VITAMINS

Chemical Constituents of Life

Vitamins
learning Objectives:

1. Know the classifications and properties

of the vitamin group
2. Understand the structure of each
vitamin
3. List the food sources of each vitamin
4. Understand the functions of vitamins
5. Know the symptoms of vitamin
deficiency
QUESTIONS WILL
BE ENTERTAINED
AFTER THE
LECTURE!
The vitamins speak :
“We are for growth, health and welfare of
organisms; Discharge our duties directly or
through coenzymes; Deficiency symptoms are
our alert signals; Satisfied we shall be, with
additional supplements.”
Vitamins are organic molecules that are essential to the
biological processes of higher organisms, but cannot be
synthesized by these organisms. Examples include the
fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K and the water-soluble
B complex vitamins and ascorbic acid, also known as
vitamin C.
Fat soluble
vitamins
The four vitamins, namely vitamin A, D, E, and K are
known as fat or lipid soluble
All the fat soluble vitamins are isoprenoid compounds
since they are made up of one or more of five carbon
units namely isoprene units ( CH C.CH3 CH CH )
. Fat soluble vitamins can be stored in liver and
adipose tissue. They are not readily excreted in urine.
Water soluble
vitamins
A heterogenous group of compounds since they
differ chemically from each other.
The only common character shared by them is
their solubility in water.
Most of these vitamins are readily excreted in urine
and they are not toxic to the body. Water soluble
vitamins are not stored in the body in large
quantities (except B12).
 VITAMIN A
The fat soluble vitamin A, as such is present
only in foods of animal origin. However, its
provitamins carotenes are found in plants
The term retinoids is often used to include
the natural and synthetic forms of vitamin
A. Retinol, retinal and retinoic acid are
regarded as vitamers of vitamin A.
1. Retinol (vitamin A alcohol) : It is a primary alcohol containing E-ionone ring. The
side chain has two isoprenoid units, four double bonds and one hydroxyl group.

2. Retinal (vitamin A aldehyde) : This is an aldehyde form obtained by the oxidation of

retinol. Retinal and retinol are interconvertible. Previously, the name retinine was used
for retinal.
3. Retinoic acid (vitamin A acid) : This is produced by the oxidation of retinal
4. E-Carotene (provitamin A) : This is found in plant foods. It is cleaved in the intestine
to produce two moles of retinal.
Vitamin A deficiency

Night blindness (nyctalopia)

xerophthalmia
keratomalacia
growth retardation
rough and dry
Hypervitaminosis A
toxicity
dermatitis raised intracranial
tension
enlargement of liver
skeletal decalcification
tenderness of long bones
loss of weight
irritability
loss of hair
joint pains etc.
VITAMIN D
Vitamin D is a fat
soluble vitamin. It

resembles sterols in
structure and
functions like

a hormone.
ABSORPTION,
TRANSPORT AND
STORAGE
Vitamin D is absorbed in the small intestine

for which bile is essential. Through lymph,

vitamin D enters the circulation bound to plasma

D2-globulin and is distributed throughout the

body. Liver and other tissues store small amounts

of vitamin D.
 CHEMISTRY
Ergocalciferol (vitamin D2) is formed from

ergosterol and is present in plants (Fig.7.6).

Cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) is found in animals.

Both the sterols are similar in structure except

that ergocalciferol has an additional methyl

group and a double bond. Ergocalciferol and

cholecalciferol are sources for vitamin D activity

and are referred to as provitamins.

 7
Dihydrotachysterol dehydrocholesterol
– is a synthetic

substance formed
by the reduction of - is converted to
tachysterol. calciferol upon

exposure to
- closely related to
ultraviolet light
ergosterol.

 RECOMMENDED
DIETARY

ALLOWANCE (RDA)
The daily requirement of vitamin D is 400

International Units or 10 mg of
cholecalciferol. In countries with good
sunlight (like India),

the RDA for vitamin D is 200 IU (or 5 mg

cholecalciferol).
 DIETARY SOURCES
GOOD SOURCES OF VITAMIN D INCLUDE FATTY FISH,

FISH LIVER OILS, EGG YOLK ETC. MILK IS NOT A GOOD

SOURCE OF VITAMIN D.

Vitamin D 3. By irradiating
1. Exposure of skin to foods (like yeast)
can be sunlight for synthesis
that

provided to of vitamin D; contain precursors

of vitamin D and
the body in

fortification

2. Consumption of of foods (milk,

three ways: natural foods; butter etc.).

 DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS
Vitamin D deficiency is relatively less

common, since this vitamin can be synthesized

in the body. However, insufficient exposure

to sunlight and consumption of diet lacking

vitamin D results in its deficiency.

Vitamin D deficiency occurs in strict

vegetarians, chronic alcoholics, individuals with

liver and kidney diseases or fat malabsorption

syndromes. In some people, who cover the entire

body (purdah) for religious customs, vitamin D

deficiency is also observed, if the requirement is

not met through diet.

Deficiency of vitamin D causes rickets in

children and osteomalacia in adults. Rickets is

derived from an old English word ‘wrickken’,

meaning to twist. Osteomalacia is derived

from Greek (osteon-bone; malakia-softness).

Vitamin D is often called as antirachitic vitamin.

Rickets in children is characterized by bone

deformities due to incomplete mineralization,

resulting in soft and pliable bones and delay in

teeth formation. The weight-bearing bones are

bent to form bow-legs. In case of osteomalacia (adult rickets)

demineralization of the bones occurs (bones

become softer), increasing their susceptibility

to fractures.
 Hypervitaminosis D

Renal rickets
Vitamin D is stored mostly in liver and slowly

metabolised. Among the vitamins, vitamin D is

(renal osteodystrophy)
the most toxic in overdoses (10-100 times RDA).

Toxic effects of hypervitaminosis D include

This is seen in patients with demineralization of bone (resorption) and

chronic renal
increased calcium absorption from the intestine,

leading to elevated calcium in plasma

failure. Renal rickets is mainly (hypercalcemia). Prolonged hypercalcemia is

due to decreased
associated with deposition of calcium in many

soft tissues such as kidney and arteries.

synthesis of calcitriol in Hyper�vitaminosis D may lead to formation of
stones in

kidney. It can be treated

kidneys (renal calculi). High consumption of

by administration of calcitriol. vitamin D is associated with loss of appetite,

nausea, increased thirst, loss of weight etc

Vitamin E (tocopherol) is a naturally occurring

antioxidant. It is essential for normal reproduction

in many animals, hence known as anti-sterility

vitamin. Vitamin E is described as a ‘vitamin in

search of a disease.’ This is due to the lack of any

specific vitamin E deficiency disease in humans.

Evans and his associates (1936) isolated the

compounds of vitamin E activity and named

them as tocopherols (Greek : tokos-child birth;

pheros-to bear; ol-alcohol).

Absorption, transport
and storage
Vitamin E is absorbed along with fat in the

small intestine. Bile salts are necessary for the

absorption. In the liver, it is incorporated into

lipoproteins (VLDL and LDL) and transported.

Vitamin E is stored in adipose tissue, liver and

muscle. The normal plasma level of tocopherol

is less than 1 mg/dl.

Biochemical functions OUR

OUT

STO
Most of the functions of Vitamin E are related RY B
A
to its antioxidants property. It prevents the
nonenzymatic oxidations of various cell
components

(e.g. unsaturated fatty acids) by molecular

oxygen and free radicals such as superoxide

(O2) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). The
element selenium helps in these functions.

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THE BIOCHEMICAL
FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN E,

RELATED EITHER DIRECTLY 1. Vitamin E is essential for the

membrane

OR INDIRECTLY TO ITS
1
structure and integrity of the
cell, hence it is

ANTIOXIDANT PROPERTY, regarded as a membrane

antioxidant.
ARE GIVEN HERE;

3. It is closely associated with

2. It prevents the peroxidation of
reproductive

polyunsaturated fatty acids in

various tissues and functions and prevents
2 membranes. It protects RBC 3 sterility. Vitamin E

from hemolysis by preserves and maintains

oxidizing agents (e.g. H2O2). germinal epithelium of

gonads for proper reproductive

function.
THE BIOCHEMICAL
FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN E,

RELATED EITHER DIRECTLY 4. It increases the synthesis of

heme by

OR INDIRECTLY TO ITS
enhancing the activity of
4
ANTIOXIDANT PROPERTY, enzymes Gaminolevulinic acid
(ALA) synthase and ALA

ARE GIVEN HERE; dehydratase.

5. It is required for cellular

respiration–
6. Vitamin E prevents the
through electron transport oxidation of

5 chain (believed to
6 vitamin A and carotenes.
stabilize coenzyme Q).
THE BIOCHEMICAL
FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN E,

RELATED EITHER DIRECTLY

7. It is required for proper
OR INDIRECTLY TO ITS

7 storage of creatine

ANTIOXIDANT PROPERTY, in skeletal muscle.

ARE GIVEN HERE;

8. Vitamin E is needed for 9. It is involved in proper

8 optimal absorption

of amino acids from the

9 synthesis of nucleic

acids.
intestine.
THE BIOCHEMICAL
FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN E,

RELATED EITHER DIRECTLY 10. Vitamin E protects liver

OR INDIRECTLY TO ITS
from being

10 damaged by toxic
ANTIOXIDANT PROPERTY, compounds such as carbon

ARE GIVEN HERE; tetrachloride.

12. Vitamin E has been recommended for the

prevention of chronic diseases such as cancer

11. It works in association with and heart diseases. Clinical trials in this regard

11 vitamins A, C

and E-carotene, to delay the

12 are rather disappointing, hence it is no more

recommended. However, some clinicians

continue to use it particularly in subjects

onset of cataract. susceptible to heart attacks. It is believed

that vitamin E prevents the oxidation of LDL.

 Recommended
The element selenium is
found in the enzyme
dietary
Many vegetable oils are rich
glutathione peroxidase sources of

that destroys free

allowance (RDA) vitamin E. Wheat germ oil,
radicals. Thus, Se is also Intake of vitamin E is directly related cotton seed oil,

involved in antioxidant
to the

functions like vitamin E, consumption of polyunsaturated peanut oil, corn oil and
and both of them act
fatty acids
sunflower oil are the

(PUFA) i.e., requirement increases

synergistically. To a certain with increased

good sources of this vitamin.

extent, Se can spare
intake of PUFA. A daily consumption It is also present in

the requirement vitamin of about

meat, milk, butter and eggs.

10 mg (15 IU) of D-tocopherol for
E, and vice versa.
man and 8 mg

(12 IU) for woman is recommended.

One mg of

Vitamin E D-tocopherol is equal to 1.5 IU.

Vitamin E
Dietary sources
and selenium
supplemented diet is advised for
pregnant and

lactating women.
Deficiency symptoms

The symptoms of vitamin E deficiency vary

from one animal species to another. In many

animals, the deficiency is associated with

sterility, degenerative changes in muscle,

megaloblastic anaemia and changes in central

nervous system. Severe symptoms of vitamin E

deficiency are not seen in humans except

increased fragility of erythrocytes and minor

neurological symptoms.

Toxicity of vitamin E

Among the fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K),

vitamin E is the least toxic. No toxic effect has

been reported even after ingestion of 300 mg/

day for 23 years.

 Vitamin K is the only fat soluble vitamin with
a specific coenzyme function. It is required for the production of
blood clotting
factors, essential for coagulation (in
German–Koagulation; hence the
name K for this vitamin).

Phytomenadione - synthetic form of Vitamin K1

Phylloquinone - natural form of Vitamin K1

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 Recommended
dietary
allowance
(RDA)
Strictly speaking, there is no RDA for vitamin K,
since it can be adequately synthesized in the gut.
It is however, recommended that half of the body
requirement is provided in the diet, while the other
half is met from the bacterial synthesis.
Accordingly, the suggested RDA for an adult is
70-140 mg/ day.
RL
 DIETARY SOURCES
Cabbage, cauliflower,
tomatoes, alfa alfa, spinach and
other green vegetables are
good sources. It is also present
in egg yolk, meat, liver, cheese
and dairy products.

RL
 Deficiency symptoms
Deficiency of vitamin K leads to the lack of active
prothrombin in the circulation. The result is that
blood coagulation is adversely affected. The
individual bleeds profusely even for minor injuries.
The blood clotting time is increased.

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 Hypervitaminosis K

Administration of large doses of

vitamin K produces hemolytic
anaemia and jaundice, particularly in
infants. The toxic effect is due to
increased breakdown of RBC.

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 Antagonists of
vitamin K
The compounds—namely heparin,
bishydroxycoumarin—act as anticoagulants and are
antagonists to vitamin K. The salicylates and dicumarol
are also antagonists to vitamin K. Dicumarol is
structurally related to vitamin K and acts as a
competitive inhibitor in the synthesis of active
prothrombin.
RL
 Vitamin C is a water soluble versatile vitamin. It
plays an important role in human health and
disease. Vitamin C has become the most
controversial vitamin in recent years. This is
because of the claims and counter-claims on the
use of vitamin C in megadoses to cure everything
from common cold to cancer.

RL
 RL

Biochemical functions

Collagen Iron and hemoglobin

Bone formation
formation metabolism

Vitamin C plays the role of Bone tissues possess Ascorbic acid enhances iron
a coenzyme in an organic matrix, absorption by keeping it in
hydroxylation of proline collagen and the the ferrous form. This is due
and lysine while inorganic calcium, to the reducing property of
protocollagen is converted phosphate etc. Vitamin vitamin C. It helps in the
to collagen (i.e. post- C is required for bone formation of ferritin
translational formation. (storage form of iron) and
modification). mobilization of iron from
ferritin.
 Biochemical functions

Preventive action on
Sparing action of Immunological
cataract and preventive
other vitamins function
action on chronic diseases
:
Ascorbic acid is a strong Vitamin C enhances the Vitamin C reduces the risk
antioxidant. It spares synthesis of of cataract formation. As
vitamin A, vitamin E, and immunoglobulins an antioxidant, vitamin C
some B-complex vitamins (antibodies) and increases reduces the risk of cancer,
from oxidation. the phagocytic action of cataract, and coronary
leucocytes. heart diseases.

RL
 Recommended
dietary
allowance
(RDA)
About 60-70 mg vitamin C intake per day
will meet the adult requirement.
Additional intakes (20-40% increase) are
recommended for women during
pregnancy and lactation.

RL
RL
 Thiamine (anti-beri-beri or antineuritic vitamin) is
water soluble. It has a specific coenzyme, thiamine
pyrophosphate (TPP) which is mostly associated
with carbohydrate metabolism.

THIAMINE ANTAGONISTS: PYRITHIAMINE & OXYTHIAMINE

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 RL

Biochemical functions

1. The enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase catalyses (oxidative

decarboxylation) the irreversible conversion of pyruvate to
acetyl CoA. This reaction is dependent on TPP, besides the
other coenzymes (details given in carbohydrate metabolism,

2. The branched chain D-keto acid dehydrogenase

(decarboxylase) catalyses the oxidative decarboxylation of
branched chain amino acids (valine, leucine and isoleucine) to the
respective keto acids. This enzyme also requires TPP.

3. TPP plays an important role in the transmission of nerve

impulse. It is believed that TPP is required for acetylcholine
synthesis and the ion translocation of neural tissue.
 Recommended
dietary
allowance
(RDA)
The daily requirement of thiamine depends on the intake
of carbohydrate. A dietary supply of 1-1.5 mg/day is
recommended for adults (about 0.5 mg/1,000 Cals of
energy). For children RDA is 0.7-1.2 mg/day. The
requirement marginally increases in pregnancy and
lactation (2 mg/day), old age and alcoholism.
RL
 Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome
This disorder also known as cerebral
beriberi, is mostly seen in chronic
alcoholics. The body demands of
thiamine increase in alcoholism.
Insufficient intake or impaired
intestinal absorption of thiamine will
lead to this syndrome. It is
characterized by loss of memory,
apathy and a rhythmical to and fro
motion of the eye balls.

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 Riboflavin through its coenzymes takes part
in a variety of cellular oxidation–reduction
reactions.

ANTIMETABOLITE: GALACTOFLAVIN

RL
 Biochemical functions
1. The flavin coenzymes (mostly FAD and to a lesser extent
FMN) participate in many redox reactions responsible for
energy production. The functional unit of both the
coenzymes is isoalloxazine ring which serves as an acceptor
of two hydrogen atoms (with electrons).

2. Enzymes that use flavin coenzymes (FMN or FAD) are called

flavoproteins. The coenzymes (prosthetic groups) often bind
rather tightly, to the protein (apoenzyme) either by non-covalent
bonds (mostly) or covalent bonds in the holoenzyme. Many
flavoproteins contain metal atoms (iron, molybdenum etc.)
which are known as metalloflavoproteins.

RL
 Recommended
dietary
allowance
(RDA)
The daily requirement of riboflavin for an
adult is 1.2-1.7 mg. Higher intakes (by 0.2-0.5
mg/day) are advised for pregnant and
lactating women.

RL
Niacin or Nicotinic Acid
also known as pellagra preventive
(P.P.) factor of Goldberg.
'niacin' was coined and more
commonly used for nicotinic acid is
oxidized form of nicotine
coenzymes of niacin (NAD+ and
NADP+) can be synthesized by the
essential amino acid, tryptophan.
nicotinic acid as was well known as
chemical compound, produced by
the oxidation of nicotine
CHEMISTRY AND SYNTHESIS OF COENZYMES

Niacin is pyridine derivative. (pyridine 3-carboxylic

acid)
its amide form of niacin is known as niacinamide or
nicotinamide
Dietary nicotinamide, niacin, and tryptophan
contribute to the synthesis of the coenzymes -
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) and
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
(NADP+)
 BIOCHEMICAL FUNCTIONS

the coenzymes are involved in a variety of

oxidation-reduction reactions. They accept
hydride ion and undergo reduction in the
pyridine ring. This results in neutralization of
positive charges. The nitrogen atom and the
fourth carbon atom of nicotinamide ring
participate in the reaction. While one atom of
hydrogen from the substrate is accepted by
the coenzyme, the other hydrogen ion is
realased into the surrounding medium.
reaction is reversed when NADH is oxidized to
NAD+ and NADP+
 RECOMMENDED DIETARY ALLOWANCE (RDA)

daily requirement of niacin for an adult is 15-

20 mg; for children, around 10 -15 mg
NE = niacin requirement, is used while expressing
RDA.
one NE = 1 mg of niacin / 60 mg of tryptophan

pregnancy and lactation in women impose an

additional metabolic burden and increase the
niacin requirement
 DIETARY SOURCES

rich natural sources: moderate sources:

liver, yeast, whole grains, cereal, milk, fish, eggs, and vegetables
pulses like beans and peanuts
 DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS

Pellagra
a condition caused by niacin deficiency
involve skin, gastrointestinal tract and central
nervous system
frequently observed in Hartnup's Disease
Symptoms commonly referred to as three Ds:
dermatitis
diarrhea
dementia
 Dermatitis
Diarrhea Dementia
-usually found in the
- may be in form of - associated with
areas of skin expose to
loose stools, often with degeneration of nervous
sunlight (neck, dorsal part of
blood an mucus tissue.
feet, ankle, and parts of face)
- Symptoms include
anxiety, irritability, poor
memory, insomnia, etc
.
 THERAPEUTIC USES OF NIACIN

1. Niacin inhibits lipolysis in the Harmful Side Effects:

adipose tissue and decreases the 1. Glycogen and fat reserves of
circulatory free acids skeletal and cardiac muscle are
2. Triacylglycerol synthesis in the liver depleted.
is decreased. 2. There is a tendency for the
3. Thee serum levels of low density increased levels of glucose and uric
lipoproteins (LDL), very low density acid in the circulation.
lipoproteins (VLDL), triacylglycerol 3. Prolonged use of niacin results in
and cholesterol are lowered. elevated serum levels of certain
Hence niacin is used in treatment enzymes, suggesting liver damage.
of hyperlipoproteinemia type II b
 PYRIDOXINE (VITAMIN B6)
collectively represent the three
compounds namely pyridoxine,
pyridoxal, and pyridoxamine
CHEMISTRY
are pyridine derivatives
differ from each other in the structure
of a functional group attached to 4th
carbon in the pyridine ring.
pyridoxine is a primary alcohol,
pyridoxal is an aldehyde form,
pyridoxamine is an amine.
 SYNTHESIS OF COENZYME

the active for of vitamin B6 is the

coenzyme pyridoxal phosphate
(PLP).
can be synthesized from the three
compounds pyridoxine, pryridoxal,
pyridoxamine.
B6 is excreted in urine as 4-pyridoxic
acid
 BIOCHEMICAL FUNCTIONS

PLP, the coenzyme of B6 is found

attahed to the H-amino group of
lysine in the enzyme; closely
associated with the metabolism of
amino acids
PLP participates in the reactions like
transamination, decarboxylation,
deamination transsulfuratio,
condensation, etc.
1. Transamination: pyridoxal phosphate
is involved in the transamination
reaction converting amino acids to
keto acids.
PLP interacts with amino acid to form
Schff base.
2. Decarboxylation: some of the a-amino (b) Histamine: a vasodilator and lowers
acids undergo decarboxylation to form the blood pressure. it stimulates gastric HCl
respective amines. secretion and is involved in inflammation
carried out by a group of enzymes and allergic reactions.
called decarboxylases which are
dependent PLP
(a) Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5 Ht):
produced from tryptophan is important in
nerve impluse transmission. it regulates
sleep, behaviour, blood pressure etc.
(c) Glutamate on decarboxylation gives y-
amino butyric acid (GABA). it inhibits the
transmission of nerve impulses.
(d) the synthesis of catecholamines
4. the synthesis of niacin coenzymes from
(dopamine, norepinephrine and
tryptophan is dependent on PLP. the
epinephrine) from tyrosine require PLP.
enzyme kynurenisae requiires PLP.
Catecholamines are involved in metabolic
increased excretion of xanthurenate in urine
and nervous regulation.
is an indication of B6 defeciency.

3. Pyridoxal phosphate is required for the

synthesis of G-amino acid, the precursor for
heme synthesis.
 6. Deamination of hydroxyl group containing
5. PLP plays an important role in the
amino acids requires PLP.
metabolism of sulfur containing amino
acids.
7. Serine is synthesized from glycine by a
Transsulfuration: from homocystein to
PLP dependent enzyme
serine occurs in the synthesis of cysteine.
hydroxymethyltranferase.

8.The enzyme glycogen phosphorylase

contain PLP, covalently bound to lysine
residue.

9. PLP is needed for the absorption of amino

acids from intestine

10. Adequate intake of B6 is useful to

prevent hyperoxaluria and urinary stone
formation.
 RECOMMENDED DIETARY ALLOWANCE (RDA)

the requirement of pyridoxine for an

adult is 2-2.2 mg/day.
during pregnancy, lactation and old
age, an intake of 2.5 mg/day
Pyridoxine is closely associated with
protein (amino acid) metabolism. The daily
requirements of B6 are calculated on the
assumption that the in take of protein
<100 g/day
 DIETARY SOURCES

ANIMAL SOURCE
Egg, yolk, fish, milk, meat VEGETABLE SOURCE
Wheat, corn, cabbage, roots, and tubers
 DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS DRUG INDUCED B6 DEFICIENCY

Pyridoxine deficiency is Isonazid: is a drug frequently used for

associated with neurological
symptoms such as depression, the treatment of tuberculosis.
irritability, nervousness and - combines with pyridoxal
mental confusion phosphate to form inactive hydrazone
Convulsions and peripheral derivatives which inhibit PLP
dependent enzymes.
neuropathy are observed in
severe deficiency. Penicillamine: used in the trestment of
symptoms are related to the patients with rheumatoid arthritis,
decreased synthesis of biogenic Wilson's disease and cystinuria.
amines.
RECOMMENDED DIETARY
ALLOWANCE (RDA))
A daily intake of about 3 Pg of vitamin B12 is
adequate to meet the adult requirements.
For children, 0.5-1.5 Pg/day is
recommended. During pregnancy and
lactation, the requirement is 4 Pg/day.
 Dietary sources
Foods of animal origin are the only sources for
vitamin B12. .

Vitamin B12 is synthesized only by

microorganisms (anaerobic bacteria). Plants
cannot synthesize, hence B12 is never found in
plant foods
 DEFICIENCY
SYMPTOMS
PERNICIOUS ANEMIA

. It is characterized by low
hemoglobin levels, decreased
number of erythrocytes and
neurological manifestations.

CAUSES
.1. Dietary deficiency of B12.
2 Autoimmune destruction of
gastric parietal cells that secrete
intrinsic factor.
 DEFICIENCY OF B12

also associated with neuronal

degeneration and
demyelination of nervous
system
 Vitamin B12 is
The neurological
administered in
symptoms
therapeutic doses
persist. Therefore,
(100-1000 Pg)
a combined
intramuscularly supplementation
Folic acid
administration can of B12 and folate
also reverse is employed
hematological
abnormalities
observed in B12
deficiency
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