Human Reproduction

Male reproductive system:

Two Testes (Gonads, singular testis).
• Produces sperms
• Produce testosterone hormone.
Epididymis: Store and activate sperms until ejaculation.
Two Sperm ducts or Vas deferens: carries sperms from epididymis to urethra during ejaculation.
Prostate & seminal vesicles:
• Secrete seminal fluid, which with sperms is called semen, 2-3ml / each ejaculation.
• Contain fructose and enzymes to provide energy to activate sperms and for swimming.
Scrotum:
• Skin sac which holds testes outside the body cavity
• Sperm production occurs at lower temperature than body temperature to reduce mutations.
Penis: Organ of copulation and micturition.
Urethra: pass semen on ejaculation & urine during urination, sphincter close it during ejaculation.

Side view

Front view

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Female reproductive system
Uterus:
• Thick muscle with lining endometrium
• For implantation and development of fetus
• Contracts to expel the baby during birth.
Cervix:
• Narrow opening of the uterus into vagina
• Dilates during birth.
Ovary (Gonads): Two, Produces ovum (egg) and hormones estrogen and progesterone.
Oviduct or Fallopian tubes (Two):
• Its funnel catches the ovum and it is site of fertilization
• Carry ovum or embryo to the uterus.
Vagina:
• Open at the vulva.
• Organ of copulation
• Pass baby at birth and blood during menstruation.

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 Human Gametes

Sperm Ovum-egg
Made in Testes by meiosis, from cells in seminiferous tubules. Ovaries by meiosis from cells of follicle.
Number Many made from puberty till death One released monthly from puberty till menopause.
Size Small. Larger.
Motility Yes, swim. No, moved by cilia and peristalsis.
Structure Streamlined, small, light. Surrounded by jelly coat which harden after fertilization
and Head: Contain and prevent entry of more sperms
adaptive • Acrosome: contain enzymes that digest jelly coat of ovum More cytoplasm, and it contain stores of protein and fat
features
• Nucleus: contains X or Y chromosome. • For making new cells and membranes
• Has less cytoplasm, no food store. • For making enzymes and new cell structures.
Midpiece: contain mitochondria to provide energy for swimming. • For energy source
Tail: (flagellum) to swim. • Energy for cell division, mitosis
Nucleus larger and contain X chromosome only.
No tail, no acrosome

Formed before female is born, begin to mature at puberty.

We need to produce many sperms

To increase the chances of fertilization of the ovum because
 Many sperms are abnormal and can’t fertilize the ovum.
 Most die before reaching the ovum.

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Menstrual cycle: 28 days
Cyclic changes in the lining of the uterus due to changes in ovarian hormones.
1. Menstruation (from 0-6 days):
• Occur if no fertilization
• Drop of progesterone hormone.
• Endometrium disintegrates and lost with dead ovum, blood and mucus through the vagina.

2. Pituitary gland secretes FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) which stimulate

Development of follicles in the ovary to form Graafian follicle.
 Development of an egg in the follicle .
 Secretion of estrogen from the the grafian follicle in the ovary which cause
1. Repair & thickening of uterus lining (endometrium) to be ready for implantation.
2. Inhibit FSH, avoid development of new follicle.
3. Stimulate release of LH from pituitary.
4. Thin cervical mucus to facilitate passage of sperms.

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3. Ovulation: occur on day 14 of the cycle.
LH surge (Luteinizing hormone) stimulate ovulation and egg is released into oviduct.
It moves by cilia and peristalsis to the uterus and if not fertilized within 24 hours it dies.

4. After ovulation:
Follicle become corpus luteum.
LH stimulate corpus luteum to release progesterone responsible for:
1. Maintains endometrium and prevent menstruation.
2. Prepare endometrium for implantation.
3. Inhibit FSH and LH secretion and follicle development.

If no fertilization:
• Corpus luteum degenerate,
• Decrease LH decrease secretion of progesterone by corpus luteum and menstruation starts.
If fertilization occur:
• Corpus luteum secrete progesterone
• Progesterone stop menstruation and maintain pregnancy till placenta is formed at 12 weeks
pregnancy and secrete progesterone till the end of pregnancy.

Purpose of events that happen during the menstrual cycle.

 Develop and release new ovum.
 Prepares new uterus lining and maintains it if embryo implants and sheds if not.

Why it is important that FSH is not secreted during pregnancy?

 No more follicle development and eggs released.
 No fertilization and embryos at different stages of development at the same time.

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Diagram showing stages of menstrual cycle:

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Puberty
Age of maturation of sex organs of male or female. Earlier in girls
In males In female
Testosterone is produced Estrogen is produced
Sperm formation, erection, ejaculation. Ovulation and menstruation begin
Development of secondary sexual characteristics
Growth of facial and pubic hair. Growth of pubic hair
Deep voice High pitched voice.
Widening of shoulders Pelvic girdle becomes broader
Development of muscles . Development of breasts
Growth of penis and testes. Development of uterus and vagina

Fertilization: In outer third of oviduct.

 Enzymes in acrosome digest the jelly coat of ovum.
 Head of one sperm enter the egg leaving tail outside and other sperms die.
 Fertilization membrane forms around the ovum prevent entry of other sperms.
 Fusion of nuclei of male and female gametes to form a diploid zygote with 46 chromosomes,
 Zygote divides by mitosis.

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Implantation:
 Zygote travels down oviduct to the uterus by its peristaltic movement & movement of cilia
 Divides by mitosis where chromosomes duplicate and separate
 Zygote split into two
 Mitosis repeated and forms a ball of genetically identical cells called embryo (blastocyst).
 It implants in endometrium of upper part of posterior wall.
 Menstrual cycle stops till after delivery.
 Development of placenta start.
 Complexity of fetus

Pregnancy:
Period between fertilization of ovum and birth of a baby.
Cells of embryo divide
• From zygote until 11 weeks called embryo.
• By 11 weeks all organs are formed and called fetus.
• At 38 weeks, time of delivery it is a baby

Growth occur in all stages

Development occur in all stages
Increase complexity in early stages and develop into specialized cells as muscle and blood cells
Increase size towards end of pregnancy.

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Placenta:
Completed at 12 weeks.
Has villi containing fetal capillaries.
Between villi, the uterus form spaces filled with mother blood.
Both are separated by placental barrier, capillary and villus walls.

Functions of the placenta :( very important)

1. Transfer O2, & nutrients as glucose, amino-acids from mother to fetal blood by diffusion.
2. Transfer of excretory products, CO2 and urea from fetus to mother by diffusion.
3. Transfer of antibodies from mother to fetus.
4. Physical attachment between fetus and mother.
5. Production of progesterone which maintains pregnancy.
6. Prevention of maternal and fetal blood mixing.
 Allows higher pressure of mother’s blood, (can damage fetal vessels).
 Allows mother to have different blood group. (Prevent incompatibility).
 Barrier to toxins & pathogens e.g. viruses, drugs,
 Nicotine, rubella virus can cross placenta and affect the fetus.

Umbilical cord: joins fetus to the placenta and mother, it has

1. Two umbilical arteries: carry waste products as CO2, urea from fetus to mother.
2. One umbilical vein return blood to the fetus by and can carry
 Useful substance: O2, glucose, amino acids, water, vitamins, minerals and antibodies.
 Harmful substance: alcohol, nicotine, heavy metals as lead, viruses as rubella.

Amniotic sac: membrane which surrounds the fetus, it secretes and encloses amniotic fluid.
Amniotic fluid: filling the sac.
1. Protects fetus from physical damage, shock absorber.
2. Protect from temperature changes and drying out.
3. Provides sterile environment.
4. Allows free movement.

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 Growth and development

Growth: Permanent irreversible increase in size and dry mass by an increase in cell number or
size or both it occurs by mitosis.

Development: follow growth .

Increase in complexity of the organism due to formation of different cells, tissues and organs.

Measure of growth:
Dry mass: Mass of organism after removal of all of its water content by heating.
Advantages: reliable ,measures amount of organic material , more accurate than wet mass.
Disadvantages: organism is killed and time consuming.
How to prepare dry mass
1. Heat gently in an oven with low temperature, or leave to dry for 12 hours.
2. Use a balance to weigh it.
3. Repeat until two readings are the same, organism has lost its water content.

Fresh mass or wet mass: mass of organism with its water content.
Advantages: Quick, more accurate than measuring height and length , organism not killed.
Disadvantages:unreliable because water content is variable , affected by soil conditions & humidity.

Dry and wet mass during germination

1. At the beginning of germination
✓ Fresh mass increase due to absorption of water by osmosis.
✓ Dry mass decrease: seed respires for energy needed for growth and embryo break glucose
and CO2 produced is lost to air so mass drop , no leaves and no photosynthesis occuring.
2. After several days:
✓ Dry mass begin to increase and fresh mass also increase.
✓ Leaves developed which contain chlorophyll exposed to light.
✓ Photosynthesis starts with formation of carbohydrates and proteins

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 Sexually Transmitted Disease

Infection transmitted from one person to another via body fluids on sexual contact.

AIDS
Caused by: human immune-deficiency virus (HIV), lives in vagina, rectum, urethra
Transmission:
Exchange of contaminated body fluids e.g. semen, vaginal fluid and blood from infected person.
1. Unprotected sexual intercourse.
2. Blood to blood contact:
 Transfusion of contaminated blood, and blood products, (lack of screening of donors).
 Using contaminated needles in drug abusers.
 Organ transplant
3. From mother to baby: across placenta, during birth, and in breast milk.
Tears, saliva, hugging, shake hands, insects as the mosquito doesn’t transfer infection.1
Razors and toothbrushes can transmit infection if there is blood contact only.

Prevention:
 Use condom during intercourse and only one STD free sexual partner.
 Screening of blood and donors.
 Never share syringes and sterilization of surgical instruments.
 Mothers with HIV avoid breast feeding (bottle feed)
 Use gloves when exposed to blood e.g. dentist, police

Long-term effects of HIV on the immune system.

1. Destroy T lymphocytes and less numbers so antibodies not produced.
2. Destroy phagocytes so not effective.
3. Weak immune response which can’t defend against pathogens.
4. After 10 years patient develop AIDS
 Infection e.g. Pneumonia, fungus infections.
 Cancer.
 Damage brain cells.
 Weight loss and death.
Treatment: No vaccine, no cure for AIDS, drug increases life expectancy of patient.

Viruses that leave infected white blood cells.

 Enter plasma and lymph and infect lymphocytes and phagocytes
 Infect, brain, liver, lungs, skin, reproductive system, kidney, gut.
 May be transmitted to another person.

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