Introduction

In Lesson 1, we have established that individuals have the individual motivation to find work within organisations.
We discussed that how the organisation and its managers treat those workers can affect the actions of the individual
as well as the performance of the organisation. We understand that work can meet some of an individual’s
motivational needs and an individual is more likely to be motivated to remain in a satisfying job. You will be the end
of this lesson be able to understand and analyse several motivation theories which will expand your knowledge of
this topic. You will know how the theory of motivation has developed over time and in your assessment case study
be able to refer to motivation theories to support your analysis.

The Emergence of Motivation Theories

Most of the elements of ‘job satisfaction’ are under management control and it is in the manager’s economic
interests to avoid frustrating their employees in their personal quest for satisfaction in or from their work.
The question has been raised though, “Is a satisfied employee also a motivated employee”? There is a motivation to
work at for a particular organisation and a motivation to find satisfaction in that job, as we have established. What
type of motivation can influence an individual to work harder or more productively for an organisation?
Understanding this type of motivation is an economic concern of management, as a harder working employee is
likely to be easier to manage, not require as much monitoring and will be a more valuable human resource to the
organisation.
It is important to realise that the big questions of motivation in the workplace are nothing new. To organise influence
and control groups of people has been required to achieve many notable projects in our societies. As much as our
understanding of human nature has become more sophisticated, as have our workplaces, the big questions remain.
The fundamental question in research of motivation is ‘why do people act the way they do?’ but the more pragmatic
question in the manager’s head is, ‘How can I get people to act the way that I want them to?’.
Motivation is a familiar word, defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as “The (conscious or unconscious) stimulus
for action towards a desired goal… the factors giving purpose or direction to human or animal behaviour”. Motivation
will require a stimulus, an action, and a goal. Motivation concerns the internal and external forces which influence an
individual to choose a course of action and act. For example, the stimulus which might cause a person to seek to
belong to a particular work organisation may not be the stimulus required to make them work harder or more
productively, though it could give some clues as to what that stimulus might be.
Understanding motivation is important knowledge for businesspeople and managers. If we know what motivates
people, positively, we can create jobs that are more fulfilling, reduce the costs of absenteeism, absenteeism and
ineffective reward systems. The quality of our organisation’s outputs can be improved by having workers that have
their minds and energies more focussed on their jobs and the engage in the kinds of behaviours that are acceptable
to the organisation. This is unlikely to happen if the workers feel alienated, bored, frustrated, demotivated and have
their minds on something other than their work.
Follow the link given below and identify how Google motivates their employees. You may also want to explore
further by following a company of your choice.
https://www.kuczmarski.com/this-is-how-google-motivates-its-employees/

The scientific management theory of motivation

People such as Fredrick Winslow Taylor and Frank and Lillian Gilbreth applied their thinking to these problems.
Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856 - 1917) put forward the idea that workers are motivated mainly by pay. This school
of thought was termed ‘Scientific Management’. Taylor’s Theory of Scientific Management argued the following: 1)
Workers do not naturally enjoy work and so need close supervision and control. 2) Managers should break down
production into a series of small tasks. 3) Workers should then be given appropriate training and tools so they can
work as efficiently as possible on one set task. 4) Workers are then paid according to the number of items they
produce in a set period of time- piece-rate pay. As a result, workers are encouraged to work hard and maximise
their productivity.
Taylor's methods were widely adopted as businesses saw the benefits of increased productivity levels and lower
unit costs. The most notable advocate was Henry Ford who used them to design the first ever production line,
making Ford cars. This was the start of the era of mass production.
However, the key limitation of the scientific management theory of motivation is

 It is based upon one best way and is applicable for simpler organisations than today’s dynamic and complex
organisations
 It focuses on individual performance rather than group efforts and divides the workers into efficient and
inefficient categories or workers
 It is focused on specialisation and repetition of tasks to increase productivity which reduces innovation and
promotes monotony
 It neglects the human factors because it motivates workers to work for monetary benefits rather than for their
own personal development.
 There is no scope for creativity of employees because they are monitored closely by a manager which
promotes frustration in the employees.

Activity: Compare the advantages and disadvantages of the scientific management theory of motivation. What is
your opinion about the appropriateness of this theory in today’s organisations? Is it still appropriate, in what way and
in what kind of organisations?
The key points to be discussed with others in the discussion forum.

transition from scientific management theory of motivation to Human

relation approach of motivation
This is a quote from Taylor’s 1911 book ‘The Principles of Scientific Management’:
“Now one of the very first requirements for a man who is fit to handle pig iron as a regular occupation is that he shall
be so stupid and so phlegmatic that he more nearly resembles in his mental make-up the ox than any other type.
The man who is mentally alert and intelligent is for this very reason entirely unsuited to what would, for him, be the
grinding monotony of work of this character.”
This might seem somewhat negative in tone, but what is it saying about job satisfaction?
Taylor was saying that certain people will never find this work satisfying and so should not be given this kind of
work. This was intended to be both a caring and economical approach to selecting workers for each job. These were
revolutionary concepts which were intended to create better conditions for workers as well as better results for
management. However, as the ideas became popular the emphasis shifted towards maximising productivity without
simultaneously improving employee conditions, which in turn led to troubles with the labour unions by the 1930s,
especially in the USA.

make a note
From this point in time, sociologists and behavioural scientists such as Mary Parker-Follett, Elton Mayo and
Reinhard Bendix became interested and involved in the problems of workplace motivation. As Bendix stated in his
1956 book ‘Work and Authority in Industry’;
“Failure to treat workers as human beings came to be regarded as the cause of low morale, poor craftsmanship,
unresponsiveness, and confusion.”
Elton Mayo is credited with coining the term ‘Human Relations’ for this school of thought. He believed that
industrialisation had caused social disintegration. He was famous for research into improving worker performance at
the Western Electric plant ‘Hawthorne Works’, which became the name of the research programme which made
Mayo famous and essentially created the human relations movement. Various experiments were carried out on the
workers conditions at the works. The cover story for this was an investigation into lighting levels and productivity.
The study created some confusing findings though.
For example, it was found that output increased even when the lighting levels were decreased. Almost every change
in the workers conditions led to an increase in productivity. When the research was finished, the productivity levels
fell to previous levels. By process of elimination, the only explanation left for the performance gains was the
attention that Mayo and his assistants were paying to the workers. The workers felt that they were involved in
something special and important and valued the interest that was being shown in them by the researchers.
Relationships were the motivator. This was then applied to ideas about social groups, upwards communication,
leadership, decision making. This was termed the ‘Hawthorne Effect’.
The Content Theories
From the Human Relations movement came most of the ‘content’ theories of motivation. Content theories are built
around the idea that it is ‘contents’ of the job that create resources for motivation, which will satisfy the needs of the
individual. The view of individuals here is that they are motivated by lack or ‘need deficiency’, the deficiency of
something in their lives that their work could provide, and so they act in a way to obtain that thing. The longer a
deficiency is unmet, the stronger the feelings it will arouse. The provision of a sequence of elements that an
individual values should create motivation in the individual to obtain these things progressively in exchange for some
kind of valued behaviour. The elements should be used to motivate an individual, before they are experienced
directly as a reward. There are two kinds of motivator (definitions from the OED):

 Intrinsic - “Situated within; interior, inner… belonging to the thing in itself, or by its very nature; inherent,
essential, proper; ‘of its own’.”
 Extrinsic - “Situated on the outside; exterior. Of a cause or influence: Operating from without, external,
extraneous.”

So, rewards can be things that are for the outside of a person; that can be seen, touched, counted, held, or they can
be things for the inner person; that add to their sense of self, consisting of knowledge, esteem of superiors or
subordinates, status amongst peers. The aim of a reward is to reinforce behaviour, it is a kind of behavioural control.
However, it can be costly to keep having to administer rewards every time a manager wants a worker to do
something new? Content theories help us to appreciate that individuals want a satisfying existence with a clear
connection between what they do and the results of their work. Content theories make strong recommendations
about what a job or role should contain- what has to be part of it immediately and what may create resources for
motivational rewards later. Of course, , an individuals’ needs might be satisfied outside of the work setting, in which
case motivational satisfaction may not looked for or even recognised if offered through work.
The below link will provide an overview of employee experience at Apple. Play the video and identify the approach
that Apple takes to motivate their employees.

make a note
Test your preference for intrinsic/extrinsic factors when it comes to satisfaction at work.
What do you want out of a job?
Score the following from 1 to 5 where 1 is of the least interest to you and 5 is the most interesting.
1. An interesting job
2. A good boss
3. Recognition and appreciation
4. The opportunity for advancement
5. A satisfying personal life
6. A prestigious job
7. Job responsibility
8. Good working conditions
9. Sensible company rules, regulations, procedures and policies
10. The opportunity to grow through learning new things
11. A job I can do well and succeed at
12. Job security
Source: Buelens et. al (2006) Organisational Behaviour, 3rd ed.

Feedback
For an interpretation of your numbers follow the following guidance.
Add 2,5,6,8,9,12 to obtain a total and then 1,3,4,7,10,11 to obtain a second total. The first number represents
Extrinsic factors, the second, Intrinsic. Do you think the numbers that people get might change as they age?

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow (1908 - 1970) was a psychology professor who founded the Humanistic Psychology discipline. In
1943 he published a paper called "A Theory of Human Motivation" in which he first presented his hierarchy of needs
theory.
Abraham Maslow, in his ‘hierarchy of needs’ proposed that people, due to the nature of modern life, had to find
satisfaction of their needs through their work. One question he was dealing with was how to motivate people who
had got everything that they wanted materially. Normally these are shown as a pyramid with ‘self-actualisation’ as
the peak human experience and motivator.

 Physiological Needs are the basic elements the human body needs to survive. These are food, water, and
sleep.
 Safety Needs are the items a person needs to feel safe from physical or economic harm
 Social Needs include the desire to give and receive affection and to be part of a group.
 Esteem Needs have to do with the recognition received from others as well as with self-esteem.
 Self-Actualization Needs are the desires an individual has for self-fulfilment and developing to their full
potential.

The first three are extrinsic motivators ‘deficiency needs’ which need to be satisfied to feel safe, healthy and loved,
the latter two are intrinsic motivators, required for human growth and development. Each level is achieved in a
logical progression and only when the preceding one had been secured. Each level is a motivator, but if a lower
level was threatened, the next level would no longer function as a motivator. Therefore, work that could not supply
safety needs would not be able to supply love needs. When safety needs were met, they would no longer act as a
motivator.
This theory has been criticised. It seems to presume that people move through their levels of need of being
satisfied, in one direction, that each level is equally meaningful to the individual and that all individuals and will
pursue the same levels in the same way.
When Maslow's hierarchy of needs is applied to work situations, it implies that managers have the responsibility,
firstly, to make sure the deficiency needs are met. This means, in broad terms, a safe environment and proper
wages. Secondly, it implies creating a proper climate in which employees can develop their fullest potential. Failure
to do so would theoretically increase employee frustration and could result in poorer performance, lower job
satisfaction, and increased withdrawal from the organisation.
Reading: The following link will provide a simple overview of Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs in today’s context.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-23902918

make a note
Can you think of how a manager can apply the knowledge of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs for employee motivation?
What are an employee’s needs at work?

Feedback
Application of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs:
1. Physiological Needs (basic issues of survival such as salary and stable employment)
2. Security Needs (stable physical and emotional environment issues such as benefits, pension, safe work
environment, and fair work practices)
3. “Belongingness” Needs (social acceptance issues such as friendship or cooperation on the job)
4. Esteem Needs (positive self-image and respect and recognition issues such as job titles, nice work spaces, and
prestigious job assignments.)
5. Self-Actualization Needs (achievement issues such as workplace autonomy, challenging work, and subject matter
expert status on the job)
Employee needs at work is also same as above, however it depends on the individual.

think about it
Discussion scenario- Money as motivator
You are approached by a civil engineer responsible ultimately for the work of up to 200 short-contract staff involved
in a variety of projects including road building, bridge and office block construction:
“This business of motivation theory is OK and I understand what they’re trying to say but I don’t see how I can relate
most of it to my job - they just don’t work in the real world. I can see where Maslow fits, but at the end of the day all
my lot want to do is to earn enough bonus each week to go out on a Friday night, get blitzed and wake up
somewhere strange on Sunday morning with a monumental hangover and no memory of the intervening 36 hours.
Don’t tell me that I’m being a harsh judge of them because I see it happening every week and 90 per cent of the
time I’m proved right. Where do your airy-fairy process theories fit into that then?”
Prepare a detailed response, using Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs as a framework and discuss in a group.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory or Motivator-Hygiene Theory

The problem with Maslow’s theory is that each level reduces in its motivating power over time. It is also apparent
that the extrinsic motivators reached a point of diminishing returns whereby they no longer provided motivation, but
if they were to be lost all motivation would be lost, whereas other needs maintained their ability to be motivators;
more fulfilment was always wanted. This was considered by Frederick Herzberg. Herzberg separated Maslow’s
needs into:

 Hygiene factors (Dissatsfiers) - mostly extrinsic aspects of work the deficiency of which necessarily causes
dissatisfaction but the presence of which is insufficient for satisfaction or motivation. These would include
pay and benefits, company policies, administration, relationships with co-workers, supervision, and security.
 Motivating factors (Satisfiers) - mostly intrinsic aspects of work associated with strong performance, moving
from no satisfaction to satisfaction. These would include achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility,
promotion, growth

The following video will provide an overview of Herzberg’s two factor theory of motivation. Also, it will provide you an
overview of how the hygiene factor is related to the job dissatisfaction.
Herzberg’s theory proved that dissatisfaction is not the opposite of satisfaction; it might be possible in a job to have
no satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Lack of satisfaction in a job will reduce performance, but increased satisfaction
does not necessarily increase performance. So, according to this theory, we should not expect that big, expensive
changes in the hygiene factors will create a performance gain of equal value. On the other hand, if the work itself
can be made a pleasure, then this creates options for self-reinforcing and low-cost motivation.

think about it
However, the extrinsic/intrinsic divide might not be so clean. How does money ‘work’? In what ways might it be an
extrinsic or an intrinsic motivator?

Feedback
Money is classed as an extrinsic motivator by Maslow and a Hygiene need by Herzberg. Money is easily converted
into visible signs of status and the desire to own things for safety and physiological needs, such as a roof over the
head and food, can only be satisfied by a supply of money. If money is used in a performance scheme it will act as a
typical hygiene factor - the presence will be satisfying but not permanently. Today’s bonus becomes tomorrow’s
basic expectation. However, money may be put to work by the individual to satisfy highly intrinsic needs such as to
fulfil the individual’s aspiration to be a ‘provider’ for their family, esteem need. This might be impossible without
access to money. In some cultures, the acquisition of material things fulfils a deep need for self-respect and esteem
from neighbours. These also are intrinsic issues.

take this further

McClelland’s Needs Theory

McClelland (1961, 1971) says that, regardless of our gender, culture, or age, we all have three motivating drivers,
and one of these will be our dominant motivating driver.
David McClelland was known for research on individual’s need for achievement, affiliation and power. The need for
achievement is similar to Maslow’s higher-order needs of esteem and self-actualisation. The need for affiliation is a
basic human need, like Maslow’s middle ranking needs. Not everyone has the same need for affiliation, but
relationships are recognised as being fundamental to good mental health. In our society, the workplace is
sometimes individual’s only place to develop new relationships. The need for power can have positive and negative
consequences. Positively, it can cause a person to be an excellent coach or mentor, have self-discipline and self-
respect.
Achievement

 A goal, objective or standard of excellence

 ‘Good’ ‘better’ or suchlike words used to evaluate performance
 Someone is striving for unique accomplishment
 Reference is made to status or success in a role

Power

 There is emotional concern for influencing others

 Someone is striving to gain or keep control over others by ordering, arguing, demanding, convincing,
threatening or punishing
 Clear reference is made to a superior-subordinate relationship and the former controlling the latter

Affiliation

 Someone is concerned about establishing or maintaining a friendly relationship with another

 Someone expresses the desire to be liked by someone else
 There are references to family ties, friendly discussions, visits, reunions, parties or informal gatherings.

How does your story look now? What appears to be your dominant need? Find out how these relate to work
behaviours in the papers featured in the ‘further reading’ section at the end of this lesson.
Reading: Follow the given link and identify key early motivational theories.
Steers, R, Mowday, R, & Shapiro, D 2004, 'THE FUTURE OF WORK MOTIVATION THEORY', Academy Of
Management Review, 29, 3, pp. 379-387, Business Source Complete, EBSCOhost,
Available
at: https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=sso&custid=ns019211&authtype=sso&custid=ns
019211&db=edb&AN=13670978&site=eds-live

Process Theories
Content theories presume that it is sufficient for the individual to be motivated for enhanced performance to be a
logical consequence. However, the identification of deficiencies is insufficient - in terms of the definition of
motivation, the deficiency can become a goal, but there is still the matter of actions - the individual needs the
opportunity to take those actions, capability to take them and the belief that they can perform actions sufficiently well
to obtain the valued thing. These issues are considered by the process theories.
Process theories try to determine how people are motivated; how action is aroused, directed, sustained or inhibited.
Unlike content theories, which focus on identifying motivating factors in a static environment, process theorists
viewed motivation from a dynamic perspective, an interaction of events and motives which change over time.

Equity Theory
The equity theory of motivation describes the relationship between the employee’s perceptions of how fairly is
he/she being treated and how hard he/she is motivated to work. John Stacey Adams' equity theory helps explain
why pay and conditions alone do not determine motivation. It also explains why giving one person a promotion or
pay-rise can have a demotivating effect on others.
When people feel fairly or advantageously treated they are more likely to be motivated; when they feel unfairly
treated they are highly prone to feelings of disaffection and demotivation.
Perceived imbalances, i.e. when hard work does not lead to reward, create ‘cognitive dissonance’ which in turn
motivates the person to correct it by making changes in terms of minimising inputs or finding a way to maximise
other outcomes, or simply leave the situation. If a current situation is providing an equitable return for their efforts, a
worker will be motivated to maintain it. Their view of what is equitable can also be affected by comparing their
outcomes to those of their colleagues.
Employees seek to maintain equity between the inputs that they bring to a job and the outcomes that they receive
from it against the perceived inputs and outcomes of others. The belief in equity theory is that people value fair
treatment which causes them to be motivated to keep the fairness maintained within the relationships of their co-
workers and the organisation.
Higher the individual’s perception of fairness, greater is the motivation level and vice versa. While evaluating
fairness, employee compares the job input (in terms of contribution) to outcome (in terms of compensation) and
compares the same with that of another peer of equal cadre/category. Output-input ratio is used to make such a
comparison.

take this further

Reading:
http://www.yourcoach.be/en/employee-motivation-theories/stacey-adams-equity-theory.php
Follow the above link which provides you overview of the equity theory of motivation. Also, identify the implications
of equity theory to the managers.

think about it
An employee with several years’ experience can be frustrated to find out that a recent college graduate hired at a
salary level higher than he or she is current earnings, causing motivation levels to drop. Why?

Expectancy Theory
Expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964) is a cognitive process theory of motivation that is based on the idea that people
believe there are relationships between the effort they put in at work, the performance they achieve from that effort,
and the rewards they receive from their effort and performance. In other words, people will be motivated if they
believe that strong effort will lead to good performance and good performance will lead to desired rewards.
Expectancy theory is based on four assumptions (Vroom, 1964). One assumption is that people join organisations
with expectations about their needs, motivations, and past experiences. These influence how individuals react to the
organization. A second assumption is that an individual’s behaviour is a result of conscious choice. That is, people
are free to choose those behaviours suggested by their own expectancy calculations. A third assumption is that
people want different things from the organisation (e.g., good salary, job security, advancement, and challenge). A
fourth assumption is that people will choose among alternatives to optimise outcomes for them personally.
The expectancy theory is based on these assumptions and has three key elements: expectancy, instrumentality,
and valence. A person is motivated to the degree that he or she believes that (a) effort will lead to acceptable
performance (expectancy), (b) performance will be rewarded (instrumentality), and (c) the value of the rewards is
highly positive (valence).
Expectancy theory states that the actions of an individual are driven by expected consequences. So, for a person to
be motivated to act, they must believe that they can act, that the act will result in something and that something
must be something that they want. Thus, the attractiveness of a task and the energy expended will depend on the
extent to which the employee expects that its accomplishment will lead to valued outcomes. The level of motivation
is made clear by how much effort the individual appears to put into the work.
This is expressed as a formula known as Vroom’s Expectancy Model:
Motivational Force (MF) = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence

 Expectancy - the belief that effort will result in a desired level of performance. This can be affected by
previous success at the task, self-esteem, support from colleagues, the presence of necessary information
and competence.
  Instrumentality - the perception of the strength of link between high performance and outcome. This can be
affected by worker trust, whether the organisation has kept its promises. The process for obtaining rewards
also must be equitable and predictable.
 Valence - the positive or negative value individuals place on a work outcome, which depends on the
individual’s needs and value system. Every job will contain positive and negative valences, but the sum has
to be positive. Valence can be affected by whether the organisations rewards are really valued by the
individual, internal and external factors to the organisation which could cause the rewards to change
valence.

If any element of the multiplicative ‘motivational calculus’ goes to zero, the whole formula does. Hence if ‘motivation
is low’, there are three places to check, the goal or reward, the connection between performance and reward or the
ability to generate the performance. This can be used to predict various work behaviours. For example:

 Why responsibility without resources is NOT empowerment. The worker has high expectancy, they know
that they can do the job and the required level of performance is clear. But, without resources they know that
any decision that they make will not be actionable - instrumentality becomes low. If they seek responsibility,
the initial valence will be high. However, this will decline as it becomes clear that management’s goal for that
activity and the worker’s goal are quite different.
 Why bonuses paid to teams might be ineffective motivation for certain individuals. Although such rewards
are intended to encourage good team behaviour and emphasise the importance of teams to management,
some workers, if they do not believe that their team is performing well, will become demotivated.
Instrumentality drops as there is no longer a believable connection between how well they perform as an
individual and the reward they will receive.

take this further

Expectancy theory is criticised for being difficult to test as the three concepts are subjective and difficult to measure.
There can also be some disconfirming situations such as when high performance reduces the chance of obtaining
the desired outcome whereas low performance obtains it. Expectancy theories lead organisations to create an
environment which will lead to self-motivation but recognise that more is required than identifying needs and setting
up their satisfaction as reward.
Reading:
Read the below journal via EBSCO and identify four limitations of Vroom’s expectancy theory.
Nimri, M, Bdair, A, & Al Bitar, H 2015, 'Applying the Expectancy Theory to Explain the Motivation of Public Sector
Employees in Jordan', Middle East Journal Of Business, 10, 3, pp. 70-82, Business Source Complete, EBSCOhost,
Available at:
https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=sso&custid=ns019211&authtype=sso&custid=ns01
9211&db=bsu&AN=110440884&site=eds-live

think about it
Case scenario: Managers and Motivation
The nature of managerial work is such that the majority of those who do it are likely to be somewhere in the middle
ranks of the organisations for which they work. Whilst there is a lot to be learned about leadership from those who
rise to more senior and influential positions, the nature and characteristics of much managerial work is perhaps
more mundane than inspiring, and clearly not all those who work as managers will necessarily want promotion to
more high profile jobs.
The Management Today survey offers an insight into the work at this middle level in contemporary organisations,
and some of the aspirations, frustrations and problems that managers face. There is information about the type of
motivation that encourages people to move into managerial roles and away from the (potentially) more comfortable
situation as part of a team. The survey indicates how some middle managers seek and find job satisfaction, but also
suggests some of the demotivating aspects of the work and the potential problems of alienation. One of the
challenges is the fact that the managerial role requires a loosening of direct control but at the same time demands
an ability to coach and train others. This can be difficult to achieve once the pressures of organisational life begin to
exert themselves on the newly promoted manager, and opens up questions relating to the need for managers to
understand how they are perceived and how they can use motivational techniques to improve team performance.
Using either the Achievement Motivation theory of McClelland or Vroom’s expectancy theory as the basis for your
analysis, explain what might motivate someone to take on a line manager or supervisory role in an organisation for
which they have worked for some time as a team member.

Summary
 Studies suggest that money can be a source of happiness at work but only up to a certain level. Beyond that
level, the pursuit for greater money and materialism does not make you happy. It leads to added pressure
and detracts from social relationships and personal growth. To what extent do you agree that money is a
source of job satisfaction only to a certain level?
 Given that most major theories of motivation date back many years, it is inevitable that questions will be
raised about their relevance today. Detail your own theory of work motivation and justify its value and
applications for the modern organisation.
 Outline the implications of Vroom’s expectancy theory to managers. How can they apply?

For Further Reading

 This is how Google motivates its employees-Stephanie Vozza-
crscollections https://www.csrscollections.com/2018/09/13/google-motivates-employees-stephanie-
vozza/ [Accessed 6 August 2020].
 What is it like to work at Google? https://youtu.be/n_Cn8eFo7u8 StopConvertEnd] [Accessed 6 August
2020]
 Hawthorne Studies [Accessed 2 May 2019]Apple gives employees Apple Watch for own wellness
benefits https://youtu.be/Hg51UGZU8NA StopConvertEnd] [Accessed 6 August 2020].

 Maslow's Theory of Needs or Motivation https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HshJ86-DuUA [Accessed 2

May 2019].
 The Pretty Pyramid that Beguiled Business https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-23902918 [Accessed 2
May 2019].
 Hertzberg's Motivation Theory https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KJ8ap4kWPxo [Accessed 2 May 2019].
 Employee Motivation: Equity Theory https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2p_4C0Mzne4 [Accessed 2 May
2019].
 Stacey Adams Equity Theory https://www.yourcoach.be/en/employee-motivation-theories/stacey-adams-
equity-theory.php [Accessed 2 May 2019].
 Steers, R, Mowday, R, & Shapiro, D 2004, 'THE FUTURE OF WORK MOTIVATION THEORY', Academy Of
Management Review, 29, 3, pp. 379-387, Business Source Complete,
EBSCOhost, https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=sso&custid=ns019211&authty
pe=sso&custid=ns019211&AuthType=ip,url,uid&db=bsu&AN=13670978&site=ehost-live
 Nimri, M, Bdair, A, & Al Bitar, H 2015, 'Applying the Expectancy Theory to Explain the Motivation of Public
Sector Employees in Jordan', Middle East Journal Of Business, 10, 3, pp. 70-82, Business Source
Complete,
EBSCOhost, https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=sso&custid=ns019211&authty
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Armstrong, M., 2020. Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice . London: Kogan
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Mullins, L., 2016. Management and organisational behaviour, 11th edition. UK:
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