[ BASIC ELECTRICAL

THEORY 2 ]
ACE 11 (Engineering Utilities 1)
[ TOPICS ]
• Basic Electrical Theory 2
• Electromagnetism
• DC and AC
• Transformers
• Power Factor
• Cost of Electrical Energy and Power
• Demand Limiting and Load Shedding
[ ELECTROMAGNETICS ]
• Magnetism is a force of attraction between
ferromagnetic materials (ex. Iron, nickel) and force
of repulsion between diamagnetic materials (ex.
Antimony, bismuth)

• A strong link exists between electricity and a

magnetic field. The force of a magnetic field can
produce electrical current flow in a conductor. On the
other hand, electrical current flow in a conductor
produces a magnetic field.

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[ ELECTROMAGNETICS ]
• Coulomb’s Law states that the force between two very
small objects separated in a vacuum of free space by
a distance which is large compared to their size is
proportional to the charge on each and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between
them.

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[ EXAMPLE ]
1. Three charges particles located at the corners of an equilateral
triangle as shown. Calculate the electric force on the 7 uC charge.
• SOLN:
force exerted on 7uC charge by 2uC is..
𝑁.𝑚2
𝑞1𝑞2 8.99𝑥109 (7.00𝑥10−6 𝐶)(2.00𝑥10−6 𝐶)
Ԧ
𝐹1 = k 2 ȓ = 𝐶
2

2
𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠60 î + 𝑠𝑖𝑛60 ĵ = (0.252 î + 0.436 ĵ) N
𝑟 0.500 𝑚

force exerted on 7uC charge by -4uC is..

𝑁.𝑚2
𝑞1𝑞3 8.99𝑥109 (7.00𝑥10−6 𝐶)(−4.00𝑥10−6 𝐶)
Ԧ
𝐹2 = k 2 ȓ = 𝐶
2

2
𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠60 î + 𝑠𝑖𝑛60 ĵ = (0.503 î − 0.872 ĵ) N
𝑟 0.500 𝑚

Thus, total force on the 7uC charge is..

𝐹Ԧ = 𝐹1
Ԧ + 𝐹2
Ԧ = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝟓 î − 𝟎. 𝟒𝟑𝟔 ĵ 𝐍 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕𝟐 𝐍 𝐚𝐭 𝐚𝐧 𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝟑𝟑𝟎°

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[ ELECTROMAGNETICS ]
• Lenz Law states that the current induced in a
circuit due to a change in a magnetic field is
directed to oppose the change in flux and to
exert a mechanical force which opposes the
motion.

• The magnet creates a change in the magnetic field

through a conductor generating electric fields
which drive electrons that make their own
magnetic field opposing the change which slows
the magnet down as it falls

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[ ELECTROMAGNETICS ]
• Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction,
which states that an electromotive force (EMF
or voltage) is generated in a current-carrying
conductor that cuts a uniform magnetic field.

• When a conductor is pulled across magnetic

field lines, an electric current flows in the
conductor

• Electric field intensity (V/m): the force

experienced by a unit positive charged at that
point
• Electric flux density (C/m2): is the amount of
flux passing through a defined area that is
perpendicular to the direction of the flux.
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[ ELECTROMAGNETICS ]
• When a conductor is moved through a magnetic field or a magnetic field
is moved across a fixed conductor, a voltage is produced in the
conductor. The voltage causes current to flow through the conductor.
When this happens, current flow is induced in the conductor and the
phenomenon is called induction.

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[ ELECTROMAGNETICS ]
• Moving the conductor in one direction across the magnetic field causes
current to flow in one direction.
• Reversing direction of conductor movement reverses direction of current
flow.
• When the conductor is no longer moved through a magnetic field, current
flow stops.

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[ DIRECT CURRENT ]
• Direct current is current that flows in one
direction, from the negative terminal to positive
terminal.
• Static field, rotating armature
DC Advantages Disadvantages
Generator • Reliance of devices • Complex
to DC current construction
• Less fluctuations • Sparking at
in their outputs commutator gap
• Inefficient
distribution

Motor • Excellent speed • High starting

control and torque leads to
variation damage
• Easy design • High maintenance

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[ ALTERNATING CURRENT ]
• Alternating current is a continue reversal of the
direction of current flow such that a point in time the
current flow is in one direction and at another point
in time is in the reverse direction.
• Static armature, rotating field
AC Advantages Disadvantages
Generator • Reliance of devices • Complex
to DC current construction
• Less fluctuations • Sparking at
in their outputs commutator gap
• Suitable for big • Inefficient
machines distribution
Motor • Excellent speed • High starting
control and torque leads to
variation damage
• Easy design • High maintenance

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[ ALTERNATING CURRENT ]

• Single-phase AC Power refers to a system in which all the

voltages of the supply vary in unison.
• Requires fewer wires
• Often used in homes, small infrastructures, farms

• Inductive loads uses wire coils to inductive fields, also

called as lagging loads
• Capacitive loads includes energy storage in devices, also
called as leading loads
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[ ALTERNATING CURRENT ]
• Three-phase AC Power is a system which consists of three
separate lines of single-phase power with each line out of
phase by 120°
• Economical (transportations, installation, conductor usage)
• 3-phase can be feed to a 1-phase load, but no vice-versa

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[ ALTERNATING CURRENT ]
• A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or
cosine function ; expressed in terms of phasors
• Ex. V(t)=12cos(50t+10°)

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[ EXAMPLE ]
1. Transform these sinusoids to phasors:
a. i=6cos(50t-40°) A and b. v=-4(sin30t+50°) V
SOLN:
a. i=6cos(50t-40°) has the phasor = 6<-40° A
b. since –sin φ =cos (φ + 90°) ,
v=-4(sin30t+50°) = 4cos(30t+50°+90°)
= 4cos(30t+140°)
= 4<140° V

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[ EXAMPLE ]
1. The voltage v = 12cos(60t + 45°) is applied to 0.1-H inducer. Find the
steady-state current through the inductor
• SOLN:
For the inductor, V =jωLI, where ω = 60 rad/s and V = 12<45°
Hence,
𝑉 12<45° 12<45°
I = = = = 2 < −45°
𝑗ω𝐿 𝑗60 𝑥 0.1 6<90°
Converting to time domain,
i(t) = 2cos(60t-45°) A

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[ ALTERNATING CURRENT ]
• Impedance (Z) of a circuit is the ratio of the phasor
voltage to the phasor current, measured in ohms

where R = resistance
X = reactance

• Admittance is the reciprocal of impedance, measured in

siemens

where G = conductance
B = susceptance
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[ EXAMPLE ]
1. Find the v(t) and i(t) in the circuit shown
SOLN:
From the voltage source 10cos4t, ω = 4 , Vs = 10<0° V
1 1
The impedance Z = 5 + =5+ = 5 − 𝑗2.5 Ω
𝑗ω𝐶 𝑗4 𝑥 0.1
𝑉𝑠 10<0 10(5+𝑗2.5)
Hence the current 𝐼 = = = = 1.6 + 𝑗0.8 = 1.789 < 26.57°
𝑍 5 −𝑗2.5 52+2.52
𝐼 1.789<26.57
The voltage across the capacitor is 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑍𝑐 = = = 4.47 < −63.43°
𝑗ω𝐶 𝑗4 𝑥 0.1
Converting I and V to the time domain,
i(t)=1.789cos(4t+26.57°) A ; v(t)=4.47cos(4t-63.43°) V

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[ ALTERNATING CURRENT ]
• Transformers is an electrical device that transfers an
alternating current and/or voltage from one circuit to
another using the induction phenomenon.
• The expanding and collapsing magnetic field in the
primary winding of the transformer induces voltage in
the secondary winding.

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[ EXAMPLE ]
1. A 225 kVA transformer located outside a building is used to step down
the voltage for the building. It is connected to a 7200 V AC power
source. The ratio of the number of primary windings to the number of
secondary windings on the transformer is 30 to 1
• SOLN:
approximate the voltage provided to the building
Es = Ep (Ns/Np) = 7200V(1/30) = 240 V
Approximate the current available in the building, in amps
I = P/E = 225000VA/240V = 937.50 A

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[ ALTERNATING CURRENT ]
• Power Factor is the ratio between real power and apparent
power in a circuit. ( PF = P/S = cosφ )

• Real power measured in W or kW, used by motors, lights, and

other devices to produce useful work or heat energy. Real
power is the resistive part of the circuit that performs the
work.
• Reactive power measured in VAR or kVAR, released and stored
by capacitors and inductors. It is the power that flows back
into the source from the inductors and capacitors. It is
this opposing power that affects the power factor of a
circuit.
• Apparent power measured in VA or kVA, that is the vector sum
of true power and reactive power. Apparent power is the
product of the total current and voltage in a circuit.

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[ ALTERNATING CURRENT ]
• Inductive load = lagging power factor (ex. 30<-36.87° kVA)
• Capacitive load = leading power factor (ex. 30<36.87° kVA)

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[ EXAMPLE ]
1. An AC circuit is powering an electric heater (i.e., pure resistance, pf = 1.0).
Assume the voltage is 240 V and a current draw of 10 A. Compute the apparent power
and real power.
SOLN:
Apparent power, S = EI = 240V x 10A = 2400VA
Real Power, P = EI(PF) = S(pf) = 240V x 10A x 1.0 = 2400 W
if @ pf=0.8:
Apparent power, S = EI = 240V x 10A = 2400W
Real Power, P = EI(PF) = S(pf) = 240V x 10A x 0.8 = 1920 W

if @ pf=0.4
Apparent power, S = EI = 240V x 10A = 2400W
Real Power, P = EI(PF) = S(pf) = 240V x 10A x 0.4 = 960 W
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[ ALTERNATING CURRENT ]
• The main advantages of the Power Factor Correction are as follows:

1. A high PF reduces the load currents, resulting in a considerable

saving in hardware costs (i.e., conductors, switchgear, substation
transformers, and so on).

2. Power companies typically impose low power factor penalties, so by

correcting the PF, this penalty can be avoided.

3. The electrical load on the power company is reduced, which allows the
power company to supply the surplus power to other consumers without
increasing its generation capacity.

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[ COST OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY AND POWER ]
• Energy Charge is the cost of electrical energy consumed,
expressed in Php/kWh

• Demand Limiting is accomplished by disconnecting loads that

are not needed during periods of high demand.
• Load shedding is a method which nonessential equipment are
switched off to maintain uniform load.
• Load shifting moves nonessential loads to periods of low
demand.

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[ NEXT MEETING ]
• Electrical Materials
• Building electrical service equipment
• Overcurrent protection devices