝐿𝑠 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝑠 𝑠+𝑅 𝑅
𝐿 𝑠 + 𝐿
Inverse Laplace transform:

4. Output equations: Self Study

Algebraically combine the state variables with the
system's input and find all of the other system
Do the State-space representation
variables for 𝑡 ≥ 𝑡0 . of RLC network.
31
CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour
 The General State-Space Representation

Some Terminology
none of the variables can be written as
• Linear combination: (of 𝑛 variables 𝑥𝑖 ) a linear combination of the others.

• Linear independence: S is zero if every K is zero and no x is zero: variables x are linearly independent.
• System variable: Any variable that responds to an input or initial conditions in a system.
• State variables: The smallest set of linearly independent system variables that completely determines (knowing the value at
𝑡0 ) the value of system variables for 𝑡 ≥ 𝑡0
• State vector: A vector whose elements are state variables.

• State space: The 𝑛-dimensional space whose axes are the state variables.

• State equations: A set of 𝑛 simultaneous, first-order differential equations with 𝑛 variables (state variables).

• Output equations: The equation that expresses the output variables of a system as linear combinations of the state variables
and the inputs.

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 32

 State-space Representation
• A system is represented in state-space by the following equations: 𝑥: 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑡
𝑥:ሶ 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡. 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑦: 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑥ሶ = 𝐴 𝑥 + 𝐵 𝑢 State equation 𝑢: 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
ቊ 𝐴: 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥
𝑦 = 𝐶 𝑥 + 𝐷 𝑢 Output equation 𝐵: 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥
𝐶: 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥
𝐷: 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥
• This representation of a system provides complete knowledge of all variables of the system at any 𝑡 ≥ 𝑡0
• is not unique.
• The choice of state variables: • minimum number (equals the order of the differential equation).
• are linearly independent.
Problem:
Given the following system:
Set the system on the following state-space form:
Solution:

State-space model:

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 33

 Example-1: State-space Representation
Problem:
Find a state-state representation of the following electrical network if
the output is 𝑖𝑅 the current through the resistor, (𝑣(𝑡) is the input).

Solution:

The following steps will yield a viable representation of the network in state space.

Step 1: Label all the branch currents in the network (These include 𝑖𝐿 , 𝑖𝑅 , and 𝑖𝐶 ).
Step 2: Select the state variables (quantities that are differentiated 𝑣𝐶 and 𝑖𝐿 , energy-storage elements, the inductor C and the
capacitor L) and write derivative equations.
We can have 𝑣𝑐ሶ = 𝑖𝐿ሶ .

Step 3: Express non-state variables (right-hand side: 𝑖𝐶 and 𝑣𝐿 ) as a linear combinations of the state variables (differentiated
variables: 𝑣𝐶 and 𝑖𝐿 ) and the input, 𝑣 𝑡 .
We have 𝑣𝑅 = 𝑣𝐶 .

Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws, to obtain 𝑖𝐶 and

𝑣𝐿 in terms of the state variables, 𝑣𝐶 and 𝑖𝐿 .

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 34

 Example-1: State-space Representation-contd.
Step 4: Obtain state equations: (by substituting the values and rearranging)

Matrix Form
𝑑𝑣𝐶 1 1
=− ∙ 𝑣𝐶 + ∙ 𝑖 + 0 ∙ 𝑣(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝐶 𝐿 State
𝑑𝑖𝐿 1 1 equation
=− ∙ 𝑣 + 0 ∙ 𝑖𝐿 + ∙ 𝑣(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐶 𝐿
Matrix Form
1 output
Step 5: Find the output equation: 𝑖𝑅 = ∙ 𝑣𝐶 + 0 ∙ 𝑖𝐿 equation
𝐿

Final result: Convert into vector-matrix form

𝑥ሶ = 𝐴 𝑥 + 𝐵 𝑢
ቊ
𝑦 =𝐶𝑥+𝐷𝑢

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 35

 Example-2: State-space Representation
(with a dependent source)
PROBLEM: Find the state and output equations for the electrical network shown in Figure.
If the output vector is 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑅2 𝑖𝑅2 𝑇

Step 1: Label all the branch currents in the network.

Step 2: Select the state variables (energy-storage elements: L and C)
and write derivative equations (voltage-current relationships).

the state variables (differentiated variables)

Step 3: State equations (we find 𝑣𝐿 and 𝑖𝐶 in terms of the state variables)
Node 1
mesh LCR2

Node 2

(𝑣𝑅1 = 𝑣𝐿 )

1 (2)
1 − 4𝑅2 𝑣𝐿 − 𝑅2 𝑖𝐶 = 𝑣𝐶 (1) − 𝑣𝐿 − 𝑖𝐶 = 𝑖𝐿 − 𝑖(𝑡)
𝑅1

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 36

 Example-2: State-space Representation

Solving (1) and (2) simultaneously for 𝑣𝐿 and 𝑖𝐶 yields

1 1 (1)
1
− 𝑣𝐿 − 𝑖𝐶 = 𝑖𝐿 − 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑖𝐶 = − 𝑣𝐿 − 𝑖𝐿 + 𝑖(𝑡) 1 − 4𝑅2 𝑣𝐿 − 𝑅2 (− 𝑣 − 𝑖𝐿 + 𝑖(𝑡)) = 𝑣𝐶
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅1 𝐿
𝑅2 1 𝑅2
1 − 4𝑅2 + 𝑣 + 𝑅2 𝑖𝐿 − 𝑅2 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑣𝐶 𝑣𝐿 = 𝑅2 𝑖𝐿 − 𝑣𝐶 − 𝑅2 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ ∆= − 1 − 4𝑅2 +
𝑅1 𝐿 ∆ 𝑅1

and

writing the result in vector-matrix form

Step 4: Output equations

vector-matrix form, the output equation is

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 37

 Example-3: State-space Representation
(Translational Mechanical System)

For M1:

For M2:

Let, State equations:

(acceleration = derivative of velocity)

Select x1, x2, v1, v2 as state variables. matrix form.
𝑑𝑥1 𝑑 2 𝑥1 𝑑𝑣1 𝑥ሶ 1
0 1 0 0
𝑥1 0
= 𝑣1 = = 𝑣ሶ 1 𝑣ሶ 1 − 𝐾ൗ𝑀 𝐾ൗ𝑀 − 𝐾ൗ𝑀 0 𝑣 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 = 1 1 1 1
+ 0 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑥ሶ 2 0 0 0 1 𝑥2
1ൗ
𝑑𝑥2 𝑑 2 𝑥2 𝑑𝑣2 𝑣ሶ 2 𝐾ൗ
𝑀2 0 − 𝐾ൗ𝑀 0 𝑣2 𝑀2
= 𝑣2 = = 𝑣ሶ 2 1
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 38
 Example-4: State-space Representation
𝑖𝑐1 𝑖𝑅

𝑖𝐿 𝑖𝑐2
Problem: Find the state-space representation of the electrical network 𝑣𝑐1 𝑣𝑅
shown in the figure. The output is 𝑣0 (𝑡). 𝑣𝐿
𝑣𝑐2

Solution:
state variables: 𝑣𝑐1 , 𝑖𝐿 , 𝑣𝑐2 𝑣𝑅 1
𝑖𝑐1 = 𝑖𝐿 + 𝑖𝑅 = 𝑖𝐿 + = 𝑖𝐿 + 𝑣 − 𝑣𝑐2 Mesh 2
The derivative relations (one for each 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿
energy-storage element) 𝑣𝐿 = 𝑣𝑖 − 𝑣𝑐1 Mesh 1
1 1
𝑖𝑐2 = 𝑖𝑅 = 𝑣𝐿 − 𝑣𝑐2 = (𝑣𝑖 − 𝑣𝑐1 − 𝑣𝑐2 ) Mesh 2, Mesh 1
𝑅 𝑅

Matrix form 1 1 1
𝑖𝑐1 = − 𝑣𝑐1 + 𝑖𝐿 − 𝑣𝑐2 + 𝑣𝑖
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
State vector state-space representation 𝑣𝐿 = − 𝑣𝑐1 + 0 𝑖𝐿 + 0 𝑣𝑐2 + 𝑣𝑖
𝑣𝑐1 − 1ൗ𝑅𝐶 1ൗ
𝐶1 − 1ൗ
𝑅𝐶1
1ൗ
𝑅𝐶1 1 1 1
1
𝑖𝑐2 = − 𝑣𝑐1 + 0 𝑖𝐿 − 𝑣𝑐2 + 𝑣𝑖
𝑥 = 𝑖𝐿 𝑥ሶ = − 1ൗ𝐿 0 0 𝑥 + 1ൗ𝐿 𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
𝑣𝑐2
− 1ൗ𝑅𝐶 0 − 1ൗ𝑅𝐶 1ൗ
𝑅𝐶
2 2 2
CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 39
 Converting a Transfer Function to State Space
Phase variables: A set of state variables where each state variable is defined to be the derivative of the previous state variable.

Consider a differential equation,

Choose the output, y(t), and its derivatives as the state variables, 𝑥𝑖 .

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 40

 Converting a Transfer Function to State Space
matrix form,
output 𝑥1
𝑥ሶ 1 𝑥1 0 𝑥2
𝑥ሶ 2 𝑥2 0 𝑥3
𝑥ሶ 3 𝑥3 0 𝑦= 1 0 0 … 0 ⋮
= ⋮ + ⋮
⋮ 𝑥𝑛−1
𝑥ሶ 𝑛−1 𝑥𝑛−1 0 𝑥𝑛
𝑥ሶ 𝑛 𝑥𝑛 𝑏0

PROBLEM: Find the state-space representation in phase-variable form for the transfer function

Step 1 Find the associated differential equation

inverse Laplace transform,

Step 2 Select the state variables.

the state equations. matrix form,

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour

41
 Block Diagram Reduction
• More complicated systems are represented by the interconnection of many subsystems.
• In order to calculate the transfer function, we want to represent multiple subsystems as a
single block.
• A subsystem is represented as a block with an input, an output, and a transfer function.

Signals

Pickoff point

Summing junction

block diagram

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 42

 Reduction of Multiple Subsystems2
Cascade Form
equivalent
transfer function

Parallel Form

equivalent
transfer function

𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 𝐸(𝑠)
Feedback Form
But since 𝐸 𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑠 ∓ 𝐶 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)
equivalent 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 𝑅 𝑠 ∓ 𝐶 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)
transfer function
𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 𝑅 𝑠 ∓ 𝐺 𝑠 𝐶 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)
1 ± 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 𝑅 𝑠
equivalent 𝐶 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠
transfer function
=
𝑅 𝑠 1 ± 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) 4
CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 3
 Reduction of Multiple Subsystems3
Moving Blocks to Create Familiar Forms
• Familiar forms (cascade, parallel, and feedback) are not always apparent in a block diagram
Block diagram algebra for summing junction Block diagram algebra for pickoff point
𝑅 𝑠 +𝑋 𝑠 ) 𝐺 𝑠 [𝑅 𝑠 + 𝑋 𝑠 ]) 𝑅 𝑠 𝐺(𝑠)) 𝐺 𝑠 [𝑅 𝑠 + 𝑋 𝑠 ])

𝑋 𝑠 𝐺(𝑠)

Transfer function is moved left Equivalent forms for moving a block to

past a summing junction the left past a pickoff point.
𝑅 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 )
𝑅 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 + 𝑋(𝑠) 𝑅 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 + 𝑋(𝑠)

𝑋(𝑠)/𝐺(𝑠)

Transfer function is moved Equivalent forms for moving a block to

right past a summing junction the right past a pickoff point.
CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 44
 Example
Problem: Reduce the system shown in Figure
to a single transfer function.

Solution:
G2 𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 G3 𝑠 are
connected in cascade.

The three summing

junctions can be
collapsed into a single the three feedback functions,
summing junction
𝐻1 𝑠 , 𝐻2 𝑠 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻3 𝑠 are
connected in parallel. the feedback system is reduced
and multiplied by G1 𝑠

CEN455: Dr. Nassim Ammour 45