2022 2023 UNIT 1 GEN BIO 2 - Edited

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
Level: SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL Semester: SECOND

Subject Group: SPECIALIZED SUBJECT Quarter: THIRD
Course Description:
This subject is designed to enhance the understanding of the principles and concepts in the
study of biology, particularly heredity and variation, and the diversity of living organisms, their
structure, function, and evolution.
Course Requirements:
Below is the list of activities that must be completed and submitted with their corresponding
percentage.
WEEK ACTIVITIES Date of Completion Raw Score Weight
1 Enabling Assessment 1 8%
2 Mini Performance Task 1 8%
8 Final Performance Task 30%
TOTAL 100%
QUARTER 3 CULMINATING PERFORMANCE TASK

Goal- Your objective is to create a DIY fossil model to understand how fossils are formed leading
to the understanding about the history of the Earth’s species.
Role - Suppose you work in archeology and your job is to teach students on the formation of
the fossils.
Audience - Your target individuals to receive the information that you will provide are the CDLB
students who are not familiar with the looks of fossils as well as the process behind fossilization.
Situation - Upon gathering information from a CDLB STEM student, you found out that most of
the students have not seen a real fossil. To resolve the issue, as an archeologist, you need to
create a program for CDLB students to engage them through a learning-by-doing process.
Product, Performance, and Purpose – Create a fossil using cement or clay with an animal or
plant commonly found in the environment. The DIY fossil will then be attached to a card board
with labels to make the model attractive and presentable.
Standards and Criteria for Success - Your output should exhibit a clear imprint of your
selected species in cement or clay. You will be graded based on the following criteria:
Cleanliness/Neatness (35 pts)

Organization (35 pts)
Creativity (30 pts)
Colegio de Los Baños – GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 1
PRE-REQUISITE ASSESSMENT
How can organisms be modified?

What is a Genetically Modified Organism (GMO)?
Learning Materials: Module, pen, paper, old biology books, internet (if applicable)
Pre-requisite Content-knowledge: DNA and Genetic Engineering
Pre-requisite Skill: Ability to discuss the advantage and disadvantage of recombinant
DNA technology
INTRODUCTION
A. TIME ALLOTMENT: 4 hours

B. CONSULTATION: For questions and clarifications, you may consult your subject
teacher on the assigned schedule via face-to-face, FB messenger, mobile number.
C. RUA: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Outline the processes involved in genetic engineering
2. Discuss the applications of recombinant DNA
INSTITUTIONAL VALUES: Critical Thinking and Scientific Literacy
D. OVERVIEW OF THE LESSON
This lesson will discuss the basic concept of modifying the genes of an organism,
processes involved in genetic engineering and the significant contribution of technologies
and tools used in recombinant DNA Technology.
STUDENT’S EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING

DEVELOPMENT
To survive, man has successfully domesticated selected plants and animals. He has
taken an active part in choosing desired traits of plants and animals. Traits that were considered
valuable (i.e., high fruit yield; high milk production, etc.) were sought out and propagated. The
processes involved may include classical breeding practices such as controlled pollination of
plants, and the mating of animals with desired traits. In today’s modern science, molecular
biology techniques are being employed in the insertion and expression of proteins in different
organisms for various purposes.
Genetic engineering is a process of making changes on the genetic code of an
organism. Its goal is to add one or more new traits that are not normally found in the organism.
Through advanced studies in the structure of DNA and its chemical properties, scientists have
been able to employ different techniques to extract, cut, and make unlimited copies of DNA. The
modification of traits may involve:
1. introduction of new traits into an organism;
2. enhancement of a present trait by increasing the expression of the desired gene;
and
3. enhancement of a present trait by disrupting the inhibition of the desired genes’
expression.
Recombinant DNA Technology

DNA recombination is a process of modifying the genes of organisms for practical
purposes. It is done when a piece of DNA is combined with another DNA from another source.
The resulting genetic product is called recombinant DNA. With this process, organisms get to
have traits that are not normally found in their species.
A general outline of recombinant DNA (Figure 1) may be given as follows:

1. cutting or cleavage of DNA by restriction enzymes (REs)
2. selection of an appropriate vector or vehicle which would propagate the recombinant
DNA (e.g. circular plasmid in bacteria with a foreign gene of interest)
3. ligation (join together) of the gene of interest (e.g. from animal) with the vector ( cut
bacterial plasmid)
4. transfer of the recombinant plasmid into a host cell (that would carry out replication to
make huge copies of the recombined plasmid) V. selection process to screen which cells
actually contain the gene of interest
5. sequencing of the gene to find out the primary structure of the protein
Figure 1. General outline of recombinant DNA.
Technologies and Tools Used in Recombinant DNA Technology

Molecular biologists have developed different technologies and tools that allow them to
study and manipulate DNA molecules.
Gel Electrophoresis
Gel electrophoresis is a method used to separate DNA fragments based on their size.
In this method, a mixture of DNA fragments is placed at one end of a porous gel, and an electric
voltage is applied to the gel. The negatively charged DNA molecules move toward the positive
end of the gel. The smaller the DNA fragments, the faster they move. This is important for
characterizing DNA fragments, fingerprinting, comparing the genomes of different organisms,
and locating and identifying one particular gene out of the millions of genes in an individual’s
genome.
DNA Sequencing
This is a method used to provide the identity and order of nucleotides in a DNA strand.
Small, single-stranded pieces of DNA are placed in test tubes with an enzyme that can make a
complementary DNA strand by using the original DNA strand as a template. A supply of the four
nucleotide bases found in DNA is then added, along with a small amount of one of the bases
that has been labeled with fluorescent dyes.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

The goal of PCR is to amplify specific DNA sequences. This is important in detecting
diseases or infectious agents. To make copies of a piece of DNA, DNA is heated to separate its
two strands and then cooled to allow the primers to bind to the single-stranded DNA. The
primers are short DNA strands that provide a place for the DNA polymerase to start working. As
the polymerase starts working, new strands of the separated DNA are formed. Continuous
heating and cooling allow further separation of DNA and formation of new DNA strands,
respectively, creating millions of copies of the DNA segments.
Figure 3. Process involved in DNA sequencing
Figure 4. Results of polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

Processes Used in Recombinant DNA Technology

There are three methods by which recombinant DNA is made. These are transformation,
vectorless gene transfer, and transduction.
Transformation Using a Vector
Recombinant DNA may be created through transformation with the help of a vector, such
as bacterial cells. Vectors are organisms that are normally harmless but may help spread
infection by transferring the genetic material from one host to another. In the transformation
process, a selected portion of the foreign DNA is inserted into a small, circular DNA molecule
called the plasmid, which is naturally found in bacteria. Plasmids are the most useful tool in
gene transformation for two reasons. First, a plasmid contains a gene sequence that serves as
a bacteria origin of replication. This is where the foreign DNA can be inserted into the bacterial
cell. Second, it also contains a genetic marker, which makes it possible to distinguish bacteria
that carry the plasmid-containing foreign DNA. Some of these genetic markers code for
antibiotic resistance.
During transformation, a restriction endonuclease enzyme is used to cut the piece of
the donor DNA. This enzyme cleaves the DNA at the phosphate-sugar bond, and thus sticky
ends are created. Sticky ends are areas in the DNA where the bases are ready to be paired.
Restriction enzymes cut the DNA only at a specific nucleotide sequence. They work precisely
like a key that fits only one specific lock. Then, an enzyme known as DNA ligase is used to
insert the donor DNA into the vector. It seals the sticky ends by joining the phosphate and the
sugar bonds in the DNA. The inserted DNA also contains a genetic marker for identification.
The recombinant DNA is then inserted into a bacterial cell, such as E. coli.
After transformation, the culture is treated with an antibiotic. Those that have been
transformed will be the only ones to survive because they carry the resistance gene.
Figure 5. Summary of transformation using a vector
Vectorless Gene Transfer

This process is similar to transformation, but it does not involve vectors. The types of
vectorless gene transfer include electroporation, protoplast fusion, microinjection, and use of a
particle gun. In electroporation, temporary holes are formed in the plasma membrane of the
host cell by applying a significant amount of electricity in the culture medium. This enables the
entry of foreign DNA through the pores. In protoplast fusion, cells are treated with chemicals
to initiate recombination. In this process, bacterial cell walls are digested, turning the cells into
protoplasts. These protoplasts are treated with polyethylene glycol to allow them to fuse,
creating a random recombination of genes. The resulting recombinant cell will now grow a new
cell wall.
Figure 6. Processes involved in protoplast fusion
In microinjection, the host cell is

immobilized by applying a mild suction with a blunt
pipette. The foreign gene is then injected with a
microinjection needle, thus creating recombinant
DNA. Microinjection is commonly used in vitro
fertilization.
Figure 7. The DNA from a sperm cell is injected
into an egg cell.
In using a particle gun for

recombination, the host cell is
bombarded with tungsten particles
coated with foreign DNA. This
process is used in the field of
agriculture. Many farmers use this
method to genetically modify plants
to make them highly resistant to
insects and other pests. Some also
use this method to develop crops that
can survive extreme weather
conditions.
Figure 8. The particle gun method

Transduction
Transduction is the process wherein genetically engineered bacteriophages-viruses
that parasitize bacteria- are introduced into cell to create the desired recombinant DNA.
Figure 9. Steps involved in transduction.

Applications of Recombinant DNA

Several scientific advancements have led to many
genetic engineering techniques that are very beneficial to
us. It is now possible to transfer DNA sequence from one
organism to another. American researcher Steven Howell
and his associates at the University of California in San
Diego learned that even genes from two or more different
organisms can be made to work together. Howell’s team
tried to isolate the gene for luciferase- an enzyme that allows
fireflies to glow- and insert it into tobacco cells. When the
gene was activated from the recombinant cells, the plants
glowed in the dark. This means that the basic mechanisms
of gene expression are shared by both plants and animals.
Here are some of the benefits that we can get from
recombinant DNA.
Figure 10. A glow in the dark tobacco plant.
Agriculture
Transgenic plants are plants that contain genes
from other organisms. By using recombinant DNA technology, plants can now be grown with
genes responsible for producing natural insecticides. This technology reduces the need for
synthetic or artificial insecticides and pesticides. In the country, recent developments have
enabled plants to express a recombinant from a protein used by the Bacillus thuringiensis
bacterium. Recall the genetically modified maize or the Bt corn that is widely used in organic
farming because it is poisonous to certain pests. This is greatly beneficial to farmers because
Bt corn eliminates corn borers, which cause an enormous amount
of damage to corn crops in our country. Figure 11 shows how
Bacillus thuringiensis gene is inserted to produce Bt corn.
The following are some bacteria used in recombinant DNA
technology:
1. Pseudomonas syringae - The recombinant variant of this
bacterium is called the ice-minus bacterium, which lacks the gene
responsible for ice formation. The ice-minus bacteria prevent frost
crystals from forming on plants.
2. Pseudomonas fluorescens – This is a nonpathogenic bacterium
that can produce proteins rapidly. This characteristic is
advantageous in developing biotherapeutics and vaccines.
3. Agrobacterium tumefaciens – In its natural state, this bacterium
has a tumor-inducing (Ti) plasmid that causes crown gall disease
in plants. The said Ti plasmid in the bacterium can be removed and
replaced with a recombinant plasmid. This enables the now-
modified bacterium to introduce beneficial genes to plants.
Medicine
An important contribution of recombinant DNA technology
in the field of medicine is the use of bacteria to create substances Figure 11. Bacillus thuringiensis
that our body needs, whether to maintain good health or to treat a gene is inserted to produce Bt corn.
disease. For example, human insulin is created using recombinant
DNA to help diabetics. Also, the modified human growth hormone is widely used to support the
development of people who have a malfunctioning pituitary gland. This is of great benefit
because it avoids the practice of getting growth hormones from dead bodies, which can pose
serious health risks. Other important substances such as blood clotting factors (for people
suffering from hemophilia) and hepatitis B virus surface antigens (for people suffering from
hepatitis B) are also products of recombinant DNA technology.
The medicine is given to patients

To make certain targeted who was prescribed it.
medicines, special DNA The host cells are grown in batches,
sections are stitched producing the medicine.
together in a plasmid.
DNA is put into specially The medicine produced from

engineered host cell. rDNA is specially packaged.
Figure 12. How recombinant DNA technology is used in medicine.
Food industry
Recombinant technology has also improved
the food industry. Some of the crops that we eat are
now resistant to pests, diseases, and
environmental stress. As a result, crop yields have
increased and production costs have been kept
lowered. Recombinant crops also beneficial
because of their improved nutritional quality and
longer shelf life. Recombinant technology can also
be used for processing high-quality fermented
foods such as cheeses, pickles, wines, and
beers. Figure 13. Comparison between the borer-affected
corn crops (right) and Bt corn crops (left).
ANSWER SHEET (Please submit only the answers. Do not return the entire module.)
Name: ________________________________ Section: _______________________
LAST NAME, FIRST NAME MIDDLE INITIAL
ENGAGEMENT (WEEK 1)
Enabling Assessment Activity No.1: PROS ANS CONS
Directions: In 1 - 3 sentences, explain the pros and cons of recombinant DNA technology for
the following given category.
PROS CONS
Food Production
Pest Control
Medicine
Environment
Animals
___________________________________________________________________
SIGNATURE OVER PRINTED NAME OF PARENT/GUARDIAN
DATE: ______________
Name: ________________________________ Section: _______________________

ENGAGEMENT (WEEK 2)
Mini Performance Task No.1: DESIGNER GENES
Construct a genetically modified organism/trait in a fruit. (50 points)
1. Identify a special trait (e.g. large fruit size) ____________________________
2. Identify a source organism (e.g. langka) ____________________________
3. Identify a target organism (e.g. aratilis) ____________________________
4. Identify the modified trait (e.g. langka-sized aratilis) ____________________________
5. Illustrate your proposed “designer genes
Questions:
1. Has anyone done studies of this type before?
2. How possible is the proposed modification? Can the target organism support the proposed
trait?
3. What benefits would the recombinant organism provide to society?
___________________________________________________________________
DATE: ______________
What is the age of the Earth?

What was the Earth like millions of years ago?
Pre-requisite Content-knowledge: Origin of Life
Pre-requisite Skill: Able to differentiate the various geological times based on fossil records
and ancient events.
INTRODUCTION

C. RUA: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe general features of the
history of life on Earth, including generally accepted dates and sequence of the
geologic time scale and characteristics of major groups of organisms present during
these time periods.
D. INSTITUTIONAL VALUES: Critical Thinking and Scientific Literacy
E. OVERVIEW OF THE LESSON
. This lesson is about how life on Earth began. It discusses the history and origin of life,
including the sequence of the geologic time scale and the characteristics of major groups of
organisms present during those time periods.

DEVELOPMENT
History of Life on Earth
The first widely accepted idea of
how life on Earth formed was proposed
by the Russian chemist Alexander
Ivanovich Oparin (1894-1980) in the
1920s. He proposed that the
atmosphere of early Earth was very
reactive, with numerous incidents of
lightning and high levels of ultraviolet
radiation. Because of this highly
reactive atmosphere, Oparin thought
that the early oceans contained a
solution of many essential elements and
compounds. He referred to it as a
“primordial soup”, wherein the earliest
forms of life arose through a series of Figure 1. Graphical representation of
reactions that made simple compounds the different inorganic molecules
become complex. Chemical found on primitive Earth
compounds that were present in the
primordial soup included hydrogen sulfide, methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide, and phosphate
(Figure 1). Oxygen was not present on Earth during that time.
Since then, scientists have developed various intellectual procedures in identifying life’s
history by examining ancient rocks, petrified sap of ancient tree, tar pits, and even polar glaciers.
With the information obtained from rock layers and fossils worldwide, scientists have estimated
the relative age of Earth and identified the major groups of organisms that have survived on
Earth during a specific time frame.
The Origin of Life

Geologic pieces of evidence show that our
planet was formed by different pieces of cosmic
debris that were probably attracted to one another
over a course of about 100 million years. As it was
forming, it was struck by one or more meteor-like
objects, possibly one as large as Mars. The collision
most probably produced enough heat to melt the
entire globe. When Earth melted, the different
elements contained in it rearranged themselves
according to density. The densest elements formed Figure 2. Graphical representation of Earth’s early
the core of Earth. From there, radioactive decay atmosphere formed from volcanic gases.
generated enough heat to convert the interior of

Earth into molten rock. Moderate dense elements floated to the surface, forming Earth’s solid
crust; the less dense elements, which include hydrogen and nitrogen, formed the atmosphere.
The infant planet had a pinkish orange sky, and its early atmosphere contained hydrogen
cyanide, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, and water. No life-form
would have been able to survive that kind of harsh environment.
How Life Began
Scientists believe that microscopic cell-like
structures similar to modern bacteria appeared 200-300
million years after Earth cooled enough to carry water.
These cell-like structures were actually large organic
molecules known as proteinoid microspheres. Like
cells, they had a selectively permeable membrane that
allowed certain molecules to pass through them. They
also had a simple means of storing and releasing energy
in and out of their systems. Several hypotheses suggest
that structures like proteinoid microspheres might have Figure 3. A micrograph of proteinoid
acquired more cellular characteristics. microspheres
Evolution of RNA and DNA

One of the biggest questions regarding the history of Earth is how DNA and RNA have
evolved. There are no clear explanations now as to how they were initially formed, but some
scientists have made surprising discoveries regarding this area. One of the hypotheses about
the origin of life suggests the RNA could have evolved before DNA due to three conditions:
1) protein synthesis may occur in RNA but not in DNA;
2) RNA can catalyze certain reactions in the form of ribozymes; and,
3) the enzymatic reduction of RNA nucleotides enables the synthesis of DNA nucleotides. These
RNA nucleotides were able replicate, synthesis proteins, and store information.
Figure 4. Formation of RNA nucleotides from inorganic matter.
Origin of Eukaryotic Cells

Complex life began from simple prokaryotic organisms, which are said to be the
ancestors of eukaryotes. Recall that prokaryotic cells do not possess true nuclei. About two
billion years ago, they began forming internal cell membranes. Then, something radical seemed
to have happened because primitive prokaryotes entered the ancestral eukaryote. They did not
infect their host; instead, they formed an endosymbiotic relationship with it. Endosymbiosis is
a type of relationship wherein an organism lives inside its partner. According to the
endosymbiotic theory, eukaryotic cells created a symbiotic relationship with prokaryotic
organisms- one group can produce ATP, and the other group can do photosynthesis. These
organisms became mitochondria and chloroplasts, respectively. Due to modern technology and
the subsequent study of the endosymbiotic theory, scientists can support the theory’s claim. By
studying DNA structure and ribosomes, scientists have found out that mitochondria and
chloroplasts have many features like some forms of free-living bacteria present today. These
similarities provide strong evidence of common ancestry between free-living bacteria and the
organelles inside eukaryotic cells.
Multicellularity and Sexual Reproduction

Most prokaryotes reproduce asexually. After eukaryotic cells arose, they began to
reproduce sexually. This event caused the rapid evolution of more complex like-form. The
reason behind this far greater speed of evolution is the shuffling and reshuffling of genes from
one generation to the next. Unlike asexual reproduction that only produces offsprings that are
genetically identical to their parents, sexual reproduction produces organisms that never exactly
resemble their parents. These changes in genetic information result in increased chances of
evolutionary changes in a species. After the emergence of sexual reproduction, there came the
development of multicellular organisms from single-celled species.
We now have learned how life originated and how it happened at the microscopic scale.
Now, we must learn about the history of life on Earth at the macroscopic level. There are two
fields involved in providing us with fact on the timetable of the evolution of life on Earth:
paleontology and geology.
Paleontology
Paleontology is the scientific study of the existence
of life, including the origin and eventual destruction or
extinction of different groups of organisms. Paleontologists
specialize in studying the ecologies of the past and the
evolution of organisms that thrived in these ecologies
through careful observation and documentation of fossils.
They work to identify the forms of life that existed millions of
years ago. They figure out how things were in ancient times
using fossil records. An example of a fossil record is shown
in Figure 5, a fossil of Archaeopteryx lithographica from the
late Jurassic period. The Archaeopteryx is said to have had
many features of dinosaurs, which provide strong evidence
of the dinosaur ancestry of birds. These pieces of evidence
include sharp teeth, tiny forelimbs that have three claws, a Figure 5. Fossils of Archaeopteryx.
long bony tail, and a head covered with scales.
Geology
Geology is the study of life on Earth based on the evidence found on rocks. Geologists
are scientists who carefully study the different materials that make up Earth. They work to
understand the history of Earth by focusing on the changes of Earth over time in relation to
changes in climate and land formation. They specifically investigate rock formation and even
fossils to measure different physical properties of Earth.
Geologic Time Scale
To summarize, paleontologists look at the fossil remains of different types of organisms
beneath the surface of Earth to study primitive life, and geologists study the outer layer of Earth’s
crust to understand the history of Earth. They work together to understand the history or
evolution of life on Earth. They use the geologic time scale to divide Earth’s history into time
intervals. Scientists were able to develop the timescale by studying rock layers and index fossils
worldwide. The information obtained from these pieces of evidence made it possible for them
to identify the relative age of Earth.
Table 1. The geologic timescale
Eons
Eons are the largest divisions in the geologic timeline. They are composed of hundreds
of millions of years in duration. The recent one is the Phanerozoic eon, which began more than
500 million years ago. This eon is characterized by the existence of organisms that had
skeletons or hard shells. Proterozoic eon (from 2.5 billion years ago to 540 million years ago),
where the first multicellular organisms arose and where mass extinction occurred; the
Archaeozoic eon (from 3.9 to 2.5 billion years ago) where the first life-forms represented by
single-celled organisms appeared; and the Hadean eon (from 4.6 to 3.9 billion years ago), which
is characterized by Earth’s formation from dust and gases. The Proterozoic, Archaeozoic, and
the Hadean eons are sometimes collectively known as the Precambrian time, which accounts
for almost 90% of Earth’s history.
Eras
An eon can be divided into smaller time intervals known as eras. The Phanerozoic eon
is divided into three eras, namely, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras.
1. Paleozoic Era – This era began about 540 million years ago and lasted for about 300
million years. This is when fossil records became rich with evidence of many marine
organisms. During the Paleozoic era, mollusks developed the ability to be buoyant (to
float), echinoderms began to multiply, and coral reefs began to flourish.
Figure 6. An idea of the marine life during the Paleozoic era

2. Mesozoic era- This era began about 200 million years ago and lasted for about 180
million years. This era is also called the Age of Reptiles and, sometimes, the Age of
Dinosaurs because this is when many kinds of dinosaurs existed. The Mesozoic era is
also marked by the appearance of flowering plants. A fossil of one of the earliest known
salamanders during the Mesozoic era is shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7. A fossil of Karaurus sharovi from the Mesozoic era.

3. Cenozoic era- The Cenozoic era is considered to be the latest era in the geologic
timeline, which began from 65 million years ago up to the present. It is composed of the
Quaternary and Tertiary periods, which are characterized by the presence of primitive
mammals and modern human civilization. During the Cenozoic era, mammals have
evolved and adapted to live in various environments, including land, water, and even air.
Therefore, the Cenozoic era is sometimes called the Age of Mammals.
Figure 8. A mural of the animals that lived during the Cenozoic era.
Periods
Periods are further subdivisions of era. The Proterozoic eon is composed of the
Vendian/Ediacaran period. Prokaryotic organisms began to appear during this period, first with
the anaerobic life-forms, and then followed by the photosynthetic organisms, which added
oxygen to the atmosphere. However, life in this period only thrived underwater, and only a few
fossils existed because the animals were all soft-bodied.
The Paleozoic era has been divided into the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian,
Carboniferous, and Permian periods.
1. Cambrian Period- During this period, organisms have hard body parts such as shells
and outer skeletons. The first known representatives of most animal phyla evolved
during this period, which include jellyfishes, worms, and sponges. Also common during
this period were the brachiopods, which were small animals with two shells. These
organisms resembled (but were not related to) modern clams. Hard-shelled, segmented
creatures called trilobites were the most dominant macroscopic life-forms in this period.
The Modocia typicalis is a representative trilobite from the Cambrian period.
2. Ordovician Period- Primitive plants, fungi, fishes, and seaweeds appeared during this
period. The Ordovician is marked by the appearance of the first vertebrates, animals
with backbones, to appear in this period were jawless fishes which had sucker-like
mouths. The period is characterized by high sea levels, global cooling, glaciations, and
volcanism.
3. Silurian Period- The first that appeared in this period were jawed fishes and uniramians
(insects, centipedes, and millipedes). During the Silurian Period, the climate was
generally warm and stable, in contrast to the glaciers of the late Ordovician and the
extreme heat of the Devonian. The climate provided for one of the most significant
developments: the arrival of the first plants to colonize the land. Lichens were probably
the first photosynthetic organisms to cling to the rocky coasts of the early continents.
4. Devonian Period- Many plants, including ferns, adapted to drier, which allowed them to
invade other kinds of habitats. Aquatic areas, on the other hand, were mostly populated
with both invertebrates and vertebrates. This period is referred to as the Age of Fishes
because many groups of fishes have evolved during this period. Most of the fishes in
this period had jaws, bony skeletons, and scales. Sharks appeared in the later parts of
the period. A fernlike leaf fossil found during the Devonian period is shown in Figure 10.
Figure 9. A fossil of Modocia typicalis Figure 10. A fossil of Archaeopteris Hibernica
5. Carboniferous Period- The reptiles, animals with scaly skins that lay eggs with tough
leathery shells, evolved from amphibians. Large, winged insects evolved into many
forms, such as dragonflies and cockroaches. Also, giant ferns and other plants formed
vast swampy forests. The remains of ancient plants formed thick deposits of sediments
that changed into coal over millions of years, especially during the Carboniferous period.
6. Permian Period- The period is also known as the “Age of Amphibians because of the
domination of amphibians and a few reptiles on both land and water. Most plants during
the period included gymnosperms. Continents emerged into a single supercontinent
known as Pangaea.
Figure 11. Illustration of the environment

Figure 12. A fossil of Archaeopteris Hibernica
during the Carboniferous period
At the end of the Paleozoic era, many organisms became extinct, including trilobites and
many amphibians. The mass extinction at the end of the Paleozoic era affected both plants and
animals on land and even in the seas. As much as 95% of complex life-forms in the oceans
disappeared. However, those which survived the mass extinction included reptiles and groups
of fishes.
The Mesozoic era was divided into the Cretaceous, Jurassic, and Triassic periods.
These periods represent the age when many forms of dinosaurs are believed to have existed
on Earth. Their extinction could have been brought about by an asteroid impact or volcanism.
1. Triassic Period- Many organisms at the onset of the Triassic period survived the mass
extinction during the Permian period, including fishes, insects, reptiles, and cone-bearing
plants. Then, about 225 million years ago, the first dinosaurs appeared. One of the
earliest dinosaur species belonged to the genus Coelophysis, which were meat-eaters
that had light, hollow bones to help them run swiftly on their hind legs. Mammals also
appeared during the latter part of this period, which probably evolved from mammal-like
reptiles. Mammals during the Triassic period were very small (i.e., about the size of a
mouse). A remarkably complete skeleton of Coelophysis bauri, a very small dinosaur,
and a graphical representation of how Earth looked during the Triassic period are shown
in Figures 13a, and 13b, respectively.
Figure 13. (a) A fossil of Coelophysis bauri at a dinosaur museum in New Mexico; (b)
mural showing the flora and fauna that existed during the Triassic period.
2. Jurassic Period- Dinosaurs became the dominant animals on land for about 150 million
years. However, various types of land animals lived at different time frames.
Dicraeosaurus was one of the largest dinosaurs in this period with height of more than
2 meters, and length that is up to 12 meters. Archeopteryx, one of the earliest known
birds, also appeared in this period. Because of the presence of feathers, their similar
body structure, and the presence of scales usually on their feet, Archeopteryx made
paleontologists believe that birds are close relatives of dinosaurs.
Figure 14. Comparing the height of the Dicraeosaurus and an average adult human
3. Cretaceous Period- Reptiles were the dominant vertebrates on Earth during this period.
Also, several kinds of birds began to exist alongside Pterosaurus (flying reptiles).
Iguanodon and Triceratops species emerged as common herbivores, and
Tyrannosaurus rex (one of the largest and fiercest carnivorous dinosaurs) and
Spinosaurus were some of the dominant carnivores in this period. Other aquatic
organisms such as rays, sharks, corals, and sea stars, as well as marine reptiles such
as mosasaurs and plesiosaurs dominated different bodies of water. The angiosperms,
the flowering plants, also arose during this period. The cretaceous period ended with a
meteorite-caused mass extinction.
Figure 15. A replicated fossil of Tyrannosaurus rex

The Cenozoic era is divided into Tertiary and Quaternary periods.
1. Tertiary Period- This period is from 65 to 1.8 million years ago. This period started the
emergence of primitive mammals. During this period, Earth’s climate was generally
warm and mild. There was domination of Australopithecus (the first hominids). In
oceans, marine mammals such as whales and dolphins thrived. Flowering plants and
insects flourished on land. Grasses also emerged, providing a vital food source that
encouraged the evolution to today’s grass-eating mammals such as cattle, dear, and
sheep. Equus simplicidens is a grazing horse that lived during this period.
2. Quaternary Period- This period, coined as the “Age of Man”, is from 1.8 million years
ago up to the present and is characterized by a series of ice ages followed by warmer
climates. The earliest modern humans are believed to have existed at the start of this
period. Also, thick continental glaciers advanced and retreated over parts of Europe and
North America. A large portion of the bodies of water was frozen in continental glaciers,
causing the sea level to fall by more than 100 meters. Then, about 20 000 years ago,
Earth’s climate began to warm, causing the continental glaciers to melt, which resulted
in the increase in sea levels. Different marine organisms such as algae, corals, mollusks,
fishes, and sea mammals thrived. Flying insects shared the skies with birds. On land,
mammals such as bats, cats, dogs, cattle, and mammoths became common. Fossil
records suggest that the earliest ancestors of our species, called hominids, appeared
about 4.5 million years ago but they did not look entirely like modern humans. Modern
humans called Homo sapiens may have evolved as early as 100 000 years ago in Africa.
From there, they began a series of migrations, which resulted in the human colonization
of the world.
Epochs
Epochs are finer subdivisions shown in the Cenozoic era and parts of the Mesozoic era.
They are only done for the most recent portion of the geologic timescales because old rocks in
the late portions of the timescales have been buried deeply, causing them to be intensely
deformed and severely modified by long-term Earth processes.
Figure 19. Fossil skeleton of Equus simplicidens Figure 20. A fossil of a male mammoth
Name: ________________________________ Section: _______________________

ENGAGEMENT (WEEK 3)
Enabling Assessment Activity No.2. HISTORY OF LIFE ON EARTH
Directions: Listed in the first column are different eons with respective eras and periods.
Indicate 2 species for each period.
EON ERA PERIOD SPECIES

1.
Quaternary
2.
Cenozoic
1.
Tertiary
2
1.
Cretaceous
2
P 1.
H Mesozoic Jurassic
2
A
1.
N Triassic
2
E
1.
R Permian
2
O
1.
Z Carboniferous
2
O
I 1.
Devonian
C 2
Paleozoic
1.
Silurian
2
1.
Ordovician
2
1.
Cambrian
2
1.
Proterozoic
2
Also known
1.
as Pre- Pre-Cambrian Archean
2
Cambrian
1.
Hadean
2
___________________________________________________________________
DATE: ______________
Who is the proponent of the theory of natural selection?

Identify or give an organism which can be an animal or a plant species.
Pre-requisite Content-knowledge: Evolution
Pre-requisite Skill: Knowledge on the different types of theories related to the evolution of the
species
INTRODUCTION

C. RUA: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to
1. Explain the mechanisms that produce change in populations from generation to
generation (e.g., artificial selection, natural selection, genetic drift, mutation,
recombination); and
2. Show patterns of descent with modification from common ancestors to produce the
organismal diversity observed today.
. This lesson discusses the important role of genes in the evolution of an organism. It
also discusses the mechanisms that greatly affect the population of organisms’ overtime.

DEVELOPMENT
The number and the kinds of organisms living on Earth at a particular time is called
biological diversity. How organisms arose and how they are all related are some of the
interesting questions relating to life’s diversity. The evolutionary theory is the scientific
explanation of the diversity of life. Evolution, or change over time, is the process of how
present-day organisms have descended from ancient ones. A theory is a well-supported,
testable explanation of a natural phenomenon.
A. Natural Selection
A key factor for an organism to thrive and reproduce
depends on how well-suited the organism is to the
environment. The ability of an individual to survive and
reproduce in a specific environment is called its fitness. For
an individual to be fit in an environment, it must successfully
adapt to it. The concept of fitness is the central process of
evolution by natural selection. Individuals with
characteristics that are not suited to the environment either
die or live with few offspring, whereas individuals with
characteristics that are very much suited to the environment Figure 1. The Raphus cucullatus or dodo bird.
survive and reproduce successfully. Over time, natural
selection results in changes in the inherited characteristics of a population. These changes in

characteristics increase a species’ fitness in its environment.
One example of an organism that has become extinct is the dodo bird, found on the
small island of Mauritius in the Indian Ocean, east of Madagascar. Dodos were nonflying,
overweight, pigeonlike birds that were allegedly unfit to the environment. This made them easy
prey and became the reasons for their extinction. Over long periods of time, natural selection
produces organisms with improved body structures and habitats. As a result, present-day
organisms are different from their ancestors.
The principle of common descent means that all organisms share common ancestry.
Using these principles, we can think of a single tree of life that links all organisms on Earth. The
phylogenetic tree represents the evolutionary relationships among sets or groups of organisms
called taxa. The tips of the tree represent the groups of descendant taxa and the nodes on the
tree represent common ancestors of those descendants. Two descendants that split from the
same node are called sister groups. The origin of life indicated in the lowest part of the diagram
is the common ancestor for all the archaeans, bacteria, and eukaryotes.
Figure 2. The phylogenetic tree.

Types of Natural Selection

1. Directional selection
This happens when a change in the environment causes a change in the observable
spectrum of phenotypes. In this process, organisms with a phenotype that is well-suited to their
current environment are more likely to survive. One example can be seen in the changes in
peppered moths present in England in the 18th and 19th centuries. The original population of
peppered moths was predominantly light in color, so they were able to blend with light-colored
trees and lichens in the environment. However, as industries developed, the trees darkened
because of the soot coming from these
industries, so the light-colored moths became
easier to spot.as a result, they became easy
prey. Because of this change in environment
conditions, there was a gradual shift over time
in their phenotype-from light to dark color-to
increase their chances of survival. The first
black peppered moth was recorded in 1848.
By 1895, 98% of peppered moths were black
Figure 3. Light-colored and dark-colored moths.
in color.
2. Stabilizing selection
This occurs when intermediate phenotypes are more likely to survive in the environment.
For example, in a population of deer that live in the woods, those that blend well with the forest
are less likely to be spotted by predators.
3. Disruptive or diversifying selection
This occurs when extreme phenotypes are more likely to adapt to the environment. A
classic example can be seen in many populations of animals with multiple male mating
strategies, such as lobsters. Large alpha males can obtain a mate by force, whereas small
males can sneak in to copulate with females in an alpha male’s territory. In this situation, both
large and small lobsters will be naturally selected, but medium sized males, which cannot
overtake large males and are too big to sneak unlike small males, will not be favored.
Figure 4. Different types of natural selection.

Artificial Selection
In artificial selection, nature provides the variation among different organisms so that
humans can select the variations that are useful to them through a technique called selective
breeding. This type of mechanism is done by farmers and breeders. In this process, individuals
with desirable traits or characteristics are bred to increase the chances of having offspring with
the same desirable traits. With the help of artificial selection, breeders can produce a wide range
of plants and animals that look very different from their ancestors. Artificial selection is widely
used today to shape a variety of traits. Figure 5 shows how artificial selection was used on the
wild mustard. Farmers have cultivated numerous crops from the wild mustard by considering
the desired traits breeding them; thus, different kinds of vegetables were produced.
Figure 5. Some of the common vegetables that have been cultivated from the wild mustard
include cabbage, broccoli, and cauliflower.
Nonrandom Mating
Nonrandom mating also contributes to the population change from one generation to the
next. This is described as the selected probability of mating with another individual in the
population. Nonrandom mating may take forms, namely, inbreeding and outbreeding.
Inbreeding is when individuals are more likely to mate with their close relatives than
with distant relatives. In this manner, individuals choose their mates based on the genetic
history. This type of breeding results in changes in genotype frequencies, Although the
frequencies of alleles in the population remain unchanged. One example was practiced by royal
families several years ago, when they preferred marrying only other royal members to keep their
bloodlines ‘pure’. The problem with this type of breeding is that there is a higher chance of
inheriting disease conditions caused by harmful recessive genes.
Outbreeding happens when individuals select distant relatives than close relatives as
their partners. In this type of breeding, individuals with similar phenotypes are more likely to
mate. In humans, if short girls prefer only short guys, then there would be a higher frequency of
short alleles in the population. Figure 6 shows an example of inbreeding and outbreeding that
may happen to snakes. Note that there is a deleterious allele that may be expressed when there
is inbreeding. This deleterious allele decreases the fitness of the organism carrying it.
Figure 6. Inbreeding and outbreeding of snakes.
Genetic Drift
Genetic drift is caused by unpredictable changes in allele frequencies due to small
population sizes. Thus, a certain allele can be passed on to numerous offspring by chance.
Over a period of time, many individuals with that certain
allele can become common in the given population.
Population bottleneck occurs when a sudden
sharp decline in the population (usually from natural
disasters such as volcanic activities and strong weather
disturbances) results in a drastic reduction of the total
genetic diversity of the original population. The surviving
population is considerably different from the original
population in terms of genetic makeup. Figure 7 shows
that the current genetic makeup of a certain population
will come from the organisms that have survived the
bottleneck effect. Figure 7. The bottleneck effect.
Founder effect happens when there is loss of genetic variation because of the migration
of a small subgroup in a population. Due to the small population size and the geographical or
social isolation of the population from other organisms of the same species, some genetic traits
prevalent in the subgroup may lead to the presence of certain genetic diseases in the next
generation. Figure 8 shows the migration of red beetles in an island, which resulted in a
completely different genetic structure of the red beetles. The migration of red beetles caused a
new population that does not represent the genetic diversity of the original red beetle population.
If the species that migrated carries a specific genetic disease, then that disease can be passed
on from one generation to another.
Figure 8. The migration of red beetles in an island.

Mutation
Mutation is change in the structure of a gene caused by alterations in the DNA sequence
of an organism. There are different types of mutations according to the mechanism done to the
DNA molecule. The first one is called substitution, which occurs when the genetic codon has
one altered nitrogenous base. Substitution may cause the following effects:
● It may cause changes in the protein structure because the alteration of the codon
causes a change in the amino acid produced.
● It may cause a silent mutation, wherein an unaltered nitrogenous base still produces a
codon that encodes for the same amino acid.
● It may change an amino acid producing codon into a stop codon, causing a formation of
an incomplete protein.
Another type of mutation is called insertion, which is characterized by the addition of an
extra set of base pairs to the genetic material. The third type of mutation, called deletion, occurs
when a set of base pairs in the genetic material is omitted. Insertions and deletions in the genetic
material cause another type of mutation known as frameshift. This happens when the
information is no longer parsed correctly, resulting in the production of useless proteins.
Mutations may occur because of mistakes in the replication of genetic materials or
because of exposure to radiation or chemicals in the environment. Many mutations produce
changes in the phenotype of organisms. Thus, their ability to survive and reproduce in the
environment is already affected.
Mutation may be either neutral or beneficial. A neutral mutation affects the organism's
phenotype but has no impact on its survival or reproduction. One example is the change in the
eye color of an organism. The phenotype is affected but has no impact on the survival of
organisms.
Beneficial mutation, on the other hand, affects the phenotype of organisms, resulting
in an increase in their chances of survival or reproduction. Example, a mutation experiment
done to Escherichia coli allowed it to metabolize citrate, which was not normally done before.
This entirely new ability gave E. coli increased complexity provided by beneficial mutation.
Reflect Upon
What positive changes would you want to be incorporated in your genes? Explain why.
Figure 9. Different types of mutation: (a) substitution (b) insertion (c) deletion.
Recombinations
Recombination is simply a rearrangement of genes. This process naturally occurs during
the crossing over stage in meiosis, where there is an exchange of DNA between homologous
chromosomes. Crossing over enables the offspring to have new gene sequences, resulting in
variation of traits. Figure 10 shows the events during crossing over in meiosis. In recombination,
a portion of each homologous chromosome is exchanged with one another. Thus, the offspring
inherit chromosomes with partially new sequences of alleles.
Gene Flow (Migration)
Gene flow is also known as migration. This happens when there is transfer of genes
from the gene pool of one population to another. There are two types of migration emigration
and immigration. Emigration happens when organisms leave habitat, and immigration
happens when organisms enter another habitat and live in it. Both types affect the number of
alleles that are present in the population.
An example of gene flow is when some plant species spread their pollen in long
distances to other populations in other places by means of wind, birds, or insects. There is
movement of alleles because the pollen grains that have been sent to long distances are able
to fertilize the plants.
Figure 10. Crossing over in meiosis.
Figure 11. Two different populations demonstrating gene migration during two time periods.
Name: ________________________________ Section: _______________________

ENGAGEMENT (WEEK 4)
Enabling Assessment Activity No.3. MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTIONARY CHANGE
Directions: In each example, state whether it shows diversifying, directional, or

stabilizing selection. Then write the reason for choosing that type of selection (10
points).
1. Small lizards have difficulties defending their territories, but large lizards are likely to
be preyed upon by owls.
Type of selection:______________________________________________________
Possible reason:_______________________________________________________
2. Females may suffer complications when giving birth to very large offspring. When
they give birth to small offspring, they are usually underdeveloped.
Possible reason:_______________________________________________________
3. A cow prefers consuming tall grasses than short ones.

Possible reason:_______________________________________________________
4. Hawaiian honeycreepers tend to have long and slender beaks to get the nectar of
the flower better than those who have short and wide beaks.
Possible reason:_______________________________________________________
5. Seed-eating birds in Palawan may only have either large or small beak sizes.
Possible reason:_______________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
DATE: ______________
Who is the proponent of the theory of natural selection?

Identify or give an organism which can be an animal or a plant species.
Pre-requisite Content-knowledge: Evolution
Pre-requisite Skill: Knowledge on the different types of theories related to the evolution of the
species
INTRODUCTION
1. Trace the development of evolutionary thought;
2. Explain evidences of evolution (e.g., biogeography, fossil record, DNA/protein
sequences, homology, and embryology); and
3. Infer evolutionary relationships among organisms using the evidence of evolution.
. This lesson explains the earliest evolution, from the timeline and development of
evolutionary thought to the relationships among organisms using the evidence of evolution.

DEVELOPMENT
Development of Evolutionary Thought
The earliest concepts of evolution started in the 18th century when many naturalists
began to state the idea that life might not have been fixed since creation. Palaeontologists
discovered many fossils that gave them a picture of the past.
Table 1. A timeline of evolutionary thought
Scientist Ideas/Concepts/Contributions
17th Century
John Ray (1627-1705)
He established the modern concept of a species, noting that

members of one species do not interbreed with members of another
species. He first used the term species as the basic unit of taxonomy.
He also studied fossils and recognized them as remnants of
organisms that were once alive.
18th Century
Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778)
He developed the modern taxonomic system that is still used

today.
Georges Louis Leclerc, Comte De Buffon (1707-1788)

He wrote a 36-volume Histoire Naturelle (Natural history) series. He
contributed to the debate on the age of Earth, suggesting that our
planet had initially formed in a molten state and that its gradual
cooling must have taken far longer than 70 00 years. He also
considered the roe of vestigial organs, creating a possibility of
species descending from earlier organisms.
Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802)
He was Charles Darwin’s grandfather. He was aware that the

modern organisms are different from the fossils scientists have
collected. He believed that the offspring inherited features from their
parents, and that the organisms today descended from a common
ancestor.
Georges Cuvier (1769-1832)

He studied and wrote books on comparative anatomy, which were
extremely useful in interpreting the remains of fossils. He classified
animals based on their body plans. His studies about fossils
contributed and gave rise to the science of paleontology. He
recognized that particular groups of fossil organisms were linked
with certain rock strata.
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829)
He proposed the theory of use and disuse, which stated that

organisms develop their traits due to the frequent use of such. He
also proposed that those traits may be passed on to their offspring.
James Hutton (1726-1797)

He made a significant contribution regarding the understanding of
the geological processes that shaped Earth. He recognized the
Earth is extremely old and that there was no need for global
catastrophes to shape the surface of Earth. He was the proponent
of uniformitarianism, which states that the present geological
features of Earth are the results of gradual processes such as
erosion and sedimentation.
19th Century
Charles Lyell (1797-1875)

He considered the shaping of Earth’s surface as a result of gradual
long-term natural changes. He also collected many pieces of
evidence to support the principle of uniformitarianism and wrote
about them in his book Principles of Geology, which was also
influential to the creation of Charles Darwin’s theory.
Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882)

He came up with the idea that the best-adapted organisms are
those that can survive to breed and pass on their traits to their
offspring. One of his highlighted contributions was the development
of his theory of evolution by natural selection as a coherent
explanation for the form and distribution of species in different
locations.
Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913)

Although he made an independent study on the origin of organisms,
Wallace arrived at the same conclusion as Darwin’s: that organisms
with favorable traits are those that carry on to the next generation.
Thus, Wallace had contributed to some of the postulates of Darwin’s
theory of evolution.
Figure 1. Charles Darwin’s expeditions in the H.M.S Beagle
Charles Darwin and His Theory of Evolution

Charles Robert Darwin contributed significant ideas on our current understanding of
evolution. He was born in England on 12 February 1809. In 1831, Darwin went aboard the H.M.S
Beagle in its voyage around the world. The route of H.M.S. Beagle is shown in Figure 1.
Every time he travelled, Darwin read scientific books, collected plant and animal
specimens as evidence, and recorded many of his observations, which served as hypotheses
on how life changes over time. He was well educated, and he had a strong interest in natural
history that made him excited to study the diversity of life on Earth. His most famous travel
involved a trip to the Galapagos Islands, composed of many small islands located 1000 km
west of South America. The islands have differing climates despite the proximity of the island
with one another. What struck him the most were his observations of several animals that
inhabited the islands. He noted that the characteristics of certain animals, such as the shape of
tortoise shells or the beaks of birds, vary from one island to another. He also found out that the
species present in one location were different from the species found in other locations, and
what seemed like animals that look alike may actually belong to several different species. (e.g.,
mockingbird).
Darwin wrote and published a book entitled On the Origin of Species, in which he
proposed the now famous theory of evolution by natural selection. He then presented pieces of
evidence demonstrating this process, which according to him has been taking place for millions
of years.
Darwin also tried to explain how evolution occurs naturally. With the help of what he
learned from Thomas Malthus, an English economist, Darwin realized that high birth rates and
a storage of life’s basic needs would eventually force organisms into competition for resources.
The struggle for existence means that members of each species compete to obtain food, living
space, and other necessities of life. In this struggle, those that are stronger and faster are able
to hunt for food and protect themselves from their enemies. This struggle for existence was vital
to Darwin’s theory of evolution.
Jean- Baptiste Lamarck and His Theory of Evolution
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, a French naturalist, was one of the first scientists to recognize
that living things have changed over time. He proposed that all species descended from other
species. In 1809, Lamarck published his theory of how organisms changed over time. His main
ideas included that through selective use or disuse of organs, organisms may acquire or lose
certain traits during their lifetime. Additionally, those traits that have been acquired can be
passed onto the next generation. Over time, this process led to changes in a species.
Theory of Use and Disuse

According to the theory of use and disuse, organisms could alter the size, shape, or
structure of particular body parts or organs by continuously using them in new ways. Lamarck
proposed that giraffes used to have short necks (Figure 2). However, their increase in population
caused a shortage in their food supply on the ground; thus, they tried to eat the leaves on the
trees to survive. To be able to reach these leaves giraffes needed to stretch their necks, as
Lamarck proposed. Such continuous stretching over time enabled the next generation of giraffes
to have longer necks.
Figure 2. The elongation of the giraffe’s neck according to the theory of use and disuse
Further, the theory of disuse states that if an animal chooses not to use its body part,
that body part or organ would eventually decrease in size for several generations until it finally
disappears. An example of this is the vestigial limb structures found in snakes. Shown in Figure
3 are the spurs, or vestigial limbs of the snakes. According to the theory of disuse, because
ancestral snakes did not use their feet, these body parts eventually became underdeveloped.
Vestigial body parts or organs are those that have become functionless in the course of
evolution.
Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics

This theory states that organisms inherited their traits from their parents, and that they
may also pass them on to the next generation of offspring. One good example that illustrates
this process is the presence of long trunks in elephants, as seen in Figure 4. Lamarck believed
that the ancestors of elephants had short trunks. As ancestral elephants struggled for food and
water, their trunks stretched to reach the water and branches. Their offspring eventually
inherited the trait for long trunks.
Figure 3. The spurs of male snake Figure 4. Evolution of elephants.

Lamarck‘s theories of use and disuse and of inheritance of acquired characteristics
proved to be incorrect in several ways. Unlike Darwin, Lamarck was not aware of how traits
were inherited. He did not know that inheritable characteristics of organisms are not affected by
their behavior. His theory, for example, about elephants was quite different from Darwin’s. For
Darwin, most elephants used to have short trunks, and some had longer trunks. When there
was scarcity of food and water, those with short trunks were not able to reach the water and
food, and they eventually died. The ones with longer trunks survived and reproduced.
Evidence of Evolution
Many other observations can be used as pieces of evidence for evolution. These include
biogeography or the geographical distribution of organisms, fossil records, DNA and protein
sequences, presence of homologous structures, and embryology.
Biogeography
Biogeography is the study of the distribution of plants and animals on Earth. The
distribution of organisms in an environment can be used as an important tool for explaining
evolution. As observed by Darwin in the Galapagos Islands, there were finches with different
shapes of beaks depending on their geographical locations. Each species was slightly different
from the others. Using this observation, Darwin was able to infer that these finches could have
descended with modification from a common mainland ancestor. Because different locations
have different natural conditions, different animals ended up developing certain striking features.
Figure 5. Different Galapagos finches as observed by Darwin and South American

finch.
Fossil Record
A fossil contains preserved remains or evidence of ancient organisms. Fossil records
provide strong evidence of the history of life on Earth. They also show how different groups of
organisms have changed over time. Figure 6 shows how fossils form.
Figure 6. Formation of fossil layers

One interesting fact about fossils is that they reveal how life on Earth changed from one
period of time to the next because they appear in a particular order. Fossils of ancient organisms
appear on older rocks. Also, there are fossils that appear on a certain rock layer only. By
studying fossil records, paleontologists have found out that almost 99 percent of all species that
have lived before became extinct. This means that we should really know how to protect the
organisms that exist today.
Homology
Another evidence of evolution can be found by studying and comparing certain body
parts of different animals. For example, as seen in Figure 7, the limbs of four modern
vertebrates, including humans, cats, whales, and bats, have bone structures that are quite
similar. These are called homologous structures. Such structures may have different mature
forms, but they came from the same set of embryonic tissues. Some of the limbs shown in the
picture are arms, legs, wings, and even flippers. Even if they may have different functions among
these animals, they are all constructed from the same basic features. This means that each limb
has adapted in ways that allow each organism to survive in different environments.
Embryology
Another evidence is the similarities in the early development of various organisms.
Different organisms have similar structures during their early embryological development. In
Figure 8, four different types of organisms, which almost have the same early stage of
development. The shared embryological development of organisms is responsible for the similar
growth of their homologous structures.
Figure 7. Homologous structures of different organisms Figure 8. Similarities in the embryological structures
The comparative embryology among different species suggests that there is common
ancestry because all the embryos have similar early development stages.
DNA/Protein Sequences
The study of DNA and protein sequences is important for identifying the evolution of
organisms on Earth. In fact, DNA sequencing is the most advanced tool or evidence for
evolution. Similarities in DNA sequences among organisms indicate their close relation with one
another.
By studying DNA sequences, scientists were able to discover that chimpanzees have
DNA that are identical to humans. About one-third of the genes of chimpanzees code for
proteins that are exactly the same as humans. This strongly suggests that humans and chimps
share a common ancestor. Another example can be observed in the DNA sequences of dogs
and wolves, which share many similarities. However, if you compare their DNA sequences to
that of the mouse, you would observe fewer similarities. Note the dogs and mice have
backbones and are mammals. This means that dogs and mice, although distant in relation, may
also share common ancestry.
By comparing DNA sequences, scientists can determine how closely related one
species is with another. Studying DNA and other molecular pieces of evidence makes it easier
to trace the evolutionary history of organisms.
Name: ________________________________ Section: _______________________

ENGAGEMENT (WEEK 5)
Mini Performance Task No.2. THE MANKIND FUTURE
Directions: (Group Activity): In 1/8 illustration board, create a drawing regarding the
topic below.
Knowing the pieces of evidence of evolution, how do you see the human
population a million years from now?
Rubrics:
Criteria 5 4 3 2
Required Elements Goes over and above Includes all of the Missing one or more of Several required
all the required required elements as the required elements elements are missing
elements stated in the stated in the as stated in the from the project
directions & directions/instructions directions/instructions
instructions
Creativity Exceptionally clever Thoughtfully and A few original touches Shows little creativity,
and unique in showing uniquely presented; enhance the project to originality and/or effort
deep understanding clever at times in show some in understanding the
showing understanding understanding of the material
of the material material
Understanding of Shows a sophisticated Shows an Displays a somewhat Does not show an
Content understanding of the understanding of the limited understanding understanding of the
themes in the work major themes of the of the book. May have text. Misses plot points
book a few and has quite a few
misinterpretations misinterpretations
Presentation The presentation The presentation The presentation The presentation
provides clear evidence adequately shows shows some evidence shows little or no
of learning evidence of learning but not sufficient evidence of learning.
enough learning.
What makes you unique and what makes you similar to your relatives? To your classmates?
Pre-requisite Content-knowledge: Taxonomy
Pre-requisite Skill: Basic knowledge on the types of evidence for species diversity and
cladistic
INTRODUCTION
1. Explain how the structural and developmental characteristics and relatedness of
DNA sequences are used in classifying living things;
2. Identify the unique/ distinctive characteristics of a specific taxon relative to other
taxa; and
3. Describe species diversity and cladistics, including the types of evidence and
procedures that can be used to establish evolutionary relationships.
. This lesson is about how structural and developmental characteristics of DNA
sequence are used in classifying organisms and the evidences used to establish
evolutionary relationships. It also discusses the significant contribution of scientists in
taxonomy.

DEVELOPMENT
History of Taxonomy
Taxonomy (from ancient Greek words taxis, which means “arrangement’, and nomia,
which means “method”) is a science that deals with the classification of organisms based on
shared characteristics.
Table 1. Scientists and their contributions in taxonomy.
Name and Contribution Image
Aristotle (384-322 BC)

● Was the first Greek philosopher to classify organisms
● Classified invertebrates and vertebrates as animals without
blood and with blood, respectively
● Also divided animals based on how they give birth (e.g.,live-
bearing and egg-bearing) , and grouped invertebrates into
insects, crustaceans, and mollusks
Theophrastus (372-287 BC)
● Wrote in his book Historia Plantarum the different classification

of 480 species of known plants
● Classified plants based on their growth forms
Pedanius Dioscorides (40-90 AD)

● A Greek physician who traveled to Rome and Greece to gather
information about medicinal plants
● Wrote the book De Materia Medica, which contained
information on about 600 species based on their medicinal
properties.
Gaius Plinius Secundus (23-79 AD)
• Wrote many books including Naturalis historia, which is

composed of 160 volumes on plants that were given Latin
names.
Andrea Cesalpino (1519-1603)
• Wrote De Plantis that showed information on 1 500 plant

species, which are classified based on growth habits, as well
as fruit and seed forms.
Bauhin Brothers - Johann (1541-1613) & Gaspard Bauhin

(1560-1624)
● Wrote the book Pinax Theatri Botanici (the word pinax means
“register”) which contained information on 6000 plant species
● Included the synonyms of plant species, which gave a
semblance of order in the taxonomic world
● Recognized the genus and the species as major taxonomic
levels of organisms
John Ray (1627-1705)

● Established the species as the ultimate unit of taxonomy
● Published the book Methodus Plantarum Nova, which
contained information on 18000 plant species as a result of
relatively narrow species concept
● His classification of plants published in the book ‘Historia
Plantarum’ was an important step toward modern taxonomy
Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656-1708)

• Published Institutiones Rei Herbariae, which consists of
information on 9 000 plant species listed in 698 genera, based
on floral characters
Carl Linnaeus (1707-1788)

● Developed binary nomenclature, which still used today by
taxonomists
● Published several books including Species Plantarum and the
10th edition of Systema Naturae, which were regarded as the
starting points of modern botanical and zoological taxonomy
● Categorized at least 8000 different plants and animals based
on their morphological characteristics
Michel Adanson (172-1806)

• Wrote the book Families des Plantes, which gave an idea that
classifying organisms should be based on a great range of
characters
Antoine Laurent de Jussieu (1748-1836)
● Changed the systems of plant classifications with his published

book Genera Plantarum
● Established the “family” rank as the between “genus” and
“class”
Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919)
• Introduced the three-kingdom scheme by adding Kingdom

Protista
Edouard Chatton (1883-1947)
• Coined the term prokaryotes (cells without nucleus) and

eukaryotes (cells with nucleus)
Herbert Copeland (1902-1968)
• Established the four-kingdom classification scheme
Robert Whittaker (1920-1980)

• Introduced the five-kingdom classification scheme by
introducing Kingdom Fungi
Carl Woese (1928-2012)

• Introduced kingdom Archaebacteria in the 1970s, which led to
the rise of the three-domain system two decades later
Phylogeny
Classification systems used by modern taxonomists are based on many evolutionary
clues. These clues do not only come from the internal and external anatomy of organisms-they
also include patterns of embryological development and molecular biochemistry. Organisms are
now grouped into categories that present lines of evolutionary descent. In this modern approach,
species placed within the same genus should be more closely related than to species of any
other genera. Genera placed within a family should be more closely related than to members of
any other families. The same is true for all the other taxonomic levels, including kingdoms. The
natural system of classification based on the evolutionary history or genealogy shared by a
group of organisms is known as phylogeny.
The phylogeny of organisms can be traced using phylogenetic trees. Phylogenetic
trees show the evolutionary relationships of organisms based on the best available pieces of
evidence. They are like the family tree used to trace the lineage of a person to his or her set of
ancestors. The information gathered on an organism and its relatives affect the accuracy of the
phylogenetic tree.
Cladistics
Cladistics is an analytical method of refining the evolutionary classification of
organisms. It involves identifying shared derived characteristics. These characteristics are traits
that evolved in only one species and are present only in its descendants.
Shared derived characteristics can be shown in a cladogram. A cladogram is a diagram
that represents the evolutionary relationships among organisms. An example of a cladogram is
shown in Figure 1. Notice that the cladogram has a five-branch pattern. It simply reflects an
important assumption that existing groups of organisms are divided into five kinds as a new kind
of organism arises. The branching lines in a cladogram represent evolutionary lineage. For
example, for the trait “eggs with shells”, only crocodiles and birds are included. You will see that
they came from an ancestor with vertebrae.
Another way of looking into the cladogram is by noting the lengths of its branches. The
length of each branch signifies the length of time in producing a change in characteristics. These
lines and their corresponding lengths can be thought of as timelines that indicate when a
particular characteristic emerged, or when a particular lineage deviated from the common
ancestor. Cladograms are tools that help scientists understand how one linage branched from
another in the course of evolution.
Figure 1. An example of a cladogram.

Importance of Naming Organisms
In FiIipino, a dog is called aso. In other countries, it is called inu (Japanese), gae
(Korean), chien (French), and anjing (Malaysia), to name a few. The word “dog” can be
translated to over 80 different languages around the world.
In this example, note that a single species, the dog, can be called using different names.
Without a specific or unique name for that species, it is impossible to have a proper reference
to that specific organism. By creating a system of naming organisms, confusion can be avoided.
Common names vary among languages and even regions within a single country. The
scientific name uses Latin words, the language commonly used by 18th-century scientists.
Binomial Nomenclature
Carl Linnaeus (or Carolus Linnaeus) offered
the first comprehensive, consistent, and much simpler
method of naming and organizing species, which is
now called binomial nomenclature. The binomial
nomenclature is a two-word naming system used to
name a species. In this naming system, each species
is assigned a two-part scientific name, wherein the first
word is capitalized, and the second word is set in
lowercase. For example, the Philippine crocodile, also
known as the Mindoro crocodile, has the scientific
name Crocodylus mindorensis. Figure 2. Lolong, largest Philippines crocodile.
The first part of the scientific name of the crocodile is Crocodylus. This represents the
genus to which the organism belongs. A genus is a group of closely related species. The genus
Crocodylus includes other kinds of crocodiles, including its extinct species.
The second part of the scientific name of crocodile is mindorensis. The name is unique
to the species within the genus Crocodylus. The second name is called the specific epithet. It
describes an important trait or the location where the organism lives. The specific epithet
mindorensis means that the crocodile in Figure 2 was originally found in Mindoro, Philippines.
The scientific name is sometimes followed by the name of the author or scientist who
first gave the scientific name of the species. Different ways are used to name organisms, such
as descriptive names, ecological names, geographical names, and even names without any
definite meaning. To summarize, here are things to note when creating an organism’s specific
epithet:
1. The specific name may portray the organism’s major characteristics or its common
local name. One example is the common cat (Felis catus). The specific epithet catus
means that the species is a domesticated cat.
2. The locality, collector, or eminent person can be used in the specific epithet. For
example, Phyllium bonifacioi is a leaf insect species found in the Philippines. It bears the
name of the Filipino revolutionary hero Andres Bonifacio. This species is the latest
addition to the genus Phyllium, one of the four genera of the family Phylliidae.
3. The specific epithet may be used to describe some of the characteristics of the
species. For example, Dendronotus albus is the scientific name of a sea slug, which is
a marine gastropod. The specific epithet albus is a Latin word that means “white”. The
sea slug’s scientific name is based on its color.
4. The specific epithet may also be an ecological name, or the habitat to which the
organism was first observed. For example, Ixora philippinensis is commonly known as
the Philippine santan. Its specific epithet, philippinensis, indicates that it can be found in
the Philippines. This santan species is an evergreen shrub that can be specifically found
in the forests of central and southern Luzon.
Figure 3. Felis catus Figure 4. Phyllium bonifacioi Figure 5. Dendronotus albus Figure 6. Ixora philippinensis
Linnaeus’s System of Classification

In taxonomy, a group or level of organization is called a taxonomic category, or a taxon
(plural:taxa). Linnaeus’s system classification uses seven taxa, which are arranged in logical
order from the most general (kingdom) to the most specific (species): kingdom, phylum, class,
order, family genus, and species. In interpreting the taxon hierarchy, the similarity among
organisms is inversely proportional to the number of species. For example, if you go higher in
the Linnaean hierarchy of taxa, expect a decrease in similarities among organisms, but expect
an increase in the number of organisms that belong to that taxon. On the other hand, if you go
lower in the Linnaean hierarchy of taxa, expect an increase in similarities among organisms, but
expect a decrease in the number of organisms in that taxon.
Kingdom - The kingdom is the largest and most

inclusive among the Linnaean taxa. During
Linnaeus’s time, he only classified two kingdoms,
namely, kingdom Animalia and Kingdom Plantae.
This taxon has the greatest variety of organisms.
Kingdoms deal with the main division where all
organisms on Earth are classified. It includes the
following: eubacteria, archaebacteria, fungi, plants,
and animals. This classification of this taxon is
based mainly on structure.
Phylum - Kingdoms are made up of different
phyla (singular: phylum). Phylum is one of the
major taxa used in classifying organisms. This
taxon includes many different organisms that
share important characteristics, which include
their body plans. For example, Phylum Chordata Figure 7. Hierarchy of taxa in the
is composed of different organisms with Linnaean system of classification.
vertebrae. This phylum consists of one or more
similar classes. The division is a counterpart of
phylum, which is more commonly used in plants.
Class- A class is a subdivision of a phylum. It is a taxon that broadly includes the major
organisms that are distinct from other organisms internally and externally. For example, Class
Mammalia includes animals that are warm-blooded, can produce milk for their young and have
body hair. A class is composed of similar orders.
Order- An order is a broad taxon composed of a number of similar families. In this taxon,
organisms are generally classified based on their characteristics. Animals are classified as
carnivores, herbivores, or primates.
Family - A family is a taxon that includes one or more genera that share a common
phylogenetic origin. This consists of a number of genera with similar characters. This
designates a category of classification that is fairly precise.
Genus - A genus is a taxon that includes one or more species with common phylogenetic
traits. This is used as the first part of the scientific name.
Species - The species is the basic unit of classification. This is used as the specific epithet in
the scientific name. This taxon is made up of organisms that can both interbreed and produce
fertile offspring.
Figure 8 shows an example of the seven taxa used in the Linnaean system of
classification. This is still the basic framework used by taxonomists today.
Figure 8. Identifying organisms using the Linnaean system of classification.
Three-domain System
In 1990, further technological advancements such as genetic sequencing led Carl
Woese to discover that Kingdom Archaebacteria and Kingdom Eubacteria are genetically
distinct from each other. These two groups are so distinct that they should not even be classified
together as kingdoms under Empire Prokaryota, but as under separate domains. This enabled
him to establish the three-domain system of classification, which replaced the two-empire
system. These domains are considered as the main branches of a universal common ancestor
that existed since the beginning of life and reflects the current evidence of evolutionary
relationships among various organisms.
Figure 9. The phylogenetic tree of life.

The domain classification system is based on molecular analyses, primarily from the
sequencing of genes. Looking at Figure 9, note that Domain Bacteria and Domain Archaea
diverged early on in the evolution of life. They are the most ancestral in form. Domain Eukarya
branched off from the lineage of Archaea, leading to an enormous variety of life-forms. Domain
Bacteria Includes Kingdom Eubacteria; Domain Archaea includes Kingdom Archaebacteria; and
Domain Eukarya includes Kingdoms Plantae, Protista, Animalia, and Fungi.
Domain Bacteria
The members of Domain Bacteria are the organisms under
Kingdom Eubacteria. They are unicellular, prokaryotic organisms.
They have thick and rigid cell walls composed of a substance
known as peptidoglycan. The organisms under this domain are
ecologically diverse-they can be found in the soil, the atmosphere,
your intestines, and even on your skin. Some can produce food
through photosynthesis. Some of them thrive in the presence of
oxygen. Most are beneficial to humans, but some are harmful and
pathogenic. Escherichia coli, a representative organism under this
domain, is shown in Figure 10. Escherichia coli are a Gram-
negative, rod-shaped bacteria commonly found in the lower
intestines of warm-blooded organisms. Most of their strains are
harmless, but some can cause serious food poisoning when they Figure 10. Escherichia coli.
contaminate food.
Domain Archaea
Members under Domain Archaea include Kingdom
Archaebacteria. Like the organisms under Domain Bacteria, all of
its members are unicellular and prokaryotic. They have cell walls
that lack peptidoglycan, and their cell membranes have lipids that
are not found in other organisms. Members of this domain live in
extreme environments such as volcanic hot springs, brine pools,
black organic mud, and even the Dead Sea. Many of the
organisms under Domain Archaea thrive under conditions without
oxygen. Some of these organisms also create their own food
through photosynthesis. An archaebacteria known as
Halobacterium salinarium is shown in Figure 11. There bacteria
are found in environments with high salinity (high concentration of
Figure 11. Halobacterium salinarium
dissolved salts).
Domain Eukarya
Domain Eukarya derives its name from the eukaryotic cells of the organisms included in
this domain. Being eukaryotic is the main feature that unites Kingdom Protista, Fungi, Plantae,
and Animalia into this domain.
Kingdom Protista
Among all the members of Domain Eukarya, protists are the most biologically diverse.
There are different groups of protists that cannot be classified as plants, animals, or fungi; thus,
they are called plantlike, animal-like, and fungi-like protists. Most protists are unicellular, but
some are colonial or multicellular. Some of them can be photosynthetic. Because of their great
variety, members of Kingdom Protista need more advanced classification.
Figure 12. Protists
Kingdom Fungi
Members of Kingdom Fungi cannot make their own food. They can only absorb their
food from their surroundings into their bodies. In doing so, they secrete digestive enzymes into
their food source so they can easily absorb the necessary nutrients. Some are unicellular, but
most fungi are multicellular. The most common fungi are mushrooms. Unicellular fungi include
yeasts.
Figure 19. Some representative members of Kingdom Fungi
Kingdom Plantae
Members of
Kingdom Plantae include all
plants. They are
multicellular organisms that
create their own food by
photosynthesis. They
cannot move from one
place to another. They have
cell walls composed of
cellulose. They are very
diverse in size, ranging from
the small mosses to the
large and tall pine trees.
Plats are essential to
humans and other
organisms because they
are used as sources of food,
medicine, and even habitat. Figure 20. Organisms under Kingdom Plantae
Kingdom Animalia
Members of Kingdom Animalia are multicellular and heterotrophic. Animal cells do not
have cell walls. Most of them can move, although a few are nonmotile in their adult forms such
as sponges. They have various ways of obtaining their nutrition. Many animal species exist in
nearly every part of the planet. The different members under this kingdom are shown in Figure
21.
Figure 21. Members of Kingdom Animalia

Name: ________________________________ Section: _______________________

ENGAGEMENT (WEEK 6)
Enabling Assessment Activity No.4.
SYSTEMATICS BASED ON EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIPS
Directions: Study the figure and answer the following guide questions:
1. What trait separates amphibians from fish? __________________
2. Which of the organisms is most closely related to humans? _______________
3. What are the traits of prosimians based on the cladogram? ________________
4. Which of the organisms has the farthest relationship to insects? ____________
5. What trait separates humans and amphibians? __________________

Name: ________________________________ Section: _______________________

ENGAGEMENT (WEEK 7)
Mini Performance Task No.3. TRAITS AND FEATURES
Basic features (cells and anatomical structures) can also be used to infer relationship
among organisms. The types of cells (prokaryotic or eukaryotic), presence and number
of limbs, presence of wings or hair can be compared to show relationships which can
be plotted in a cladogram.
Cell Leg 6 Legs Wings

Worm
Spider
Carpenter Ant
(Black)
Fly
Place the organisms above in the cladogram below and indicate the traits that made the
organisms different from each other.
Quarter 3
Culminating Performance Task
Name: ____________________________________ Section: ______________
DIY FOSSILS
Materials:
A nice-looking fresh leaf Dust mask Hammer
Modeling clay Kitchen gloves Plastic bag
Quick-drying cement Spray adhesive Pushpin
Bucket Sheet of paper
Garden trowel Spray cooking oil
Instruction:
1. Build a clay wall about 2″ high on the smooth surface. Make sure it is large enough to
encircle the leave and provide plenty of space around the leaf.
2. Turn the leaf over. Put the leaf on a sheet of paper or newspaper. Put on the dust
mask, choose a well-ventilated space and spray the entire bottom of the leaf with the
adhesive.
3. Stick the leaf onto the smooth surface inside the clay wall. Try to make the leaf as flat
as possible. After the leaf is glued down, spray the leaf and the inside of the form with
a light coat of cooking oil.
4. Now you’re ready to pour the cement. Put on the dust mask and kitchen gloves. Follow
the directions on the cement box. Use the trowel and mix enough cement to fill the clay
form to the top. Use your hands and the trowel to spread the cement inside the form as
you go along. You need to be working with the cement in the shade, not in the sunlight.
5. When the form is filled to the top, tap around the outside of the clay form with the
hammer. This will cause any bubbles to rise to the surface of the cement. Cover the
wet cement with the plastic. This will help it cure properly. Allow the cement to cure
overnight. Remove the plastic and clay wall.
6. Flip the hardened cement over. Use the pushpin to help remove any of the leaf that
might be stuck to the cement. Once the leaf is removed from the cement, your “fossil”
is complete.
Link for Reference and Pictures:

https://scoutlife.org/hobbies-projects/projects/136201/how-to-make-a-fossil-in-one-hour/

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GENERAL BIOLOGY 2

Level: SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL Semester: SECOND

QUARTER 3 CULMINATING PERFORMANCE TASK

Cleanliness/Neatness (35 pts)

How can organisms be modified?

A. TIME ALLOTMENT: 4 hours

STUDENT’S EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING

Recombinant DNA Technology

A general outline of recombinant DNA (Figure 1) may be given as follows:

Figure 1. General outline of recombinant DNA.

Technologies and Tools Used in Recombinant DNA Technology

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

Figure 3. Process involved in DNA sequencing

Figure 4. Results of polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

Processes Used in Recombinant DNA Technology

Figure 5. Summary of transformation using a vector

Vectorless Gene Transfer

Figure 6. Processes involved in protoplast fusion

In microinjection, the host cell is

In using a particle gun for

Figure 8. The particle gun method

Figure 9. Steps involved in transduction.

Applications of Recombinant DNA

The medicine is given to patients

DNA is put into specially The medicine produced from

Figure 12. How recombinant DNA technology is used in medicine.

Name: ________________________________ Section: _______________________

3. What benefits would the recombinant organism provide to society?

What is the age of the Earth?

A. TIME ALLOTMENT: 4 hours

STUDENT’S EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING

The Origin of Life

generated enough heat to convert the interior of

Evolution of RNA and DNA

Figure 4. Formation of RNA nucleotides from inorganic matter.

Origin of Eukaryotic Cells

Multicellularity and Sexual Reproduction

Table 1. The geologic timescale

Figure 6. An idea of the marine life during the Paleozoic era

Figure 7. A fossil of Karaurus sharovi from the Mesozoic era.

Figure 9. A fossil of Modocia typicalis Figure 10. A fossil of Archaeopteris Hibernica

Figure 11. Illustration of the environment

Figure 15. A replicated fossil of Tyrannosaurus rex

Name: ________________________________ Section: _______________________

EON ERA PERIOD SPECIES

Who is the proponent of the theory of natural selection?

A. TIME ALLOTMENT: 4 hours

STUDENT’S EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING

selection results in changes in the inherited characteristics of a population. These changes in

Figure 2. The phylogenetic tree.

Types of Natural Selection

Figure 4. Different types of natural selection.

Figure 6. Inbreeding and outbreeding of snakes.

Figure 8. The migration of red beetles in an island.

Figure 10. Crossing over in meiosis.

Name: ________________________________ Section: _______________________

Directions: In each example, state whether it shows diversifying, directional, or

3. A cow prefers consuming tall grasses than short ones.

Name: __________ Section: _

Name: __________ Section: _

Name: __________ Section: _

Name: __________ Section: _

Name: __________ Section: _

Name: __________ Section: _