2021

EET 204 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY

ASST.PROF.SREELEKSHMI.S

MODULE-4
Wave Equations from Maxwell's Equations:
• Uniform Plane Waves,
• Wave equations inPhasor form;
• Propagation of Uniform Plane waves in free space, loss-less and lossy
dielectric medium,
• Uniform Plane waves in good conductor;
• Skin effect and skin depth,
• Phase velocity and Groupvelocity, Intrinsic Impedance, Attenuation constant
andPropagation Constant in all medium;
• Poynting Vector and Poynting Theorem
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES (EM WAVES)
• Waves are means of transporting energy or information.
• EM wave can be defined as, A radiant energy flow produced by oscillations of an electric
charge.
• EM waves consist of vibrating electric and magnetic fields that move at the speed of light
(in a vacuum) and are at right angles to each other and to the direction of motion.
All forms of EM energy share three fundamental characteristics
i) They all travel at high velocity
ii) In travelling, they assume the properties of waves
iii) They radiate outward from a source.
PLANE WAVES AND UNIFORM PLANE WAVES
An electromagnetic wave originating from a point in free-space, spreads out uniformly in all
directions, and it forms a spherical wave. An observer at a great distance from the source is able
to observe only a small part of the wave in his immediate vicinity and it appears to him as a
plane wave.
Plane waves in free space is represented as,
𝑬 = 𝐸0 cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧)𝒂𝑥
𝐸0
𝑯 = 𝐻0 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧) 𝒂𝑦 = cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧) 𝒂𝑦
𝜂0
Plotting E and H and considering aE , aH , and ak as the unit vectors along the E field, H field
and the direction of propagation respectively. It is shown that,
𝒂𝑘 × 𝒂𝐸 = 𝒂𝐻 ⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑜𝑟⁡⁡⁡𝒂𝑘 × 𝒂𝐻 = −𝒂𝐸⁡ ⁡⁡𝑜𝑟⁡⁡⁡𝒂𝐸 × 𝒂𝐻 = 𝒂𝑘⁡
As E, H and direction of propagation are perpendicular to each other.
Properties
1) At every point in space, the electric vector field E and magnetic vector field H are perpendicular
to each other and to the direction of propagation.

This means that the fields lie in a plane transverse or orthogonal to the direction of wave
propagation. They form an EM wave that has no electric or magnetic field components along the
direction of propagation. Such a wave is called Transverse Electromagnetic wave (TEM
wave).
2) A uniform plane wave is one in which the E and H lie in a plane and have the same value
everywhere in that plane at any fixed instant.

3) A uniform plane wave cannot exist physically because it stretches to infinity and would represent
an infinite energy.

4) A uniform plane wave is a particular solution of Maxwell’s equations with E assuming the same
direction, same magnitude and same phase in infinite planes perpendicular to the direction of
propagation. Similar is the case with H.

1
5) Velocity of propagation in free space is given by c = = 3  10 8 m / s and in free space,
 0 0
charge and current densities is zero everywhere. Whatever may the frequency, the
electromagnetic wave travels in space with velocity of light.
 6) E and H oscillates in phase and ratio of their amplitude is constant being equal to 120π or 377 or

0
0

WAVE EQUATION IN PHASOR FORM

Maxwell’s equations are solved to derive EM wave motion in the following media:
1) Free Space [σ=0, ε=ε0, µ=µ0]
2) Lossless Dielectric [σ=0, ε=ε0εr, µ=µ0µr orσ<<ωε]
3) Lossy Dielectric [σ≠0, ε=ε0εr, µ=µ0µr]
4) Good Conductors [σ≈∞, ε=ε0, µ=µ0µr orσ>>ωε]
ω is the angular frequency of the wave.
Lossy Dielectric is considered as the general case and is therefore solved first. From there, the
other cases are derived as special cases by changing the values of σ, ε, µ.
(i)WAVE PROPAGATION IN LOSSY DIELECTRIC
A lossy dielectric is a medium in which an EM wave loses power as it propagates due to poor
conduction. It is a partially conducting medium (imperfect dielectric or imperfect conductor)
with σ≠0.
Consider a charge free lossy dielectric medium, 𝜌𝑉 = 0
Time harmonic Maxwell’s equations becomes,
∇ ∙ 𝑫𝑠 = 𝜌𝑉𝑠
∇ ∙ 𝑫𝑠 = 0
𝑫𝑠 = 𝜀𝑬𝑠
∇ ∙ 𝜀𝑬𝑠 = 0
Therefore, ∇ ∙ 𝑬𝑠 = 0 -----------(1)
∇ ∙ 𝑩𝑠 = 0
𝑩𝑠 = 𝜇𝑯𝑠
∇ ∙ 𝜇𝑯𝑠 = 0
Therefore, ∇ ∙ 𝑯𝑠 = 0 -------------(2)
∇ × 𝑬𝑠 = −𝑗𝜔𝑩𝑠
Therefore, ∇ × 𝑬𝑠 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇𝑯𝑠 ------------------(3)
 ∇ × 𝑯𝑠 = 𝑱𝑠 + 𝑗𝜔𝑫𝑠
𝑱𝑠 = 𝜎𝑬𝑠
∇ × 𝑯𝑠 = 𝜎𝑬𝑠 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀𝑬𝑠
Therefore, ∇ × 𝑯𝑠 = (𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀)𝑬𝑠 -------------------(4)
Taking curl on both sides of equation (3), ∇ × ∇ × 𝑬𝑠 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇∇ × 𝑯𝑠 -------------------(5)
Applying the vector identity,
∇ × ∇ × 𝐀 = ∇(∇ ∙ 𝐀) − ∇2 𝐀
∇ × ∇ × 𝐄s = ∇(∇ ∙ 𝐄s ) − ∇2 𝐄s -----------------(6)
Apply equation (6) to (5), ∇(∇ ∙ 𝐄s ) − ∇2 𝐄𝐬 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇∇ × 𝑯𝑠 -------------(7)
Apply equation (4) to (7), ∇(∇ ∙ 𝐄s ) − ∇2 𝐄s = −𝑗𝜔𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀)𝑬𝑠 ------------------(8)
Apply equation (1) to (8), ∇2 𝐄s − 𝛾 2 𝑬𝑠 = 0 -----------(9)
Equation (9) is called wave equation in terms of E, where𝛾 2 = 𝑗𝜔𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀) -------------(10)

γ is called the propagation constant of the medium.Similarly we can derive wave equation in
terms of H.
Taking curl on both sides of equation (4), ∇ × ∇ × 𝑯𝑠 = (𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀)∇ × 𝑬𝑠 -------------------(11)
Applying the vector identity,
∇ × ∇ × 𝐀 = ∇(∇ ∙ 𝐀) − ∇2 𝐀
∇ × ∇ × 𝐇s = ∇(∇ ∙ 𝐇s ) − ∇2 𝐇s -----------------(12)
Apply equation (12) to (11), ∇(∇ ∙ 𝐇s ) − ∇2 𝐇s = (𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀)∇ × 𝑬𝑠 -------------(13)
Apply equation (3) to (13), ∇(∇ ∙ 𝐇s ) − ∇2 𝐇s = −𝑗𝜔𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀)𝑯𝑠 ------------------(14)
Apply equation (2) to (14), ∇2 𝐇s − 𝛾 2 𝑯𝑠 = 0 -----------(15)
Equation (15) is called wave equation in terms of H
Solution of wave equation:

Assuming that the wave propagates along 𝒂𝑧 and that ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐸𝑠 has only x-component, then
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑠 = 𝐸𝑥𝑠 (𝑧)𝑎
̂𝑥 --------------(15)
From (9), ∇2 𝐄s − 𝛾 2 𝑬𝑠 = 0 → (∇2 − 𝛾 2 )𝑬𝑠 = 0 ------------(16)
Substituting (15) into (16), (∇2 − 𝛾 2 )𝐸𝑥𝑠 (𝑧) = 0
𝜕2 𝐸𝑥𝑠 (𝑧) 𝜕2 𝐸𝑥𝑠 (𝑧) 𝜕2 𝐸𝑥𝑠 (𝑧)
+ + − 𝛾 2 𝐸𝑥𝑠 (𝑧) = 0------------(17)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

𝜕2 𝐸𝑥𝑠 (𝑧) 𝜕2 𝐸𝑥𝑠 (𝑧)

Since, =⁡ =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
Therefore,
𝜕2 𝐸𝑥𝑠 (𝑧)
− 𝛾 2 𝐸𝑥𝑠 (𝑧) = 0------------(18)
𝜕𝑧 2
This is a scalar wave equation, a linear homogeneous differential equation with solution
𝐸𝑥𝑠 (𝑧) = 𝐸0 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝐸0′ 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 ------------------------(19)

Where E0 and E0’ are constants.

The field must be finite at infinity. Therefore at z=∞, the term E0’eγz becomes ∞, which is not
possible and therefore E0’=0. Also the term eγz demotes a wave travelling along -az , termed the
backward wave and the term e-γz forms the forward wave. As we assume the wave propagation
along az , E0’=0. Therefore in both the conditions E0’=0.
Equation (19) becomes, 𝐸𝑥𝑠 (𝑧) = 𝐸0 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 --------------(20)
Inserting the time factor ejωt into (20)
𝐸𝑥𝑠 (𝑧)𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 = 𝐸0 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡
Therefore,

𝑬(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒⁡[𝐸𝑥𝑧 (𝑧)𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝒂𝑥 ]

𝑬(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒⁡[𝐸0 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝒂𝑥 ]

But 𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽

𝑬(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒⁡[𝐸0 𝑒 −(𝛼+𝑗𝛽)𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝒂𝑥 ]

𝑬(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒⁡[𝐸0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡−𝛽𝑧) 𝒂𝑥 ]

𝑬(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐸0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧)𝒂𝑥 ------------------(21)

Similarly, solving (15), H(z,t) can be obtained,

𝑯(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒⁡[𝐻0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡−𝛽𝑧) 𝒂𝑦 ]

𝑯(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐻0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧)𝒂𝑦 ------------------(22)

H is travelling in +z direction only and has component perpendicular to E. From equations (21)
and (22), as the wave propagates along az , it decreases or attenuates in amplitude by a factor e-αz.
Propagation Constant, AttenuationConstant and Phase Constant:
Propagation constant, γ is a complex quantity, 𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 --------------(23)

From equation (10), 𝛾 2 = 𝑗𝜔𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀)which implies 𝛾 = √𝑗𝜔𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀)

From equation (10), 𝛾 2 = 𝑗𝜔𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀) = −𝜔2 𝜇𝜀 + 𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜎

|𝛾 2 | = √(−𝜔 2 𝜇𝜀)2 + (𝜔𝜇𝜎)2 = 𝜔𝜇√𝜎 2 + 𝜔 2 𝜀 2 ----------------(24)

𝑅𝑒(𝛾 2 ) = −𝜔2 𝜇𝜀 ------------(25)

From equation (23), 𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽
𝛾 2 = (𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽)2 = 𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 + 𝑗2𝛼𝛽

|𝛾 2 | = √(𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 )2 + (2𝛼𝛽)2 = √((𝛼 + 𝛽)(𝛼 − 𝛽))2 + 4𝛼 2 𝛽 2 = 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 --------(26)

𝑅𝑒(𝛾 2 ) = 𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 -------------(27)
Equating equations, (24) and (26)

𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = 𝜔𝜇√𝜎 2 + 𝜔 2 𝜀 2 -------------(28)
Equating equations, (25) and (27)
𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 = −𝜔2 𝜇𝜀 -------------------(29)
From equations (28) and (29)

𝜇𝜀 𝜎 2
𝛼 = 𝜔√ 2 [√(𝜔𝜀) + 1 − 1] -----------------(30)

𝜇𝜀 𝜎 2
𝛽 = 𝜔√ 2 [√(𝜔𝜀) + 1 + 1] ------------------(31)

α is known as the attenuation constant or attenuation factor of the medium. It is a measure of the
spatial rate of decay of the wave in the medium, measured in nepers per meter (Np/m) or in
decibels per meter (dB/m). β is a measure of the phase shift per length and is called the phase
constant or wave number (β is also denoted as k).

Wavelength :

2𝜋
𝜆= 𝛽
Phase Velocity/Velocity of Propagation/Wave velocity and Group Velocity:

Intrinsic Impedance:
We know that,
𝐸0 𝑗𝜔𝜇
𝜂= = -----------------(32)
𝐻0 𝛾

But 𝛾 2 = 𝑗𝜔𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀)which implies 𝛾 = √𝑗𝜔𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀)

Therefore,

𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝑗𝜔𝜇

𝜂= = =√
𝛾 √𝑗𝜔𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀) (𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀)

η is a complex quantity known as the intrinsic impedance (in ohms) of the medium. Therefore,

𝑗𝜔𝜇
𝜂 = √𝜎+𝑗𝜔𝜀 = |𝜂|∠𝜃𝜂 = |𝜂|𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝜂 ----------------------------(33)

Where
𝜇
√𝜀
|𝜂| = 1
2 4
𝜎
[1 + (𝜔𝜀) ] ……….(34)

𝜎
tan 2𝜃𝜂 =
𝜔𝜀
We have 𝑬(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐸0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧)𝒂𝑥 and 𝑯(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐻0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧)𝒂𝑦
𝐸0⁡ 𝐸0
But 𝐻0 = =| 𝑗𝜃
𝜂 𝜂|𝑒 𝜂

Therefore, rewriting equation

𝑯(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒⁡[𝐻0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡−𝛽𝑧) 𝒂𝑦 ]

𝐸0
We got,𝑯(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒⁡ [ 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡−𝛽𝑧) 𝒂𝑦 ]
|𝜂|𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝜂

𝐸0
𝑯(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒⁡ [ 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡−𝛽𝑧) 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃𝜂 𝒂𝑦 ]
|𝜂|

𝐸0
𝑯(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧 − 𝜃𝜂 )𝒂𝑦
|𝜂|
The above equation shows that E and H are out of phase by θη at any instant of time due to the
complex intrinsic impedance of the medium. Therefore, at any time E leads H or H lags E.
(ii)PLANE WAVES IN PERFECT DIELECTRICS OR LOSSLESS DIELECTRICS
𝜎
For lossless dielectric,σ<<ωε, therefore,
𝜔𝜀<<1
σ≈0, ε=ε0εr, and µ=µ0µr

Substituting these conditions in 𝛾 = √𝑗𝜔𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀) ,We get 𝛾 = √𝑗 2 𝜔 2 𝜇𝜀 =𝑗𝜔√𝜇𝜀 ……….(35)

But
𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽…….(36)
Therefore Comparing (35) and (36)
𝛼 = 0 and ⁡𝛽 = 𝜔√𝜇𝜀
𝜔 1
Phase velocity, 𝑢 = =
𝛽 √𝜇𝜀
𝑑𝜔 1
Group Velocity, 𝑣𝑔 = =
𝑑𝛽 √𝜇𝜀

2𝜋
Wavelength,𝜆 =
𝛽
Intrinsic Impedance
𝜇
√𝜀 𝜇
|𝜂| = 1 =√
𝜎 2 4
𝜀
[1 + (𝜔𝜀) ]

𝜎
tan 2𝜃𝜂 = = 0⁡𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ⁡𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠⁡𝜃𝜂 = 0
𝜔𝜀
𝜇
Therefore, 𝜂 = |𝜂|∠𝜃𝜂 = √ 𝜀 ∠00

Therefore, E and H are in time phase with each other.

(iii) PLANE WAVES IN FREE SPACE

σ=0, ε=ε0, and µ=µ0
Substituting these conditions in

𝛾 = √𝑗𝜔𝜇 (𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀) ,We get 𝛾 = √𝑗 2 𝜔 2 𝜇0 𝜀0 =𝑗𝜔√𝜇0 𝜀0 ……….(35)

But
𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽…….(36)
Therefore Comparing (35) and (36), Attenuation and Phase constant are given as

𝛼 = 0 and ⁡𝛽 = 𝜔√𝜇0 𝜀0

Phase Velocity
𝜔 1 1 108 𝑚
𝑢= = = = 2.99 × =𝑐
𝛽 √𝜇0 𝜀0 √4𝜋 × 10−7 × 8.85 × 10−12 𝑠

Therefore, Phase constant can be rewritten as

𝜔
𝛽 = 𝜔√𝜇0 𝜀0 =
𝑐
Group velocity
𝑑𝜔 1 108 𝑚
𝑣𝑔 = = = 2.99 × =𝑐
𝑑𝛽 √𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑠
c ≈ 3x108m/s the speed of light in vacuum. This proves the fact that EM wave travels in free
space at the speed of light.
2𝜋
Wavelength 𝜆 = 𝛽

Intrinsic impedance
𝜇
√𝜀 𝜇0
|𝜂| = 1 =√ = |𝜂0 |
𝜎 2 4
𝜀0
[1 + (𝜔𝜀) ]

𝜎
tan 2𝜃𝜂 = = 0𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ⁡𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠⁡𝜃𝜂 = 0
𝜔𝜀

𝜇0 0 4𝜋 × 10−7
𝜂 = ⁡𝜂0 = |𝜂0 |∠𝜃𝜂 = √ ∠0 = √ ≅ 377Ω = 120𝜋
𝜀0 8.85 × 10−12

𝜂0 is called the intrinsic impedance of free space

Here, E and H are in time phase with each other.

(iv) PLANE WAVES IN GOOD CONDUCTORS

𝜎
For good conductors, σ>>ωε, therefore, →∞
𝜔𝜀
σ ≈ ∞ , ε=ε0, and µ=µ0µr
Substituting these conditions in

𝜇𝜀 𝜎 2
𝛼 = 𝜔√ [√( ) + 1 − 1]
2 𝜔𝜀

𝜇𝜀 𝜎 2
𝛽 = 𝜔√ [√( ) + 1 + 1]
2 𝜔𝜀

We got
 𝜔𝜇𝜎 𝜔𝜇𝜎
𝛼=√ = √𝜋𝑓𝜇𝜎 and ⁡𝛽 = √ = √𝜋𝑓𝜇𝜎
2 2

i.e., α=β
Phase velocity

𝜔 2𝜔
𝑢= =√
𝛽 𝜇𝜎

Group Velocity,
𝑑𝜔
𝑣𝑔 =
𝑑𝛽
Wavelength,
2𝜋
𝜆=
𝛽
From equations
𝜇
√𝜀
|𝜂| = 1
𝜎 2 4
[1 + (𝜔𝜀) ]

𝜎
tan 2𝜃𝜂 =
𝜔𝜀
𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝜔𝜇
We got, 𝜂 = √ = |𝜂|∠𝜃𝜂 = √ 𝜎 ∠450
𝜎

Therefore, E leads H by 450.

𝑬 = 𝐸0 e−αz cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧)𝒂𝑥
𝐸0
𝑯 = 𝐻0 e−αz cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧 − 450 ) 𝒂𝑦 = e−αz cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧 − 450 ) 𝒂𝑦
𝜔𝜇
√𝜎

As E and H travels in a conducting medium, its amplitude is attenuated by a factor e−αz

Depth of penetration (Skin Depth)
The depth of penetration may be defined as that depth in which the wave has been attenuated by
amount 1/e or 37% approximately of its initial value. It is denoted by δ. As the amplitude
decreases exponentially by a factor e − z , at a distance z which makes  z = 1 , the amplitude is
only (1/e) times its original value at z = 0. According to this definition, this distance is depth of
penetration δ.

𝐸0 𝑒 −𝛼𝛿 = 𝐸0 𝑒 −1
1
𝛿=
𝛼
The skin depth is a measure of the depth to which an EM wave can penetrate the medium.

For good conductors,

2 1
𝛿=√ =√
𝜔𝜇𝜎 𝜋𝑓𝜇𝜎

𝜔𝜇 𝑗𝜋 2𝜋𝑓𝜇 𝑗𝜋
𝜂=√ 𝑒 4=√ 𝑒 4
𝜎 𝜎

1 𝜋 1 𝜋 𝜋 1
𝜂= √2𝑒 𝑗 4 = √2 (cos + 𝑗 sin ) = (1 + 𝑗)
𝜎𝛿 𝜎𝛿 4 4 𝜎𝛿
z 𝑧
𝑬 = 𝐸0 e−δ cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 − )𝒂𝑥
𝛿

δ measures the exponential damping of the wave as it travels through the conductor. The skin
depth decreases with increase in frequency. Thus, E and H can hardly propagate through good
conductors. The phenomenon whereby field intensity in a conductor rapidly decreases is known
as skin effect. The fields and associated currents are confined to a very thin layer (the skin) of
the conductor surface.
POYNTING THEOREM AND POYNTING VECTOR
“Poynting Theorem states that the vector product of Electric field intensity vector E and
magnetic field intensity vector H at any point is a measure of the rate of energy flow per unit
area at that point. The direction of power flow is perpendicular to E and H in the direction of
the vector E×H”
Symbolically, 𝒫 = 𝑬 × 𝑯 watts/m2
where P is the Poynting vector.
From Maxwell’s equation,
𝜕𝑯
∇ × 𝑬 = −𝜇 − − − (1)
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑬
∇ × 𝑯 = 𝜎𝑬 + 𝜀 − − − (2)
𝜕𝑡
Taking dot product on both sides of (2) with E
𝜕𝑬
𝑬 ∙ (∇ × 𝑯) = 𝜎𝑬𝟐 + 𝑬 ∙ 𝜀 − − − (3)
𝜕𝑡
Applying vector identity to (3)
∇ ∙ (𝑨 × 𝑩) = 𝐁 ∙ (∇ × 𝑨) − 𝐀 ∙ (∇ × 𝑩) ≫ ∇ ∙ (𝑬 × 𝑯) = 𝐇 ∙ (∇ × 𝑬) − 𝐄 ∙ (∇ × 𝑯)
𝜕𝑬
𝐇 ∙ (∇ × 𝑬) − ∇ ∙ (𝑬 × 𝑯) = 𝜎𝑬𝟐 + 𝑬 ∙ (𝜀 )
𝜕𝑡
Substituting (1) to the above equation,
𝜕𝑯 𝜕𝑬
𝐇 ∙ (−𝜇 ) − ∇ ∙ (𝑬 × 𝑯) = 𝜎𝑬𝟐 + 𝑬 ∙ (𝜀 )
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑯 𝜕𝑬
∇ ∙ (𝑬 × 𝑯) = −𝐇 ∙ (𝜇 ) − 𝑬 ∙ (𝜀 ) − 𝜎𝑬𝟐
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑯 𝜕(𝑯 ∙ 𝑯) 𝜕(𝐻 2 )
𝐇 ∙ (𝜇 )=𝜇 =𝜇 − − − −(4)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑯 𝜕(𝑯 ∙ 𝑯) 𝜕(𝑯) 𝜕(𝑯) 𝜕𝑯
𝐇 ∙ (𝜇 )=𝜇 = 𝜇 (𝑯 +𝑯 ) = 2𝜇𝑯 − − − −(5)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑯 𝜕(𝐻 2 ) 𝜕𝑯 𝜇 𝜕(𝐻 2 ) 𝜕 𝜇𝐻 2
Equating (4) and (5)2𝜇𝑯 =𝜇 ≫ 𝜇𝑯 = = ( )
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2

Similarly,
𝜕𝑬 𝜕 𝜀𝐸 2
𝜀𝑬 = ( )
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2
 𝜕 𝜇𝐻 2 𝜕 𝜀𝐸 2
∇ ∙ (𝑬 × 𝑯) = − ( )− ( ) − 𝜎𝐸 𝟐
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡 2

𝜕 𝜇𝐻 2 𝜀𝐸 2
∇ ∙ (𝑬 × 𝑯) = − [ + ] − 𝜎𝐸 𝟐
𝜕𝑡 2 2
Taking volume integral of the above equation,
𝜕 𝜇𝐻 2 𝜀𝐸 2
∫ ∇ ∙ (𝑬 × 𝑯) 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ − [ + ] 𝑑𝑣 − ∫ 𝜎𝐸 𝟐 𝑑𝑣
𝜕𝑡 2 2
Applying divergence theorem to LHS,
𝜕 𝜇𝐻 2 𝜀𝐸 2
∮(𝑬 × 𝑯) ∙ 𝑑𝑺 = − ∫[ + ] 𝑑𝑣 − ∫ 𝜎𝐸 𝟐 𝑑𝑣
⏟ ⏟ 𝜕𝑡 2 2 ⏟
Total⁡power⁡leaving⁡the⁡volume 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑛 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠

• Poynting Vector, 𝒫represents the instantaneous power density vector associated with the
EM field at a given point.
• The integration of the Poynting vector over any closed surface gives the net power
flowing out of that surface.
• 𝒫 is normal to both E and H and is therefore along the direction of wave propagation
azfor uniform plane waves.
𝒫 =𝑬×𝑯
𝑬(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐸0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧) 𝒂𝑥
𝐸0 −𝛼𝑧
𝑯(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑒 cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧 − 𝜃𝜂 )𝒂𝑦
|𝜂|
𝐸0 2 −2𝛼𝑧
𝒫(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑒 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧) ⁡cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧 − 𝜃𝜂 )𝒂𝑧
|𝜂|
• Time average poynting vector is given by,
1 𝑇 1 𝑇 𝐸0 2 −2𝛼𝑧
𝒫𝑎𝑣𝑒 (𝑧, 𝑡) = ∫ 𝒫(𝑧, 𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑒 [cos(𝜃𝜂 ) + ⁡cos⁡(2𝜔𝑡 − 2𝛽𝑧 − 𝜃𝜂 )]𝒂𝑧
𝑇 0 𝑇 0 2|𝜂|
2𝜋
𝑇=
𝜔
𝐸0 2 −2𝛼𝑧
𝒫𝑎𝑣𝑒 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑒 cos 𝜃𝜂 𝒂𝑧
2|𝜂|
1
𝒫𝑎𝑣𝑒 (𝑧, 𝑡) = ⁡𝑅𝑒(𝑬𝑠 × 𝑯∗𝑠 )
2
• The total time average power crossing a given surface S is,

𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = ∫ 𝒫𝑎𝑣𝑒 ∙ 𝑑𝑺
𝑆