The Neolithic Phase

UNIT 4 THE NEOLITHIC PHASE*

Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Changes in Climate and Subsistence
4.3 Neolithic Culture
4.3.1 The Concept of Neolithic Revolution
4.3.2 Debate about the Transition from Hunting-Gathering to Agriculture
4.3.3 Neolithic in Global Context
4.3.4 Neolithic and Contemporary Cultures
4.4 Neolithic Cultures of India
4.4.1 The Neolithic Culture of North-Western Region
4.4.2 The Neolithic Culture of Northern Region (Kashmir)
4.4.3 The Neolithic Culture of the Vindhyan Hills, the Belan and the Ganga River Valleys
4.4.4 The Neolithic Culture of Mid-Eastern Ganga Valley Region
4.4.5 The Neolithic Culture of Central-Eastern Region
4.4.6 The Neolithic Culture of North-Eastern India
4.4.7 The Neolithic Culture of South India
4.5 Social Organization and Belief System
4.6 Summary
4.7 Key Words
4.8 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
4.9 Suggested Readings

4.0 OBJECTIVES
In this Unit, you will learn about:
the beginning of agriculture in different parts of the Indian subcontinent;
the development of pastoralism and the transition from hunting-gathering
to agriculture;
Neolithic cultures in their regional setting in India;
learn the significance of the site of Mehrgarh; and
learn about the Ashmounds as a specific feature of the South Indian Neolithic
culture.

4.1. INTRODUCTION
This Unit will present the details about the definition, nature and characteristics
of the Neolithic culture. The focus will be on the Indian Neolithic.
Neolithic was a very important stage of the history of human culture when humans
were no longer dependent entirely on nature but had started to exploit nature to

* Professor V. Selvakumar, Dept. of Maritime History and Marine Archaeology, Tamil University,
Thanjavur. 83
The Advent of Food their own advantage. The long association of humans with nature enabled them
Production and Harappan
Civilization
to distinguish some plants and animals which they could manipulate according
to their needs. They tamed some animals and kept them in pens and took the
responsibility of producing plant food by cultivating some useful varieties. They
needed to clear the forest and till the soil for agriculture. From nomads the people
became settled in villages, New tool types made with new techniques emerged.
Though new subsistence strategies of the domestication of plants and animals
emerged, old modes like hunting and gathering of food continued.

4.2 CHANGES IN CLIMATE AND SUBSISTENCE

Prehistory is divided into various cultural periods such as the Palaeolithic,
Mesolithic, Neolithic and the Chalcolithic. Among these phases, the Neolithic
period succeeded the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic, and preceded the Chalcolithic
period. In the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods, humans did not produce food.
They did not domesticate animals and cultivate plants. They gathered naturally
available plant food such as tubers, fruits, leaves and nuts, trapped fish and hunted
wild animals. We are not certain if the people of the later part of the middle and
early part of the Upper Palaeolithic were involved in any horticultural practices
such as planting of seedlings or if they became friendly with animals. The social
organization in the prehistoric period was influenced by the hunting-gathering
mode of production. Since the amount of food gathered through hunting and
gathering was limited and it had to be consumed immediately, smaller bands
consisting of a few people existed in this period, although large congregations
would have existed in the areas that had a lot of resources.

Several cultural changes began to occur around the beginning of the Holocene in
some parts of the world, leading to the development of Neolithic cultures. Major
shift in climate, in many parts of the world, is suggested during the transition
from the Late Pleistocene to Holocene, after the end of the Ice Age. Warm climate
began to set in across the world, leading to changes in the nature of animal and
plant populations and their distribution. These environmental changes influenced
the Neolithic cultures and determined the ways of life of the Neolithic people to
some extent. However, people made certain conscious cultural decisions to modify
their life-ways in the changing climate conditions.

The Neolithic cultures were pastoral and farming cultures, but without the
knowledge of metal implements. They used polished stone tools, lithic tools,
and pottery. In the Neolithic period, humans started to cultivate plants and
domesticate animals. They began to effectively modify, control and manage the
natural resources to their advantage. These measures increased their food security,
but at the same time, altered their ways of life. Since they domesticated animals
and plants, they had to settle at a place permanently or for a specific period of
time, to take care of the animals and plants. Their economic responsibilities
increased; they were engaged, at least to a limited degree, in the management of
plants, pastures, animals and irrigation. They practiced selective breeding of
plants and animals and had developed a good knowledge and understanding of
the environment. However, the advent of Neolithic does not necessarily mean
that people stopped hunting animals and gathering of plant foods. They continued
to hunt wild animals, gathered plant foods and were involved in fishing to
supplement their diet, since the consumption of diverse food resources catered
to their physical needs and effective survival.
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 The Neolithic Phase
4.3 NEOLITHIC CULTURE
The term ‘Neolithic’ was first used by Sir John Lubbock in his book titled
Prehistoric Times, published in 1865. He was the first Baron of Avebury (b.
1834- d. 1913) in England. By adding the concept of Neolithic Age to the cultural
historical sequence, he sought to refine the Three Age system (Stone Age, Bronze
Age and Iron Age), which had been proposed by C. J. Thomsen in the 1830s.

The term ‘neo’ means new, and ‘lithic’ means stone. Unlike the Palaeolithic (Old
Stone Age) period, people in this period began to use polished stone tools and
axes, often called celts. The Neolithic tools appear more refined than the crude
flaked stone tools of the Palaeolithic period (Figure 4.1).

Fig. 4.1: Neolithic Blade and Stone Tool Industry in South India. Source: EHI-02, Block 3.

They needed more diverse variety of tools since they were involved in different
types of activities. Generally, Palaeolithic tools have rough or finely flaked
surfaces. Sometimes, the natural context (rolled pebble surface) was retained
while flaking. This would serve as a butt end for a more comfortably handling of
the tools during their use. Not much evidence is available for the polishing of
tools in the Palaeolithic period. In the Neolithic period they polished some of the
stone tools. However, they continued to use flaked and unpolished tools as well.
The concept of Neolithic has undergone a lot of change over the years. Now, it
denotes early pastoral and farming village communities that did not use metal.

4.3.1 The Concept of Neolithic Revolution

The agro-pastoral cultural developments of the early Holocene were labelled as
‘Neolithic Revolution’ by V. Gordon Childe in 1941. The Neolithic and
Chalcolithic cultures were treated as food producing economies by him. The
idea of Neolithic Revolution refers to the origin of agriculture, animal
85
The Advent of Food domestication and a settled way of life. It indicates the transformation of society
Production and Harappan
Civilization
from a food gathering (hunting-gathering) economy to a food producing (agro-
pastoral) economy. The idea of revolution pertaining to the Neolithic way of life
signifies a major transformation in human cultural adaptation.

Miles Burkitt identified the Neolithic culture with polished tools, animal and
plant domestication. Thus, the ‘Neolithic’ does not denote the use of new tools
(Figure 4.2) alone, but also new modes of adaptation and ways of life.

The introduction of domestication of plants and animals led to the production of

a large quantity of grains and animal food. The food that they produced had to be
stored and hence, pottery-making emerged. They had to settle in open areas away
from caves and thus, houses were built. Large villages developed and permanent
residences were built. Settlements were fenced since the cattle and sheep had to
be protected. These activities gradually led to food surplus and craft specialization.
Because of the food security more people could settle in the villages. Hence, the
cultural developments of this period are termed as Neolithic Revolution.

The surplus food production was one of the main factors for the development of
early urban cultures at a later context. It allowed for the development of various
crafts, urban formations and early states in the succeeding Bronze Age.

Fig. 4.2: Neolithic tools. Source: Man-002, Block 7, Unit 1.

4.3.2 Debate about the Transition from Hunting-Gathering to

Agriculture
Various explanations have been offered regarding the origins of farming. V.
Gordon Childe argued that farming began in the Fertile Crescent (South-west
Asia) due to climatic changes. Geomorphological and climatic factors contributed
to the formation of oases separated by vast swathes of desert. These oases attracted
86
animals, humans and plant concentrations. It was this close contiguity between The Neolithic Phase
them that perhaps led to early domestication.

Robert Braidwood challenged this notion of climatic changes and has argued for
a slow, gradual evolution of food production. Farming began in nuclear zones,
those areas that had abundant animal and plant species. Change to domestication
of plants and animals occurred because the culture had reached a stage when it
became receptive to this change. Thus, transition to agriculture was largely due
to a combination of factors such as changes in human nature and environmental
circumstances.

Population dynamics has been considered as the main causal determinant in the
origins of farming by Lewis R. Binford. Agriculture was a response to
demographic tensions. Population pressures in certain sedentary groups around
9000 BCE in the Near East led to a more intensive exploitation of natural
resources, making transition to agriculture possible.

Kent Flannery believed that the beginning of agriculture was a long-drawn process
rather than an event. According to him, the seasonal movement of hunter-gatherers
was scheduled in such a way that they could exploit different plants and animals
in different eco-zones. They, thus, had access to a broad spectrum of economy
rather than a few plants and animals. Certain plants like maize and wheat
developed into hybrid varieties and could be grown at different times of the year.
Thus, the old pattern of hunting and gathering was replaced by a subsistence
pattern based on prolonged stay and food production.

According to one school of thought, culture is seen as an adaptation to natural

environment. However, culture should be seen partly as an adaptation to the
environment and partly as the result of conscious decision making by humans
along with various social and cultural factors. Trevor Watkins argued that the old
notions of economy-based transformation gave way to ‘culture and cognition’
based transformation of societies. He argued that the Epi-Palaeolithic people
came together in the first large permanent communities to form extensive
settlements which only later needed to be fed by farming. Here the argument is
not that agriculture developed as a sudden invention or event, but as a gradual
process, as a necessity to feed a large group of people. Trevor Watkins suggested
that the small-scale band-level societies in the Epi-Palaeolithic Levant became
large co-resident communities. Agriculture and animal domestication developed
later. He suggested that social and cultural factors were more important than the
economic necessities and people gave much more stress on living in large
communities leading to the development of farming.

Therefore, Neolithic revolution was, in fact, a long-drawn process, aided by social

and cultural factors, and also environmental conditions. It was not a simple one-
time invention or episode, as imagined by a few.

4.3.3 Neolithic in Global Context

The conventional conception of Neolithic period as the beginning of agriculture
and animal domestication, permanent settlements and introduction of ceramics
at a specific point of time (or as a package) might not be considered as valid.
These cultural traits, sometimes together and sometimes in isolation, developed
in various parts of the world. All the Neolithic communities were not fully
87
The Advent of Food sedentary and some of the communities were semi-sedentary and adopted nomadic
Production and Harappan
Civilization
practices as well.

Early evidence of Neolithic is found from the Fertile Crescent region covering
the Nile Valley of Egypt, Israel, Palestine, Syria and Mesopotamia; the Indus
Region and the Ganga Valley of Indian subcontinent; China and Meso-America.
By about 10,000-5,000 BCE agriculture and pastoralism emerged in many parts
of the world, leading to several cultural developments. Although agriculture has
early beginnings in many parts of the world, South-west Asia has the earliest
evidence of the development of agriculture and animal domestication. The region
of Israel, Palestine and Syria (Levant), and Turkey and Iraq witnessed early
development of Neolithic villages around the ninth millennium BCE.

4.3.4 Neolithic and Contemporary Cultures

The Neolithic culture is seen as a major turning point in human history. However,
not all regions of the world witnessed the Neolithic culture. Neolithic ways of
life appeared earlier in regions such as South-west Asia, Egypt, Europe, Meso-
America, north-western part of India, Ganga Valley in India and China and it
appeared very late in many other regions. Within India, the Neolithic culture
first appeared in north-western parts of India. In Kashmir, south India and eastern
India they appeared at a later stage. Some regions of India did not witness Neolithic
cultures at all, and the Mesolithic culture was directly succeeded by Iron Age
culture, for example in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

All the Neolithic cultures of India had a more or less similar degree of cultural
adaptation. Neolithic cultures of India were contemporary with Harappan,
Chalcolithic and microlith-using hunter-gatherers. Thus, it should be noted that
Neolithic cultures of India were not isolated cultural units. In fact, except for the
use of copper, not much difference is noticed between the Chalcolithic cultures
and Neolithic cultures.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Discuss in brief the concept of Neolithic Revolution.
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2) Discuss the main features of the debate about the transition from hunting-
gathering to agriculture.
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 The Neolithic Phase
4.4 NEOLITHIC CULTURES OF INDIA
The Neolithic cultures mark the end of the Stone Age. Neolithic of India constitutes
an important phase. A Neolithic celt was found in India in 1842 by Le Mesurie in
the Raichur district of Karnataka, and later by John Lubbock in 1867 in the
Brahmaputra valley of upper Assam. Extensive explorations and excavations
have yielded immense amount of material about the Neolithic cultures of India.
One thing to note about Indian Neolithic is that Neolithic cultures in India did
not develop everywhere at the same time, nor did they end simultaneously. There
were regional variations too. For example, there is no evidence of plant cultivation
in the north-east despite the sites yielding ‘Neolithic’ tools. In the Kashmir valley
the Neolithic cultures do not seem to have evolved out of the preceding Mesolithic
cultures like everywhere else. In terms of plant crops, wheat and barley were
predominant in Mehrgarh in Baluchistan, but rice was important in the central
region around Prayagraj. The south Indian Neolithic is unique in the sense that it
has ash mounds, with the evidence of millet cultivation. Thus, each of these
regional Neolithic traditions seem to have been conditioned by local, ecological
conditions and need to be studied separately. Broadly, however, we can say that
the Neolithic of India was a farming and pastoralism based sedentary/semi-
sedentary village culture.

Now let us discuss the clusters of Neolithic sites that are found in different parts
of India. The Neolithic sites of the Indian subcontinent or South Asia are divided
into various regional cultural groups. They are:
1) North-western region – The areas of Afghanistan and Pakistan.
2) Northern region – The region of Kashmir.
3) The Vindhyan hills and the Ganga valley – Vindhyan region of Prayagraj,
Mirzapur and the Belan river valley.
4) Mid-Eastern Ganga valley region – The area of northern part of Bihar.
5) Central Eastern region – Including the Chotta Nagpur area with Odisha and
Bengal region.
6) North-eastern region – Assam and the sub-Himalayan region.
7) Southern region – Peninsular India, mainly Andhra, Karnataka and parts of
Tamil Nadu.
We will be presenting the main features of these regional traditions individually.

4.4.1 The Neolithic Culture of North-Western Region

The Neolithic culture of north-western region covers those areas which are now
in Pakistan and Afghanistan. This region has evidence for early domestication of
wheat and barley, and animals. It is one of the earliest regions of the world which
has given combined evidence of plant and animal domestication. On the
peripheries of Central Asia, this region has the natural occurrence of bread wheat
and spelt wheat. Aegilops tauschii, one of the ancestral species of wheat, had its
natural habitat in this region. Thus, the practice of cultivation might have emerged
in this region independently.

The caves in northern Afghanistan have evidence of Mesolithic hunter-gatherers

exploiting wild sheep, cattle and goat. Wheat cultivation began in Central Asia
89
The Advent of Food and its adjoining regions. The Kacchi plains are located between the dry mountains
Production and Harappan
Civilization
and the Indus plains. The smaller valleys of this region with alluvial deposits
were ideal for cultivation and animal domestication. The important Neolithic
sites of this region are Mehrgarh in the Kacchi plains, Kili Gul Muhammad in
the Quetta valley, Rana Ghundai in the Loralai valley and Anjira in the Surab
valley. All these Neolithic sites are in Pakistan. Other important sites are Gunlan,
Rehman Dheri, Tarakai Qila and Sarai Khola.

Case Study: Mehrgarh

Mehrgarh, on the bank of river Bolan, is an important site located in the
Kacchi plains, about 150 km from Quetta in Baluchistan. This site covers
an area of 200 ha. The site has given evidence of pre-ceramic Neolithic up
to the Harappan culture.
The first cultural period of the Neolithic culture at Mehrgarh dates from c.
7000 to 5500 BCE. It is a pre-pottery Neolithic culture. The semi-nomadic,
pastoral groups began to settle at this place. These people used polished
stone axes, querns, microliths and bone tools. They did not use pottery,
but cultivated six-row barley, emmer and einkorn wheat, and domesticated
sheep, goat and cattle. Seeds of plum, dates and jujube were found at this
site suggesting gathering activities of the inhabitants. Bones of gazelle,
swamp deer, antelopes indicate that they hunted wild animals too.
They built their houses with mud and buried the dead in between the houses.
Goat bones have been found near the bodies in the burials. They have also
placed ornaments. The houses measured 2 m. × 1.8 m in size. Grinding
stones, blades have been found. Blades show evidence of bitumen
suggesting the use of hafting. Handmade female figurines have been
recovered from the site. The houses appear like storage compartments
and perhaps they were used for storing grains. They used ornaments of
sea shell, limestone, turquoise beads, lapis lazuli and sandstone. Turquoise
from Nishapur mines of Iran, Lapis Lazuli from Badakshan of Afghanistan,
and shell from the coastal regions suggest long distance interactions of
the Neolithic people of Mehrgarh. The period II at Mehrgarh dates from c.
6500 BCE to 4500 BCE and the Period III, from c. 4800 BCE to 3500
BCE. In Period II, from c. 5000 BCE, evidence for the cultivation of cotton
and grapes was observed. This period has evidence of pottery. Terracotta
figurines, glazed faience beads have been found. More frequency of the
use of ornaments was noticed among the women. Evidence of long-distance
trade is noticed as revealed by the use of Lapis Lazuli. Houses increased
in size; ivory working is also evidenced. Sickle appeared in this period.
Period III has wheel made pottery with paintings depicting human and
floral designs. More burials were noticed in this period indicating
population increase. Traces of copper working are also found in Period
III. The village was abandoned after the rise of Mature phase of the Indus
civilization.
Significance of Mehrgarh – Periods I to III provide the earliest evidence
of the transition from hunting-gathering to animal domestication and
agriculture. Barley seems to have been the most important crop.
Significantly, wild, transitional and cultivated varieties of barley have been
found. This makes this region of north Baluchistan, a natural habitat zone
of wild barley, and Mehrgarh a part of the nuclear area of barley
90
 The Neolithic Phase
domestication. Wheat has also been found. Though the evidence regarding
this region being a natural habitat for wild wheat is uncertain, the fact
remains that Mehrgarh people were domesticating wheat. There is plenty
of evidence for the transition to animal domestication at the site. The lower
levels of Period I were dominated by the remains of wild animals. The
decreasing size of cattle and sheep bones through the levels indicates that
their domestication was under way. By the end of Period I, bones of wild
animals decreased, while bones of domesticated cattle, sheep and goat
increased. Cattle predominate. In the succeeding period III, sheep, goat
bones predominate.
The site of Mehrgarh is important because it has given the earliest and
most comprehensive evidence of domestication of cattle, sheep, goat, wheat
and barley; the first combined evidence of its kind in the world.

Kili Gul Muhammed

The Neolithic site of Kili Gul Muhammed is in the Quetta valley of Pakistan.
This site has revealed three cultural periods. The Neolithic occupation at this
site dates from c. 5500 BCE to 4500 BCE, later than that of Mehrgarh. People
built wattle-and-daub and mud houses. They domesticated cattle, sheep and goat.
Basket marked pottery and black-on-red ware pottery, with painted designs similar
to Mehrgarh, occur in the Periods II and III of this site. This site has evidence of
nomadic pastoralism. Microliths have been recovered.

4.4.2 The Neolithic Culture of Northern Region (Kashmir)

The sites of northern Neolithic culture are found in Kashmir. The Neolithic culture
of Kashmir region was contemporary with the Harappan civilization. Recent
research has placed the beginning of the Neolithic culture in this region around
the late fourth millennium BCE. Excavations at Burzahom, Gufkral and Kanispur
have revealed significant materials belonging to Neolithic culture. Burzahom
and Gufkral have also revealed Megalithic and Early Historic phases.

Burzahom
Burzahom was an important site of this culture. Two cultural periods have been
identified at this site. In the Neolithic period, people lived in pit-houses
(subterranean dwellings, about 4 m in depth) in order to escape from the extreme
cold weather of the Kashmir region. The pit houses were oval in shape, and they
were broader at the bottom and narrower on the top. Post-holes which were used
for constructing a thatched roof structure were found around the pit houses. The
houses were accessed by ladders and steps. They produced coarse handmade
pottery. Storage pits were found near the dwellings. They used tools such as
stone axes, chisels, adzes, pounders, mace-heads, points and picks. They used
scrapers for working on animal skins. Awls were used for stitching the skins into
clothes to adjust to the cold weather. Harpoons, needles and arrow heads made
of bones were used. A stone depicting engraved image of a hunting scene, the
sun and a dog has been found from this site.

These people were involved in hunting, fishing and also limited agriculture.
Evidence of grain storage has been found. A perforated harvester with decoration
has been found at Burzahom. Period II has agate and carnelian beads; Kot Diji
phase pottery depicting a horned deity is an important find. A burial at this site 91
The Advent of Food produced a wild dog bone and antler horn. Seeds of wheat (Triticum sp.), barley
Production and Harappan
Civilization
(Hordeum vulgare), common pea (Pisum arvense L.) and lentil (Lens culinaris)
have been recovered from the excavations. The domesticated animals include
cattle, sheep, goat, pig, dog and fowl. Wild animal bones of red deer, Kashmir
stag, ibex, bear and wolf suggest that they hunted wild animals too for their
subsistence.

Gufkral
The site of Gufkral has evidence of three cultural phases. Settlement started at
this site around 3000 BCE and evidence of pit dwellings has been found. Bones
of sheep, goat, deer, ibex, wolf and bear suggest their dependence on pastoralism
and hunting. Polished stone tools, querns, horn tools and steatite beads reveal
information about the material culture. The site is dated to c.1300 BCE.
The Neolithic culture of Kashmir is considered to have had connections with the
East-Asian Neolithic culture of the Yang Shao phase. Stone knife-harvesters with
perforation recorded at Kashmir valley have parallels in north and central China
with Yang Shao and Lung Shan complexes and the Jomon phase of Japan and
Korea. The Kashmir Neolithic has some distinctive characteristics such as pit
dwellings, use of ‘harvesters’, bone tools made on antlers, dog burials and the
use of red ochre on dead bodies.

4.4.3 The Neolithic Culture of the Vindhyan Hills, the Belan and
the Ganga River Valleys
The Belan river valley witnessed one of the earliest Neolithic occupations in
India. The river Belan flows at the northern edge of the Vindhyan and the Kaimur
hills. This river is a tributary of the river Tons which joins the Ganga near
Prayagaraj (UP). This region has a rich environment, since it falls in the monsoon
area. It has several wild animals and wild rice species. Transition from food
gathering to food production is noticed in this region. The sites of Chopani-
Mando, Koldihwa, Lehuradeva and Mahagara in the Ganga valley are the
important excavated sites of this region. These sites have given evidence of wattle-
and-daub houses, post-holes, microlithic tools, querns, pestles and underfired
hand-made ceramics. The principal ware is ‘corded ware’ or cord impressed ware
which includes bowls and storage jars. The people were engaged in farming and
animal husbandry. Bones of cattle, sheep, goat, deer, turtles and fish have also
been recovered. At Mahagara, evidence of domesticated rice has been found.
This is in the form of carbonised grains as well as rice husks embedded in the
pottery.
Evidence of rice cultivation from Neolithic sites of Central India is mired in
controversy. While some scholars believe that this evidence from Koldihwa puts
it at par with China in terms of chronology, others believe that the dates need to
be re-examined. One possibility that has been suggested is that rice cultivation
may have travelled along with the migrants from South China to Central India.
Some, however, argue that Central India was an independent centre of rice
cultivation.

4.4.4 The Neolithic Culture of Mid-Eastern Ganga Valley Region

Chirand (on the banks of the river Ghagra in district Saran), Chechar, Senuwar
(near Sasaram) and Taradip have produced evidence for settlements dating from
92
about 2000 BCE. Senuwar has produced evidence of cultivated rice, barley, field The Neolithic Phase
pea (Pisum sativum), lentil and millets. The site of Chirand has produced evidence
of mud floors, pottery, microliths, polished stone axes and terracotta human
figurines. Several bones tools have also been noticed at these sites. People at
Chirand lived in circular and semicircular houses with wattle-and-daub walls;
post holes have been found. Plant remains of rice, wheat, barley, moong and
lentil have been recovered from this site. Perhaps double cropping system existed.
Terracotta figurines of humped bull, birds, and snakes, bangles and beads and
slingstones have been unearthed.

The Neolithic sites of this region also have evidence for transition to the
Chalcolithic as revealed at Sohagaura, Imlidih Khurd, Chirand, Chechar and
Senuwar. The introduction of copper seems to have occurred around the second
half of the third millennium BCE in this region.

4.4.5 The Neolithic Culture of Central-Eastern Region

The Neolithic sites are found at many places in the region of West Bengal and
Odisha. Birbhanpur is an important Neolithic site of this region. The eastern
Indian Neolithic sites have evidence of shouldered axes, pointed-butt celts, and
chisels. Kuchai, Golbaisasan and Sankarjang are some of the important Neolithic
sites of this region. These cultures show similarities with the Neolithic complexes
of east and Southeast Asia. Mace heads, pounders, coarse red ware, cord impressed
pottery, floors, postholes and bones have been found. At Pandu Rajar Dhibi
Neolithic culture had emerged from Mesolithic context.

4.4.6 The Neolithic Culture of North-Eastern India

The hills of Assam and North Chachar, the Garo and Naga hills are high rainfall
areas. Marakdola, Daojali Hading and Sarutaru are the Neolithic sites of Assam
region. Shouldered celts, ground axes of round type and cord-impressed or paddle-
impressed pottery with quartz inclusions are the common finds.

In north-eastern India, the Neolithic culture belongs to a slightly later period.

This region today has evidence for shifting cultivation, cultivation of yams and
taro, building stone and wooden memorials for the dead, and the presence of
Austro-Asiatic languages. This region shows cultural affinities with Southeast
Asia.

4.4.7 The Neolithic Culture of South India

The Neolithic cultures of South India are found mainly in Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka and north-western part of Tamil Nadu. Kupgal, Budihal, Kodekal,
Kudatini, Sanganakallu, T.Narsipur, and Brahmagiri are the Neolithic sites of
South India. In Tamil Nadu the site of Paiyyampalli has produced evidence of
Neolithic culture. More than 200 Neolithic sites have been identified as part of
the Neolithic complex of South India. The sites are found near the granite hills
with water sources. They occur in the river valleys of Godavari, Krishna, Penneru,
Tungabhadra and Kaveri. Sanganakallu, Kodekal, Budihal, Tekkalakota,
Brahmagiri, Maski, T.Narsipur, Piklihal, Watkal, Hemmige and Hallur in
Karnataka; Utnur, Pallavoy, Nagarjunakonda, Ramapuram and Veerapuram in
Andhra Pradesh; and Paiyyampalli in Tamil Nadu are the notable sites.
93
The Advent of Food Some of the early Neolithic sites have ash mounds. Cow dung was periodically
Production and Harappan
Civilization
burnt for a long period of time. These sites might have acted as cattle pens and
the cow dung was burnt periodically for various reasons. Utnur and Pallvoy in
Andhra Pradesh; Kodekal, Kupgal and Budihal in Karnataka are the ash mound
sites. Since the cow dung was burnt repeatedly, the ash is vitrified and looks like
volcanic ash. Soft ash and decomposed cow dung layers are also noticed. The
evidence of habitation in the form of houses and burials are found around the ash
mounds. They buried the dead people within the houses.

Ashmounds
Neolithic culture of South India is the most extensive one among the regional
Neolithic traditions of India. It covers Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil
Nadu. Ashmounds are a distinctive feature, albeit a problematic one, of some
of the South Indian Neolithic sites. A well over a hundred sites have been
discovered in southern Deccan constituting the districts of Bellary, Raichur,
Bijapur, Gulbarga and Belgaum in north Karnataka; Kurnool, Mahbubnagar,
Anantpur districts of Rayalseema region of Andhra Pradesh.
Detailed investigations conducted at the ash mound site of Budihal in north
Karnataka, by Professor K. Paddayya, have revealed that ash mounds were
functioning as regular, Neolithic pastoral settlements. They are an example
of adaptation of a food producing community to semi-arid climatic
conditions, hilly terrain, not suitable for plant cultivation. Several
interpretations have been put forward regarding the ash deposits. Early
workers based their interpretations on the basis of local legends which
considered these ash mounds as cremation grounds of Rakshasas or demons
of the Mahabharata. Second view regarded them as geological deposits of
kankar formations or volcanic ash. Another set of views saw them as physical
remains of mass sati conducted by women in the medieval period who had
lost their husbands in the wars between the Vijayanagara kingdom and Delhi
Sultanate. Another view regards them as ash deposits associated with
industrial activity like iron smelting, gold smelting, brick making, pottery
making etc. It was Robert Bruce Foote who noticed the closeness of these
ash mounds to the Neolithic settlements and called them Neolithic in
character. F. R. Allchin’s excavations at Utnur in Mehbubnagar district in
the 1960s confirmed Foote’s conclusions. He, however, believed them to be
cow pens, and distinguished them from human settlement sites. His
conclusions are based on the evidence of cattle hoof impressions and stockade
preparations found at Utnur. He argued that ash mounds represent several
stages in the making. In each formation, the surface was levelled, stockades
were made, cattle were penned, cow dung was collected and burnt leading
to the formation of ash deposits. The dung was not accidentally burnt as
claimed by Foote but intentionally burnt. This was part of the Neolithic fire
cult meant to promote the fertility of the cattle herds. Extensive horizontal
excavations at the site of Budihal led Professor K. Paddayya to question
Allchin’s differentiation of the ash mounds from settlement sites. He felt
that they, indeed, were cattle penning areas, though ash mounds should be
regarded as full-fledged pastoral settlements having cultic significance. His
investigations revealed that ash mound sites like Budihal were larger and
more conspicuous then the smaller sites in the region. Budihal was probably
functioning as a congregational hub similar to the present day cattle fairs.
Significant socio-cultural transactions may have taken place here. The
94
 The Neolithic Phase
extensive chert workshop found at the site indicates that chert artefacts,
blades could have been exchanged or traded on these occasions.
Source: K. Paddayya, 2000-01. The Problem of Ashmounds of Southern
Deccan in Light of Budihal Excations, Karnataka. Bulletin of The Deccan
College Post-Graduate and Research Institute 60/61: 189-225.

The Neolithic people of South India had an agro-pastoral economy. They had
domesticated cattle (Bos indicus), buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), sheep (Ovis aries),
goat (Capra hircus aegagrus), pig (Sus scrofa cristatus), dog (Canis familiaris)
and fowls (Gallus sp.). Cattle were their main source of economy. Terracotta
figurines of cattle have also been found.

The Neolithic people cultivated plants mainly millets, pulses and legumes.
Evidence of the cultivation of finger millet (Eleusine coracana), kodo millet
(Paspalum scrobiculatum), horse gram (Dolichos biflorus), green gram (Vigna
radiata), black gram (Phaseolus mungo) and hyacinth bean (Dolichos lablab) is
present. Barley (Hordeum vulgare) and rice (Oryza sativa) have been found at
very few sites.

The Neolithic people mainly used polished stone axes and lithic blades, choppers,
knives, scrapers and other tools. Copper and bronze artefacts are found in the
later context. They used querns for grinding grains, built thatched houses, and
used handmade grey and brown burnished ware. A few of the pottery had painted
designs, but they are very limited in number.

The site of Budihal (Hunsgi valley) is in Karnataka. This ash mound settlement
site has given evidence of child burial, cattle butchering place, houses and human
burials. Evidence of water harvesting has been identified.

4.5 SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND BELIEF

SYSTEM
The evidence for understanding the social organization of the Neolithic people
is very limited. People began to live in sedentary and semi sedentary settlements.
They perhaps had tribe level social organization. The idea of land and plant
ownership emerged, as they domesticated plants and animals. The presence of
small houses may suggest nuclear families. The ceramics and beads suggest the
improvement in material cultural production. People had demarcated certain
territories. The dead were buried within the houses and sometimes, animal burials
are also found. They suggest the adoption of certain rituals and the worship of
the dead. They may have worshipped the natural forces. Evidence of art objects
is limited; the terracotta images of cattle suggest some fertility cult.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) Mark ‘×’ for wrong answer and for the right answer:
i) Burzahom has evidence of pit houses. ( )
ii) Mehrgarh may have been one of the independent centres of ( )
animal and plant domestication in the world.
iii) Kashmir Neolithic sites show possible evidence of contacts ( )
with the Neolithic sites of West Asia and China. 95
The Advent of Food iv) The South Indian Neolithic sites have evidence of rock ( )
Production and Harappan
Civilization
bruising nearby and human burials within the houses.
v) The shouldered celts do not show resemblance with ( )
Southeast Asian materials.
vi) The north-eastern Indian Neolithic sites show no evidence ( )
of contacts with Southeast Asia.
vii) Cord marked pottery is a characteristic feature of the ( )
Vindhyan-Ganga valley Neolithic sites and also evidence
of rice is not found here.
2) Fill in the blanks
i) The Neolithic cultures saw................................................... (gradual,
sudden) development of agriculture and pastoralism in a few parts of
the world.
ii) The earliest evidence of plant domestication is found in ..................
.................................. (Epi-Palaeolithic/Chalcolithic) cultures in the
region around ...................................... (Israel, Pakistan).
iii) One school of thought, which is against the adaptive notion of culture,
argues that settled life in south-west Asia began in the pre-Neolithic
period, indicating ................................. (cultural factors/environmental)
playing a major role in the Neolithic developments.
iv) Catal Huyuk and Jarmo are, respectively, in .....................................
(Turkey/Iran) and ................................... (Iraq/Syria).

4.6 SUMMARY
This Unit has presented details about the definition, nature and characteristics of
the Neolithic cultures. The transition from hunting-gathering to food-producing,
in fact, brought about important changes in social and cultural development. The
foundations for the earliest Indian villages were laid in the Neolithic times.

India witnessed the Neolithic cultures in different parts. The Neolithic culture of
the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent at Mehrgarh has produced the
earliest evidence of plant and animal domestication. Kashmir Neolithic sites
have evidence of pit dwellings. These sites show contacts with the Harappan
sites and the cultures of East Asia and West Asia. The Belan valley Neolithic
sites have cord-marked pottery and produced evidence for transition from hunting-
gathering to agriculture. The sites of Vindhyan hills and the mid-Ganga valley
are slightly later in date and show evidence of plant and animal domestication.
The sites of eastern and north-Eastern India show traits of shouldered axes often
noticed in Southeast Asia. Cord marked and paddle impressed potteries are found
at these sites. The Neolithic sites of South India have ash mounds in the early
stages and evidence of plant and animal domestication is found.

4.7 KEY WORDS

AMSL : Above Mean Sea Level.

96 Anthropomorphic : Human related.

Epi-Palaeolithic : It refers to the end of the Palaeolithic period. The Neolithic Phase

Holocene : The recent age that began around 11,500 years

BP.
Hunting-gathering : A mode of subsistence. Hunting, collecting and
trapping of animals, birds, molluscs and fish.
Gathering of plant foods such as fruits, nuts,
leaves, stems and roots.
Nomadic : Moving from place to place.
OSL dating : Optically Stimulated Luminescence Dating.
Pleistocene : The first epoch of the Quaternary period. It
succeeded the Pliocene and preceded the
Holocene age.
Proto-Neolithic : The cultures that preceded the Neolithic culture.
Sedentism : It refers to the permanent settlement of people at
one place or year-long residence at a specific
location.
Semi-sedentary : Migrant communities living at a site in a specific
season of the year.
Shifting Cultivation : Burning of forest and undertaking cultivation at
the plot. The area of cultivation is shifted to the
next plot, after one season of cultivation.
Wattle-and-Daub : A type of house walls in which the wooden frames
are covered with mud. The traces of these walls
are found sometimes when these walls are burnt
accidentally, leaving behind the impression of the
wooden frames. The Neolithic sites have produced
remains of such houses.
Ice Age : The Ice Age began about 2.6 million years ago
when the Pleistocene age began. It ended with
the Pleistocene age.
Zoomorphic : Animal related.

4.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) See Sub-section 4.3.1
2) See Sub-section 4.3.2
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
3) i) () ii) () iii) () iv) ()
v) (×) vi) (×) vii) ()
4) i) gradual, ii) Epi-Palaeolithic, Israel,
iii) cultural factors, iv) Turkey, Iraq
97
The Advent of Food
Production and Harappan 4.9 SUGGESTED READINGS
Civilization
Allchin Bridget and Raymond (1989). The Rise of Civilization in India and
Pakistan. Delhi: Select Book Service Syndicate.
Chakrabarty, D. K. (2006). The Oxford Companion to Indian Archaeology: The
Archaeological Foundations of Ancient India. Stone Age to AD 13th century.
Oxford University Press.
Paddayya, K. (1973). Investigations into the Neolithic Culture of the Shorapur
Doab, South India. Leiden: Brill.
Sankalia, H. D. (1974). Prehistory and Protohistory in India and Pakistan. Pune:
Deccan College.
Upinder Singh (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the
Stone Age to the 12th Century. Delhi: Pearson and Longman.

Web Resources
http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2017/06/carved-human-skulls-found-ancient-
stone-temple
10.1146/annurev.anthro.31.040402.085416.
Doi: 10.1007/s10963-006-9006-8
Doi: http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/084/ant0840621.htm
Doi: http://www.homepages.ucl.ac.uk/~tcrndfu/web_project/arch_back.html
Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/02666030.1998.9628556

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