Disaster Management By Dr. T.

Vijaya Gowri

B. V. RAJU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DISASTER MANAGEMENT
UNIT-III
ENDOGENOUS HAZARDS
Earthquake
Earthquake is one of the most destructive natural hazard. They may occur at any time of the
year, day or night, with sudden impact and little warning. They can destroy buildings and
infrastructure in seconds, killing or injuring the inhabitants. Earthquakes not only destroy the
entire habitation but may de-stabilize the government, economy and social structure of the
country.
But what is an earthquake?

It is the sudden shaking of the earth crust. The impact of an earthquake is sudden and there is
hardly any warning, making it impossible to predict.

Cause of Earthquake:

The earth’s crust is a rocky layer of varying thickness ranging from a depth of about 10
kilometers under the sea to 65 kilometers under the continents. The crust is not one piece but
consists of portions called ‘plates’ which vary in size from a few hundred to thousands of
kilometers (Fig 2.1.1).

The ‘theory of plate tectonics’ holds that the plates ride up on the more mobile mantle, and
are driven by some yet unconfirmed mechanisms, perhaps thermal convection currents. When
these plates contact each other, stress arises in the crust (Fig 2.1.2).

These stresses can be classified according to the type of movement along the plate’s
boundaries:

a) pulling away from each other,

b) pushing against one another and
c) sliding sideways relative to each other.

All these movements are associated with earthquakes. The areas of stress at plate boundaries
which release accumulated energy by slipping or rupturing are known as 'faults'.
The theory of 'elasticity' says that the crust is continuously stressed by the movement of the
tectonic plates; it eventually reaches a point of maximum supportable strain.

A rupture then occurs along the fault and the rock rebounds under its own elastic stresses
until the strain is relieved. The fault rupture generates vibration called seismic (from the
Greek 'seismos' meaning shock or earthquake) waves, which radiates from the focus in all
directions.

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The point of rupture is called the 'focus' and may be located near the surface or deep below it.
The point on the surface directly above the focus is termed as the 'epicenter' of the earthquake
(see Fig 2.1.3).

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Distribution pattern of Earthquakes in India: The most vulnerable areas, according to the
present seismic zone map of India, are located in the Himalaya and sub-Himalaya regions,
Kutch and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Depending on the varying degrees of seismic city,
the entire country can be divided into the following seismic regions:
1. Kashmir and Western Himalayas - covers the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh and Sub-mountainous areas of Punjab.
2. Central Himalayas – Includes the mountain and sub-mountain regions of Uttar Pradesh
and sub-mountainous parts of Punjab.
3. North-east India- Comprises the whole of Indian Territory to the east of north Bengal.
4. Cambay and Rann of Kutch.
5. Peninsular India, including the islands of Lakshwadeep.
6. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

The entire northern part of Indian subcontinent lies in an earthquake prone belt.
India falls quite prominently on the 'Alpine - Himalayan Belt'. This belt is the line along
which the Indian plate meets the Eurasian plate. This being a convergent plate, the Indian
plate is thrusting underneath the Eurasian plate at a speed of 5 cm per year. The movement
gives rise to tremendous stress which keeps accumulating in the rocks and is released from
time to time in the form of earthquakes.

Effects of the Earthquake:

Damage occurs to human settlement, buildings, structures and infrastructure, especially
bridges, elevated roads, railways, water towers, pipelines, electrical generating facilities.
Aftershocks of an earthquake can cause much greater damage to already weakened structures.
Secondary effects include fires, dam failure and landslides which may block water ways and

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also cause flooding. Damage may occur to facilities using or manufacturing dangerous
materials resulting in possible chemical spills. There may also be a breakdown of
communication facilities. The effect of an earthquake is diverse. There are large number of
casualties because of the poor engineering design of the buildings and close proximity of the
people. About 95 percent of the people who are killed or who are affected by the earthquake
is because of the building collapse.

The earthquake effects on ground:

1. Fissures
2. Settlement
3. Landslides
4. Liquefaction
5. Earth pressure

Effects on man-made structures:

1. Cracking
2. Sliding
3. Overturning
4. Buckling
5. Collapse

Effects on water:
1. Waves
2. Hydrodynamic pressure
3. Tsunamis (causing high sea waves)

Possible Chain effects:

1. Landslides : - Destruction of settlements - Temporary dams along the river and its failure
2. Dam Failure : Flood flow, Flooding of land Destruction of structures, Water
Contamination Causing water borne diseases and epidemics
3. Tsunamis : Devastation by high waves
4. Atomic power plant failure : Radiation hazard, Causing cancers and hormonal imbalances
in future generations
5. Fires: Conflagration ,
Life loss -Vegetation and wild life loss, -
Property loss, natural and physical environment affected and disruption of existing
systems.
Physical Damage – damage or loss of buildings and service structures. Fires, floods
due to dam failures, landslides could occur.
Casualties – often high, near to the epicenter and in places where the population
density is high (say, multistoried buildings) and structures are not resistant to

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earthquake forces.
Public health – multiple fracture injuries, moderately and severely injured is the most
widespread problem, breakdown in sanitary conditions and large number of casualties
could lead to epidemics.

Water supply – severe problems due to failure of the water supply distribution network
and storage reservoirs. Fire hydrants supply lines if vulnerable could hamper fire
service operations.
Transport network – severely affected due to failure of roads and bridges, railway tracks,
failure of airport runways and related infrastructure.

Electricity and Communication – all links affected. Transmission towers, transponders,

transformers collapse.
Possible risk reduction measures:
1. Preventive Phase before Disaster include
i) Preparation of earthquake categories, epicentral & geologic-tectonic maps;
ii) Analysis of seismic risk and seismic zoning for general purposes;
iii) Development of anti-seismic codes of design and construction of various structures;
iv) Education & training of engineer and architects in earthquake engineering principles and
use of codes;
v) Promulgation of laws and bye-laws for providing earthquake resistance features in all new
construction according to codes;
vi) Development of methods for seismic strengthening of existing structures, particularly in
the structures considered critical for the community;
vii) Earthquake assurance for the buildings and structures to reduce the economic impact on
individuals; and
viii) Installation of seismological observations for monitoring seismic activity with a variety
of instruments capable of recording and locating all earthquakes bigger than a selected
magnitude.
2. Planning: The Bureau of Indian Standards has published building codes and guidelines for
safe construction of buildings against earthquakes. Before the buildings are constructed the
building plans have to be checked by the Municipality, according to the laid down bylaws.
Many existing lifeline buildings such as hospitals, schools and fire stations may not be built
with earthquake safety measures. Their earthquake safety needs to be upgraded by retrofitting
techniques. Follow Indian Standard Codes for construction of buildings (IS 1893-2002
Criteria for earthquake resistant design of structures). Enforcement of the Byelaws including
Land use control and restriction on density and heights of buildings.
3. Public education is educating the public on causes and characteristics of an effect of Soil
type on ground shaking essential requirements in a masonry building earthquake and
preparedness measures. It can be created through sensitization and training programmes for

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community, architects, engineers, builders, masons, teachers, government functionaries

teachers and students.
4. Engineered structures: Buildings need to be designed and constructed as per the building
by laws to withstand ground shaking. Architectural and engineering inputs need to be put
together to improve building design and construction practices. The soil type needs to be
analyzed before construction. Building structures on soft soil should be avoided. Buildings on
soft soil are more likely to get damaged even if the magnitude of the earthquake is not strong.
Similar problems persist in the buildings constructed on the river banks which have alluvial
soil.
5. Community based Earthquake Risk Management
Project should be developed and sustainable programmes launched. Retrofitting of schools
and important buildings, purchase of emergency response equipment and facilities,
establishing proper insurance can be the programmes under Earthquake Risk Management
Project. A large number of local masons and engineers will be trained in disaster resistant
construction techniques. A large number of masons, engineers and architects can get trained
in this process.

As per the latest seismic zoning map of India the country is divided into four Seismic Zones as
shown in fig.5. Zone V marked in red shows the area of Very High Risk Zone, Zone IV marked
in orange shows the area of High Risk Zone. Zone III marked in yellow shows the region of
Moderate Risk Zone and Zone II marked in blue shows the region of Low risk Zone.

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Zone V is the most vulnerable to earthquakes, where historically some of the country's most
powerful shock has occurred. Geographically this zone includes the Andaman & Nicobar
Islands, all of North-Eastern India, parts of north-western Bihar, eastern sections of
Uttaranchal, the Kangra Valley in Himachal Pradesh, near the Srinagar area in Jammu &
Kashmir and the Rann of Kutchh in Gujarat. Earthquakes with magnitudes in excess of 7.0
have occurred in these areas, and have had intensities higher than IX. Much of India lies in
Zone III, where a maximum intensity of VII can be expected. New Delhi lies in Zone IV
whereas Mumbai and Chennai lie in Zone III. All states and UTs across the country have
experienced earthquakes.

LANDSLIDE
What is a landslide?
The term’ landslide’ includes all varieties of mass movements of hill slopes and can be defined
as the downward and outward movement of slope forming materials composed of rocks, soils,
artificial fills on combination of all these materials along surfaces of separation by falling,
sliding and flowing, either slowly or quickly from one place to another. Although the landslides
are primarily associated with mountainous terrains, these can also occur in areas where an
activity such as surface excavations for highways, buildings and open pit mines takes place.
They often take place in conjunction with earthquakes, floods and volcanoes. At times,
prolonged rainfall causing landslide may block the flow of river for quite some time. The
formation of river blocks can cause havoc to the settlements downstream on its bursting. Some
of the common definitions are below in table 1.
Table 1 : Definitions
Landslide Hazard refers to the potential of occurrence of a damaging landslide within
a given area; such damage could include loss of life or injury, property damage, social
and economic disruption, or environmental degradation.
Landslide Vulnerability reflects the extent of potential loss to given elements (or set
of elements) within the area affected by the hazard, expressed on a scale of 0 (no
loss) to 1 (total loss); vulnerability is shaped by physical, social, economic and
environmental conditions.
Landslide Risk refers to the probability of harmful consequences-the expected number
of lives lost, persons injured, extent of damage to property or ecological systems, or
disruption of economic activity –within a landslide prone area. The risk may be individual
or societal in scope, resulting from an interaction between the hazard and individual
or societal vulnerability.
Landslide Risk Evaluation is the application of analyses and judgments
(encompassing physical, social, and economic dimensions of landslide vulnerability)
to determine risk management alternatives, which may include determination that the
landslide risk is acceptable or tolerable.

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Causes of Landslide
There are several causes of landslide. Some of the major causes are as follows:
1. Geological Weak material: Weakness in the composition and structure of rock or soil may
also cause landslides.
2. Erosion: Erosion of slope toe due to cutting down of vegetation, construction of roads
might increase the vulnerability of the terrain to slide down.
3. Intense rainfall: Storms that produce intense rainfall for periods as short as everal hours
or have a more moderate intensity lasting several days have triggered abundant landslides.
Heavy melting of snow in the hilly terrains also results in landslide.
4. Human Excavation of slope and its toe, loading of slope/toe, draw down in reservoir,
mining, deforestation, irrigation, vibration/blast, Water leakage from services.
5. Earthquake shaking has triggered landslides in many different topographic and geologic
settings. Rock falls, soil slides and rockslides from steep slopes involving relatively
thin or shallow dis-aggregated soils or rock, or both have been the most abundant types
of landslides triggered by historical earthquakes.
6. Volcanic eruption Deposition of loose volcanic ash on hillsides commonly is followed by
accelerated erosion and frequent mud or debris flows triggered by intense rainfall.

Fig 2.6.1 Landslide in hilly terrain of India

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Type of Landslides:
The common types of landslides are described below. These definitions are based mainly on
the work of Varnes (Varnes, D.J., 1978).

• Falls: Abrupt movements of materials that become detached from steep slopes or
cliffs, moving by free-fall, bouncing, and rolling.
• Flows: General term including many types of mass movement, such as debris flow,
debris avalanche, lahar, and mudflow.
• Creep: Slow, steady downslope movement of soil or rock, often indicated by curved
tree trunks, bent fences or retaining walls, tilted poles or fences.
• Debris flow Rapid mass movement in which loose soils, rocks, and organic matter
combine with entrained air and water to form slurry that then flows down slope,
usually associated with steep gullies.
• Debris avalanche A variety of very rapid to extremely rapid debris flow.
• Lahar Mudflow or debris flow that originates on the slope of a volcano, usually
triggered by heavy rainfall eroding volcanic deposits, sudden melting of snow and ice
due to heat from volcanic vents, or the breakout of water from glaciers, crater lakes or
lakes dammed by volcanic eruptions
• Mudflow Rapidly flowing mass of wet material that contains at least 50 per cent sand,
silt, and clay-sized particles.
• Lateral spreads Often occur on very gentle slopes and result in nearly horizontal
movement of earth materials. Lateral spreads usually are caused by liquefaction, where

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saturated sediments (usually sands and silts) are transformed from a solid into a
liquefied state, usually triggered by an earthquake.
• Slides Many types of mass movement are included in the general term “landslide.”
The two major types of landslides are rotational slides and translational landslides.
• Topple A block of rock that tilts or rotates forward and falls, bounces, or rolls down
the slope.

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ELEMENTS AT RISK
The most common elements at risk are the settlements built on the steep slopes, built at
the toe and those built at the mouth of the streams emerging from the mountain valley.
All those buildings constructed without appropriate foundation for a given soil and in
sloppy areas are also at risk. Roads, communication line and buried utilities are
vulnerable.
Vulnerability of India:
Landslides mainly affect the Himalayan region and the western ghats of India.
Landslides are also common in the Nilgiri range. It is estimated that 30 percent of the
world’s landslides occur in the Himalayas. The Himalayan mountains, which constitute
the youngest and most dominating mountain system in the world, are not a single long
landmass but comprises a series of seven curvilinear parallel folds running along a
grand arc for a total of 3400 kilometers.
Due to its unique nature, the Himalayas have a history of landslides that has no
comparison with any other mountain range in the world. Landslides are also common in
western ghat. In the Nilgiris, in 1978 alone, unprecedented rains in the region triggered
about one hundred landslides which caused severe damage to communication lines,
tea gardens and other cultivated crops. A valley in Nilgiris is called “Avalanches Valley”.
Scientific observation in north Sikkim and Garhwal regions in the Himalayas clearly
reveal that there is an average of two landslides per sq. km. The mean rate of land loss
is to the tune of 120 meter per km per year and annual soil loss is about 2500 tones per
sq km. Based on the general experience with landslides, a rough estimate of monetary
loss is of the order of ` 100 crore to ` 150 crore per annum at the current prices for the
country as a whole.
INDIAN LANDSLIDES
Landslide constitute a major natural hazard in our country, which accounts for
considerable loss of life and damage to communication routes, human settlements,
agricultural fields and forest lands. The Indian subcontinent, with diverse physiographic,
seismotectonic and climatological conditions is subjected to varying degree of landslide
hazards; the Himalayas including Northeastern mountains ranges being the worst
affected, followed by a section of Western Ghats and the Vindhyas. Removal of
vegetation and toe erosion have also triggered slides Torrential monsoon on the
vegetation cover removed slopes was the main causative factors in the Peninsular India
namely in Western Ghat and Nilgiris. Human intervention by way of slope modification
has added to this effect.
The Himalayas are prone to landslides, especially during the monsoon months, from
June to October. The types of landslides include block slumping, debris fall, debris slide,
rock fall, rotational slip and slumping. The pressure of population and the economic
exploitation of the mountain region have been major causes for landslides. Turning
forest land into orchards (apple growing being a lucrative activity), the increased
construction and road building activities, and grazing by cattle are some of the activities
that have led to increased chances of landslides. Factors such as deforestation by the
timber industry and shifting agriculture have also contributed to the removal of valuable

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vegetation cover, leading to soil erosion and frequent landslides. Efforts are, however,
being made to lessen the impact of landslides
HAZARD ZONES
The Landslide Hazard Zonation Map of India is shown in Fig.1 The Landslide Map
needs to be popularized among the architects, engineers and development planners
and also to the public so that it is used as a tool for regulating construction or
development activities and means of managing or mitigating landslide disasters.
EFFECTS OF LANDSLIDES
Physical Damage: Landslides destroy anything that comes in their path. They block or
bury roads, lines of communication, settlements, river flow, agricultural land, etc. It also
includes loss to agricultural production and land area. In addition, physical effects such
as flooding may also occur
Casualties: They cause maximum fatalities depending on the place and time of
occurrence. Catastrophic landsides have killed many thousands of persons, such as the
debris slide on the slopes of Huascaran in Peru triggered by an earthquake in 1970,
which killed over 18,000 people.

MAIN MITIGATION STRATEGIES

1. Hazard mapping will locate areas prone to slope failures. This will permit to
identify avoidance of areas for building settlements. These maps will serve as a
tool for mitigation planning.
2. Land use practices such as:
a. Areas covered by degraded natural vegetation in upper slopes are to be afforested with
suitable species. Existing patches of natural vegetation (forest land natural grass land)
in good condition, should be preserved.
b. Any developmental activity initiated in the area should be taken up only after a detailed
study of the region and slope protection should be carried out if necessary.
c. In construction of roads, irrigation canals etc. proper care is to be taken to avoid
blockage of natural drainage.
d. Total avoidance of settlement in the risk zone should be made mandatory.
e. Relocate settlements and infrastructure that fall in the possible path of the landslide
No construction of buildings in areas beyond a certain degree of slope.
3. Retaining Walls can be built to stop land from slipping (these walls are commonly seen along
roads in hill stations). It’s constructed to prevent smaller sized and secondary landslides that
often occur along the toe portion of the larger landslides.
4. Surface Drainage Control Works. The surface drainage control works are implemented to
control the movement of landslides accompanied by infiltration of rain water and spring flows.
5. Engineered structures with strong foundations can withstand or take the ground movement
forces. Underground installations (pipes, cables, etc.) should be made flexible to move in order
to withstand forces caused by the landslide
6. Increasing vegetation cover is the cheapest and most effective way of arresting landslides.
This helps to bind the top layer of the soil with layers below, while preventing excessive run-
off and soil erosion.

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7. Insurance will assist individuals whose homes are likely to be damaged by landslides or by
any other natural hazards. For new constructions it should include standards for selection of
the site as well as construction technique.
COMMUNITY BASED MITIGATION
The most damaging landslides are often related to human intervention such as construction of
roads, housing and other infrastructure in vulnerable slopes and regions.
Other community based activities that can mitigate landslides are education and awareness
generation among the communities, establishing community based monitoring, timely warning
and evacuation system.
Communities can play a vital role in identifying the areas where there is land instability.
Compacting ground locally, slope stabilization (procedures such as terracing and tree planting
may reduce damages to some extent), and avoiding construction of houses in hazardous
locations are something that the community has to agree and adhere to avoid damage from the
possible landslides. This would also reduce the burden of shifting of settlements from
hazardous slopes and rebuild in safe site as it is less practical to do in large scale.

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Spots showing major landslides in India

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