Electronics Laboratory Manual

Contents

Experiment No. 1: Ohm Law Experiment

Experiment No. 2: The rectifier diode

Experiment No. 3: Half-Wave Rectifier

Experiment No. 4: Full-Wave Rectifier

Experiment No. 5: The Zener diode 1 (The Volt-Ampere characteristic curve)

Experiment No. 6: The Zener diode 2 (Regulated Voltage Supply)

Experiment No. 7: Transistor familiarization

Experiment No. 8: The common emitter

Experiment No. 9: The Silicon Controller Rectifier

Experiment No. 10: The Triac

 Preliminary Experiment

“Ohm Law”

Objectives:

1. Ability to determine the unknown resistances.

2. Ability to measure current and voltage in DC circuit.
3. Ability to plot the characteristic current-voltage (IV) of a resistance and to
determine graphically the experimental value of the resistance

Apparatus:

D.C. power source, ammeter, voltmeter, Unknown resistors.

Introduction

The general from of the current - voltage of a resistance is shown in Figure (l). The
current increase with the voltage linearly. So, the slope of the curve allows us to
determine the unknown resistance as follow:

I (mA)




V

 V(V)
Fig.1 I-V characteristic of the resistance

Slope = Tan  = I / V = constant.

So, the value of the unknown resistance is: R = 1/ Slope

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 2 (a) using a resistance of 1 K.

2. Increase the variable DC voltage from zero in steps of (0.5 volts) up to (10
volts),

and record the current and the voltage across the resistance.

3. Tabulate your result in a table.

4. Plot the curve I = f(V) by using an appropriate scale.

5. Determine graphically the value of the unknown resistance:

- Find the slope of the curve and calculate the unknown resistance

Slope = I / V, R=1/slope.

6. What is the error (%).

7. Repeat the same steps using a resistance of 10 K.

.

0 – 10 V

Fig. 2 IV experiment

1. Find the slope of curve in each region and calculate the resistance of diode.
Slope= A/V, R=1/slope.
 Experiment No. 2

The rectifier diode

Objectives:

4. Ability to recognize diodes in various physical forms.

5. Ability to determine the diode polarity and to understand the need for correct
connection.
6. To obtain knowledge of the forward voltage/current characteristic and the
conduction voltage for diodes.
Apparatus:

D.C. power source, ammeter, voltmeter, rheostat, resistors, rectifier diode.

Introduction

The general from of the current - voltage of a diode is shown in Figure (l). A
current flow in the forward direction is very large compared with that in the
reverse direction and such a device is very useful as a rectifier. The diode is in the
forward direction when an external battery is connected with positive terminal to
the (p) region and negative terminal to the region (n). The reverse current through
the diode varies greatly with temperature and with the semiconductor materiel
used.
Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 2 (a) using silicon diode.

2. Increase the variable DC voltage from zero in steps of (0.2 volts) up to (1 volts),

then in step of (0.5 volt) up to (5 volt), and record the voltage across the resistance.

4. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 2 (b) using Si diode.

5. Increase the variable DC voltage from zero in steps of (0.5 volts) up to (2 volt),
then in steps of (1 volt) up to (10 volts) and for each step record the current.

6. Tabulate your result in a table 1.

(a) Forward bias (b) Reverse bias

Fig. 2 Forward and reverse bias of diode

 Table 1
Forward bias Reverse bias
Vs Vr Vd Id Pd Vs Vr Vd Id Pd
(V) (V) (V) (mA) (mW) (V) (V) (V) (mA) (mW)
0.2 0.5
0.4 1.0
0.6 1.5
0.7 2.0
0.8 3
1.0 4
1.5 5
2.0 6
2.5 7
3.0 8
3.5 9
4.0 10

Experiment No. 1

The rectifier diode

Name: ‫ ـــــــــــــــــــــ‬Date: ‫ــــــــــــ‬

Physics 106 Section: ‫ ـــــــــــ‬Instructor’s Name: ‫ــــــــ‬

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Purposes:
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………..

Data and Data Analysis

2. Fill the Table 1, R=…………. Ω

Forward bias Reverse bias
Vs Vr Vd Id Pd Vs Vr Vd Id Pd
(V) (V) (V) (mA) (mW) (V) (V) (V) (mA) (mW)
0.2 0.5
0.4 1.0
0.6 1.5
0.7 2.0
0.8 3
1.0 4
1.5 5
2.0 6
2.5 7
3.0 8
3.5 9
4.0 10
3. Plot the diode current Id versus the potential difference across the rectifier
diode.
4. From graph find the junction voltage VJ= V
5. Find the slope of curve in each region and calculate the resistance of diode.
Slope= A/V, R=1/slope.
Forward bias:

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

………

Reverse bias (blocking current)

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

………
 EXPERIMENT 3
HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER
Purposes:

1. To learn a half-wave rectified sinusoidal voltage.

2. To understand the terms mean value and rout mean square for input and output
(rectified) voltage.
3. To understand the effect of reservoir capacitor upon the rectified waveform.

Apparatus:

Electricity & electronics constructor EEC470, basic electricity & electronics kit
EEC471-2, multimeter, oscilloscope.
 Fig. 1 Experimental setup

Introduction

The conversion of alternating voltage (changes its direction) to

directed voltage. This conversion is called rectification. To
achieve the rectification of alternating voltage you must to use
some circuit. The simplest one is the half-wave rectifier in which
a single diode is used, see Fig. 1.
For a sinusoidal waveform the diode passes a current at first part
1 of waveform, because it forward-biased. At the same time the diode
doesn't pass a current for second part 2, because it reverse-biased.
In this case only the half of the input waveform passes through the
diode. The output voltage (rectified waveform) changes with time
which makes it unestablish with time. To produce a steady output
directed voltage and free from variations the load resistor is
connected in parallel with capacitor.
 Fig. 2 Half-wave rectification

To calculate the mean value and root mean square rms of voltage
let we must use the following equations:
1 𝑇
𝑉̅ = ∫0 𝑉(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 (1)
𝑇

1 𝑇
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ ∫0 𝑉 2 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 (2)
𝑇

For sinusoidal waveform we can write (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑃 sin⁡(𝜔𝑡) .

1 𝑇 𝑉𝑃 𝑉𝑃
𝑉̅ = ∫ 𝑉𝑃 sin⁡(𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = − (cos(𝜔𝑇) − cos(0)) = − (cos(2𝜋) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠0)
𝑇 0 𝑇𝜔 2𝜋
=0

The mean value of sinusoidal wave equals zero 𝑉̅ = 0 (3) .

1 𝑇 2 2 1 𝑇 2 1 + sin(2𝜔𝑡)
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ ∫ 𝑉𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = √ ∫ 𝑉𝑝 ( ) 𝑑𝑡 =
𝑇 0 𝑇 0 2

1 𝑇 2 1 𝑇 2 sin(2𝜔𝑡)
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ ∫ 𝑉𝑝 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ (𝑉𝑝 ) 𝑑𝑡 =
2𝑇 0 𝑇 0 2
 𝑉𝑝2 𝑇 𝑉𝑝2 𝑇
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ ∫ 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ sin(2𝜔𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
2𝑇 0 2𝑇 0

𝑉𝑝2 −1
= √ {(𝑇 − 0) + (cos(2𝜔𝑇) − cos⁡(0))} =
2𝑇 2𝜔

𝑉𝑃
for sinusoidal waveform 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = (4)
√2

For rectified waveform without capacitor we have

𝑉(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑃 sin(𝜔𝑡) ⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑓𝑜𝑟⁡𝑡𝜖[0, 𝑇/2]
{
𝑉(𝑡) = 0⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑓𝑜𝑟⁡⁡𝑡𝜖[⁡𝑇/2, 𝑇]
1 𝑇 1 𝑇/2 𝑇
𝑉̅ = ∫ 𝑉(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = (∫ 𝑉𝑃 sin(𝜔𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 0⁡𝑑𝑡) =
𝑇 0 𝑇 0 𝑇/2

𝑉𝑃 𝑉𝑃
𝑉̅ = − {cos(𝜔𝑇/2) − cos⁡(0)} = − {cos(𝜋) − cos⁡(0)}
𝑇𝜔 2𝜋

𝑉
For half-wave rectified waveform without capacitor 𝑉̅ = ⁡ 𝑃 (5)
𝜋

1 𝑇/2 2 2 1 𝑇/2 2 1 + sin(2𝜔𝑡)

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ ∫ 𝑉𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = √ ∫ 𝑉𝑝 ( ) 𝑑𝑡 =
𝑇 0 𝑇 0 2

1 𝑇/2 2 1 𝑇/2 2 sin(2𝜔𝑡)

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =√ ∫ 𝑉𝑝 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ (𝑉𝑝 ) 𝑑𝑡 =
2𝑇 0 𝑇 0 2

𝑉𝑝2 𝑇/2 𝑉𝑝2 𝑇/2

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ ∫ 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ sin(2𝜔𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 =
2𝑇 0 2𝑇 0
 𝑉𝑝2 −1
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =√ {(𝑇/2 − 0) + (cos(𝜔𝑇) − cos⁡(0))}
2𝑇 2𝜔

𝑉𝑝2 −1
= √ {(𝑇/2 − 0) + (cos(2𝜋) − 1)}
2𝑇 2𝜔

𝑉𝑃
For half-wave rectified waveform without capacitor 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = (6)
2

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit shown in Fig.1

2. For input signal take the reading of voltmeter Vdc= V (by using dc-
voltmeter) and the reading of Vrms= V (by using ac-voltmeter).
3. Use the oscilloscope to fill the Table 1 and to draw the input signal.
4. For output signal take the reading of voltmeter Vdc= V (by using dc-
voltmeter) and the reading of Vrms= V (by using ac-voltmeter).
5. Use the oscilloscope to fill the Table 2 and to draw the output signal.
6. Connect the capacitor in parallel with load resistor and draw the output
signal.
 EXPERIMENT 2
HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER

Name: Date: ‫ــــــــــــ‬

Electronics laboratory Section: ‫ــ‬ Instructor’s Name:‫ــ‬

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Purposes:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………

Data and Data Analysis

I) Input signal
1) Take the reading of voltmeter Vdc= V (by using dc-voltmeter) and the
reading of Vrms= V (by using ac-voltmeter).

2) Use the oscilloscope to draw the input signal for that:

a) fill the Table 1

…….V/cm ……s/cm
X Y t (s) V V2 X (cm) Y t (s) V V2
(cm) (cm) (V) (V2) (cm) (V) (V2)
 Average value
b) Calculate the average value for V and compare it with Vdc .

Note that : VAVG=0 =Vdc

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………

c) Calculate the average value of V2 and find the square root of it. Compare this
value with Vrms= Vp /√𝟐 =√̅̅ 𝑽̅̅𝟐 = the reading of ac-voltmeter.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………

d) Draw V versus time and from graph find the area under curve and find:
VAVG=area/(period time) compare this value with result in step b.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………

e) Draw V2 versus time and from graph find the area under curve and find:
𝟐
𝐕𝐫𝐦𝐬 = 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚/(𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐨𝐝⁡𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞) and then find the square root compare this value
with result in step c.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………

II) output signal

1) Take the reading of voltmeter Vdc= V (by using dc-voltmeter) and the
reading of Vrms= V (by using ac-voltmeter).

2) Use the oscilloscope to draw the input signal for that:

a) Fill the Table 2

…….V/cm ……s/cm
X Y t (s) V V2 X (cm) Y t (s) V V2
(cm) (cm) (V) (V2) (cm) (V) (V2)
 Average value
b) Calculate the average value for V and compare it with Vdc .

Note that : VAVG=Vp/𝝅 =Vdc

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………

c) Calculate the average value of V2 and find the square root of it. Compare this
value with Vrms= Vp /𝟐 =√̅̅𝑽̅̅𝟐 = the reading of ac-voltmeter.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………

d) Draw V versus time. Find from graph the area under curve and find:

VAVG=(area/period time), compare this value with result in step b.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………

e) Draw V2 versus time and from graph find the area under curve and find:
𝟐
𝐕𝐫𝐦𝐬 = 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚/(𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐨𝐝⁡𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞), compare this value with result in step c.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………

III) The effect of a reservoir capacitor

Connect the capacitors (small and big) with output circuit and sketch the output
signals.
 EXPERIMENT 4
FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER
Purposes:

4. To learn a full-wave rectified sinusoidal voltage.

5. To understand the terms mean value and rout mean square for input and output
(rectified) voltage.
6. To understand the effect of reservoir capacitor upon the rectified waveform.

Apparatus:

Electricity & electronics constructor EEC470, basic electricity & electronics kit
EEC471-2, multimeter, oscilloscope.
 Fig. 1 Experimental setup

Introduction

The conversion of alternating voltage (changes its direction) to

directed voltage. This conversion is called rectification. To
achieve the rectification of alternating voltage you must to use
some circuit. The full-wave rectifier consists of four diodes, see
Fig. 1.
For a sinusoidal waveform the diodes D1 and D2 pass a current at
first part 1 of waveform, because they are forward-biased. At the
same time the diode D3 and D4 pass a current for second part 2,
because they are forward-biased. In this case the two halves of the
input waveform (Full signal) passes through the bridge of diodes.
The output voltage (rectified waveform) changes with time which makes
it unstable with time. To produce a steady output directed voltage
and free from variations the load resistor is connected in parallel
with capacitor.
 Fig. 2 Full-wave rectification

To calculate the mean value and root mean square rms of voltage
let we must use the following equations:
1 𝑇
𝑉̅ = ∫0 𝑉(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 (1)
𝑇

1 𝑇
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ ∫0 𝑉 2 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 (2)
𝑇

For sinusoidal waveform we can write (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑃 sin⁡(𝜔𝑡) .

1 𝑇 𝑉𝑃 𝑉𝑃
𝑉̅ = ∫ 𝑉𝑃 sin⁡(𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = − (cos(𝜔𝑇) − cos(0)) = − (cos(2𝜋) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠0)
𝑇 0 𝑇𝜔 2𝜋
=0

The mean value of sinusoidal wave equals zero 𝑉̅ = 0 (3) .

1 𝑇 2 2 1 𝑇 2 1 + sin(2𝜔𝑡)
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ ∫ 𝑉𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = √ ∫ 𝑉𝑝 ( ) 𝑑𝑡 =
𝑇 0 𝑇 0 2

1 𝑇 2 1 𝑇 2 sin(2𝜔𝑡)
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ ∫ 𝑉𝑝 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ (𝑉𝑝 ) 𝑑𝑡 =
2𝑇 0 𝑇 0 2
 𝑉𝑝2 𝑇 𝑉𝑝2 𝑇
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ ∫ 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ sin(2𝜔𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
2𝑇 0 2𝑇 0

𝑉𝑝2 −1
= √ {(𝑇 − 0) + (cos(2𝜔𝑇) − cos⁡(0))} =
2𝑇 2𝜔

𝑉𝑃
for sinusoidal waveform 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = (4)
√2

For full-wave rectified waveform without capacitor we have 𝑉(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑃 sin(𝜔𝑡)

𝑇/2
1
𝑉̅ = [2 ∫ 𝑉𝑃 sin(𝜔𝑡) 𝑑𝑡] =
𝑇 0
2𝑉𝑃 𝜔𝑇 2𝑉𝑃
𝑉̅ = [− {cos ( ) − cos(0)}] = − {cos(𝜋) − cos⁡(0)}
𝑇𝜔 2 2𝜋

𝑉
For Full-wave rectified waveform without capacitor 𝑉̅ = ⁡2 𝑃 (5)
𝜋

1 𝑇 2 2 1 𝑇 2 1 + sin(2𝜔𝑡)
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ ∫ 𝑉𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = √ ∫ 𝑉𝑝 ( ) 𝑑𝑡 =
𝑇 0 𝑇 0 2

1 𝑇 2 1 𝑇 2 sin(2𝜔𝑡)
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ ∫ 𝑉𝑝 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ (𝑉𝑝 ) 𝑑𝑡 =
2𝑇 0 𝑇 0 2

𝑉𝑝2 𝑇 𝑉𝑝2 𝑇
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ ∫ 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ sin(2𝜔𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 =
2𝑇 0 2𝑇 0
 𝑉𝑝2 −1
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =√ {(𝑇 − 0) + (cos(2𝜔𝑇) − cos⁡(0))}
2𝑇 2𝜔

𝑉𝑝2 −1
= √ {(𝑇 − 0) + (cos(4𝜋) − 1)}
2𝑇 2𝜔

𝑉𝑃
For Full-wave rectified waveform without capacitor 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = (6)
√2

Procedure:
7. Connect the circuit shown in Fig.1
8. For input signal take the reading of voltmeter Vdc= V (by using dc-
voltmeter) and the reading of Vrms= V (by using ac-voltmeter).
9. Use the oscilloscope to fill the Table 1 and to draw the input signal.
10.For output signal take the reading of voltmeter Vdc= V (by using dc-
voltmeter) and the reading of Vrms= V (by using ac-voltmeter).
11.Use the oscilloscope to fill the Table 2 and to draw the output signal.
12.Connect the capacitor in parallel with load resistor and draw the output
signal.
 EXPERIMENT 3
FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER

Name: Date: ‫ــــــــــــ‬

Electronics laboratory Section: ‫ــ‬ Instructor’s Name:‫ــ‬

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Purposes:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………

Data and Data Analysis

IV) Input signal
1) Take the reading of voltmeter Vdc= V (by using dc-voltmeter) and the
reading of Vrms= V (by using ac-voltmeter).

2) Use the oscilloscope to draw the input signal for that:

a) fill the Table 1

…….V/cm ……s/cm
X Y t (s) V V2 X (cm) Y t (s) V V2
(cm) (cm) (V) (V2) (cm) (V) (V2)
 Average value
b) Calculate the average value for V and compare it with Vdc .

Note that : VAVG=0 =Vdc

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………

c) Calculate the average value of V2 and find the square root of it. Compare this
value with 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = ⁡ 𝑽 ⁡/√𝟐 ⁡⁡ = √̅̅
𝒑 𝑽̅̅𝟐 = the reading of ac-voltmeter.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………

d) Draw V versus time and from graph find the area under curve and find:

VAVG=area/(period time) compare this value with result in step b.

 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………

e) Draw V2 versus time and from graph find the area under curve and find:
𝟐
𝐕𝐫𝐦𝐬 = 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚/(𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐨𝐝⁡𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞) and then find the square root compare this value
with result in step c.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………

V) output signal

1) Take the reading of voltmeter Vdc= V (by using dc-voltmeter) and the
reading of Vrms= V (by using ac-voltmeter).

2) Use the oscilloscope to draw the input signal for that:

a) Fill the Table 2

…….V/cm ……s/cm
X Y t (s) V V2 X (cm) Y t (s) V V2
(cm) (cm) (V) (V2) (cm) (V) (V2)
 Average value
b) Calculate the average value for V and compare it with Vdc .

Note that : VAVG=2Vp/𝝅 =Vdc

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………

c) Calculate the average value of V2 and find the square root of it. Compare this
value with Vrms= Vp /𝟐 =√̅̅𝑽̅̅𝟐 = the reading of ac-voltmeter.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………

d) Draw V versus time. Find from graph the area under curve and find:

VAVG=(area/period time), compare this value with result in step b.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………

e) Draw V2 versus time and from graph find the area under curve and find:
𝟐
𝐕𝐫𝐦𝐬 = 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚/(𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐨𝐝⁡𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞), compare this value with result in step c.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………

VI) The effect of a reservoir capacitor

Connect the capacitors (small and big) with output circuit and sketch the output
signals.
 Experiment No. 5

The zener diode 1

The Volt-Ampere characteristic curve

Objectives:

1) Investigate the relationship between current and voltage for a Zener diode
in forward and reverse direction.
2) Find the range of zener voltage.
3) Find the resistance of zener diode at zener voltage.

Apparatus:

D.C. power source, ammeter, voltmeter, rheostat, resistors, zener diode.

Introduction

A Zener diode is a p-n junction device designed to operate in the reverse-breakdown

region. Unlike normal diode reverse breakdown, Zener breakdown occurs at low
reverse voltages. A Zener diode is heavily doped to result in a very thin depletion
region. Therefore, an intense electric field exists within the depletion region near
Zener breakdown voltage (Vz). This intense filed pulls electrons from their valence
bands and create current. If a Zener diode is forward biased, it operates the same as
a normal diode as shown in Fig. 1. At the same time the Zener diodes are specially
constructed to break down at controllable voltages and to do so without damage to
the device.

Reverse Bias
Fig.(4.1)
Breakdown

(Zener region)

The resistance of Zener diode is 𝑟𝑧 = 1/𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 of curve at breakdown.

Procedure:

1- Set up circuit as shown in Fig. 2 . Connect Z diode in forward direction.

2- Select measurement range of 1 V- and 100 mA-. Make sure polarity on the meter
is correct and that the meters are connected properly.

3- Switch on power supply unit. Increase voltage on the power supply unit to 20 V.
Measure both Vs, Vr. Enter measurements in Table (1).
 Fig.(4.2)

4- Change the polarity of the Zener diode .

5- Measure both voltage Vs , Vr . Enter measurements in Table 1

6- Calculate the potential difference across the diode by equation Vd=Vs-Vr , and the
current passes through the diode Id=Vd/R= Vd/Rd or (Id= Vr/R= Vr/1000⁡Ω).

7- Enter your data in Table 1.

Table 1
 Forward bias Reverse bias
Vs Vr Vd Id Pd Vs Vr Vd Id Pd
(V) (V) (V) (mA) (mW) (V) (V) (V) (mA) (mW)
0 2
0.30 4
0.50 6
0.55 7
0.60 7.5
0.65 8
0.70 9
0.80 12
1.0 15
2 20
5
10
15
20

8- Graph the diode current as a function of diode voltage.

 Experiment No. 4

The zener diode 1

The Volt-Ampere characteristic curve

Name: ‫ ـــــــــــــــــــــ‬Date: ‫ــــــــــــ‬

Physics 106 Section: ‫ ـــــــــــ‬Instructor’s Name: ‫ــــــــ‬

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Purposes:
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………..

Data and Data Analysis

6. Fill the Table 1

Forward bias Reverse bias
Vs Vr Vd Id Pd Vs Vr Vd Id Pd
 (V) (V) (V) (mA) (mW) (V) (V) (V) (mA) (mW)
0 2
0.30 4
0.50 6
0.55 7
0.60 7.5
0.65 8
0.70 9
0.80 12
1.0 15
2 20
5
10
15
20
7. Plot the diode current Id versus the potential difference across the Zener diode.
8. From graph find:
a) the junction voltage VJ= V
b) the breakdown voltage (the voltage at which a diode connected in reverse
direction loses its blocking ability) Vbreakdown= V.
c) The Zener voltage (the voltage at midpoint of Zener region) Vz= V
9. Find the slope of curve in each region and calculate the resistance of diode.
Slope= A/V, R=1/slope.

Forward bias:

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………

………

Reverse bias (blocking current)

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

………

Zener region:

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

………
 Experiment No.6

The zener diode 2

Regulated Voltage Supply

Objectives:

1) To find the variation of voltage of unregulated voltage supply Vs which can

be tolerated?
2) To find the variation of load current IL which can be tolerated.
Apparatus:

D.C. power source, ammeter, voltmeter, rheostat, resistors, zener diode.

Fig.5.1: Experimental setup

Introduction

The Zener diode has a region in its reverse characteristic of almost constant voltage

regardless of the current trough the diode. This can be used to regulate or stabillize
a

voltage source against supply or load variations.

Fig 5.2 a shows an unregulated voltage source supplying current to a variable load.
If either Vs or RL changes, so the voltage across the load VL will change too. One
way of keeping this voltage more constant is to connect across the load a Zener diode
whose breakdown voltage is the desired constant voltage, Fig 5.2 b.

(a) Unregulated voltage supply (b) Regulated voltage supply

Fig 5.2: Voltage supply

Figure 5.2 b gives ability to change the voltage of source Vs (0-20 V) and the load
resistance RL . Note that the power of this diode is 0.4 W and VZ=7.5 V that means
𝑃 0.4
the maximum current through the diode must be less than 𝐼𝑑 = = = 53⁡𝑚𝐴.
𝑉𝑍 7.5

Procedure:

Set up circuit as shown in Fig. 5.1 (Fig.5.2 b). Select measurement range of 20 V-
and 100 mA-. Make sure polarity on the meter is correct and that the meters are
connected properly.

I) Regulation for maximum load current and minimum supply voltage

1- Switch on power supply unit and remove the potentiometer to make I L=0 .

1- Increase slowly the voltage on the power supply unit VS until the diode just
begins to conduct current (1 mA). Record Vs for IL=0 in Table (1).
2- Set the potentiometer to maximum (clockwise) and replace it in the circuit.
The extra current drawn by RL will reduce the diode current bellow 1 mA.
3- Increase the voltage of source VS to 12 V, the diode current will increase
above 1 mA. Then adjust RL until the diode current just returns to 1 mA.
Record VS and IL .
4- Repeat step 3 for VS =14, 16, 18, 20 V recording the results in Table 1.
II) Regulation for minimum load current and maximum supply voltage
1- Reduce the load resistance RL to minimum (anticlockwise) and then set
voltage supply VS to 20 V and increase RL until the diode current Id reads 70
mA.
2- Record the Load current IL against VS=20 V in table 1.
3- Reduce the voltage supply Vs to 19, 18, 17 …. V, each time resetting RL to
give the diode current 70 mA and recording IL . Continue until it is no longer
possible to set the diode current to 70 mA.
 Table 1

RL Vz VS IL RL Vz VS IL
(Ω) (V) (V) (mA) (Ω) (V) (V) (mA)
∞ 0 All readings for 19 All readings
12 Vd 18 for
14 just equal to the 17 diode current
16 zener voltage 16 just equal to

18 Id=1 mA 15 70 mA
Maximum IL Minimum IL
And minimum And maximum
VS VS
 Experiment No.5

The zener diode 2

Regulated Voltage Supply

Name: ‫ـــــــــــــــــــــ‬ Date: ‫ــــــــــــ‬

Physics 106 Section: ‫ ـــــــــــ‬Instructor’s Name: ‫ــــــــ‬

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Purposes:

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………..

Data and Data Analysis

1) Fill the Table 1

Table 1
 VS IL
(V) (mA)
0 All readings for Vd 20 All readings for
12 just equal to the 19 diode current just
14 zener voltage 18 equal to 70 mA
16 Id=1 mA 17 Minimum IL
18 Maximum IL 16 And maximum VS
20 And minimum VS 15

2) Plot the load current IL versus the voltage of voltage supply V S for Id=70 mA.
(curve 1 - for maximum load current IL and minimum voltage of voltage supply VS).

3) Plot the load current IL versus the voltage of voltage supply VS for Id=1 mA.
(curve 1 - for minimum load current IL and maximum voltage of voltage supply VS).

4) Shadow the area between these two curves. The work area of regulated
voltage supply.
 Experiment No. 7

Transistor familiarization

Name: ‫ ـــــــــــــــــــــ‬Date: ‫ــــــــــــ‬

Physics 106 Section: ‫ ـــــــــــ‬Instructor’s Name: ‫ــــــــ‬

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Purposes:
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………..

Data and Data Analysis

1. Fill the Table 1

IC VEB IB IE=IC+IB 𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐶
ℎ𝑓𝑒 = ℎ𝑓𝑏 =
( mA ) ( ) (⁡ ) ( ) 𝐼𝐵 𝐼𝐸

1
5
10
17
23
34
Average value
2. Plot the collector current IC versus the base current IB .
3. Find the slope of the curve.
………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

……

4. What does the slope mean

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

……
 Experiment No.8

The common emitter

Purposes:

7. To learn the common-emitter output (collector) characteristics.

8. To understand the meaning and the importance of operating point and load
line.

Apparatus:

Electricity & electronics constructor EEC470, basic electricity & electronics kit
EEC471-2, multimeters.
 Fig. 1 Experimental setup

Experiment No.7

The common emitter

Name: ‫ ـــــــــــــــــــــ‬Date: ‫ــــــــــــ‬

Physics 106 Section: ‫ ـــــــــــ‬Instructor’s Name: ‫ــــــــ‬

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Purposes:
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………..

Data and Data Analysis

10. Fill the Table 1

IB VCE
0.4 0.6 1.0 1.8 4.4 6.3
( µA ) (V)

0 IC (mA)

10 IC (mA)

45 IC (mA)

11.Plot the collector current IC versus the collector emitter voltage VCE .
12.From table for IB=45 µA find β for this transistor (use a suitable value of Ic

for this purpose).

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………

1. From figure for IB = 10⁡μA , find the slope of linear part of the curve.
 Experiment No. 9:

The Silicon Controller Rectifier

 Experiment No.8

The silicon controlled rectifier

Name: Date:

Physics 106 Section: Instructor’s Name:

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Purposes:
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………..

Data and Data Analysis

I) Switch on the SCR

a) At first we will apply a voltage across the anode cathode of SCR and
increase this voltage, but this is not enough to switch on the SCR. For this
purpose fill the table 1
Table 1

Vvariable (V) 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

VAK ( V)

IG (mA) 0

IAK (mA)

b) Now for Vvariable=12 V change the gate current and fill the table 2 and note
when the lamp lights.
Table 2

Vvariable (V) 12

VAK ( V)

IG (mA) 1 2 3 4 5 6 8

IAK (mA)
 2. Plot the trigger current IG versus the anode cathode voltage VAK .
3. From graph find the saturation voltage VAK(sat).

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

……

4. Fill the table 3.

Table 3

Trigger current IGT (mA)

Saturation Voltage VAK(sat) (V)
Holding current IH (mA)

II) Switch off the SCR

a) At first we will apply a voltage across the anode cathode of SCR Vvariable=12
V and decrease the current IG, but this is not enough to switch off the SCR.
For this purpose fill the table 4
Table 4

Vvariable (V) 12

VAK ( V)

IG (mA) 8 6 5 4 3 2 1

IAK (mA)

b) Now for IG=0 change the voltage Vvariable and fill the table 5 and note when
the lamp switches off.
 Table 5

Vvariable (V) 12 10 7 5 3 2 1

VAK ( V)

IG (mA) 0

IAK (mA)
III) Half-wave rectification for AC-Voltage
a) Apply the AC-Voltage with IG=0 (the SCR is switched off, IAK= 0) and then
connect the oscilloscope across anode and cathode. Draw the signal illustrated
by oscilloscope.

a) Signal for switched off SCR b) Signal for switched on SCR

b) Apply the AC-Voltage with IG=6 mA (the SCR is switched on, IAK= 30 mA)
and then connect the oscilloscope across anode and cathode. Draw the signal
illustrated by oscilloscope.
 EXPERIMENT 10

The TRIAC
Purposes:

9. Study the TRIAC device.

10.Understanding of the bi-directional nature of the TRIAC and its applications.
11.To understand the work of the TRIAC in the four operating quadrants.
12.To use the TRIAC as half-wave and full-wave controlled rectifier and to see
the rectified waveforms.

Apparatus:

Electricity & electronics constructor EEC470, basic electricity & electronics kit
EEC471-2, multimeters, oscilloscope.

Introduction

The silicon controlled rectifier can be used to rectify a waveform,

but it passes a current in one direction. The SCR can work as half-
wave rectifier and it can be used in a bridge to achieve controlled
full-wave rectification. But a simple and less expensive way of
obtaining bi-directional conduction is to use a TRIAC. A TRIAC is a
type of thyristor. It has a four layers of semiconductor materials.
The TRIAC can be triggered into conduction by gate current for either
polarity of the voltage between terminals T1 & T2. This property
makes it possible to work in four modes as shown in Fig.1
 Fig. 1 TRIAC triggering modes

These modes are:

in I quadrant, mode I+ (positive gate current, and VT2> VT1 )

mode I- (negative gate current and VT2>

VT1)

in III quadrant, mode III+ (positive gate current, and VT2< VT1 )
 mode III- (negative gate current and
VT2< VT1)

Note: the TRIAC can be triggered in any of four modes. The TRIAC
is switched off at any applied voltage across its two terminals T2
& T1 when the gate current is not big enough (IG < IGT).

Procedure

I) Four modes of the TRIAC

Connect the circuit shown in Fig. 2 for four modes.

Fig. 2 Setup for TRIAC modes

a) Mode I+ (positive gate current, and V T2> VT1 )
1) Connect the two links 1, 2 as shown in Fig.2 to have positive
IG and VT2> VT1.
2) Connect the Ammeter with polarity as shown in Fig. 2 to have a
positive reading of gate current.
3) Add to this circuit other ammeter with polarity to have a
positive reading of IT2 .
4) Watch the lamp when it will be lighted, to determine IGT and
VT2T1(sat).
5) Fill the table 1
Table 1( mode I+ )

VT2 –VT1 (V)

IG (mA)
IT2 (mA)
Lamp

6) From table 1 find: IGT = mA , and (VT2 –VT1)sat = V , IT2(H)=

mA.
7) Decrease the gate current and note that the TRIAC stays switching on.
b) Mode I- (negative gate current, and VT2> VT1 )
 1)Connect the two links 1(down), 2(up) in Fig.2 to have negative
IG and VT2> VT1.
2)Watch the lamp when it will be lighted, to determine IGT and
VT2T1(sat).
3)Fill the table 2
Table 2( mode I- )

VT2 –VT1 (V)

IG (mA)
IT2 (mA)
Lamp
4) From table 1 find: IGT = mA , and (VT2 –VT1)sat = V , IT2(H)=
mA.
5) Decrease the gate current and note that the TRIAC stays switching on.
c) Mode III+ (positive gate current, and VT2< VT1 )
1)Connect the two links 1(up), 2(down) in Fig.2 to have positive
IG and VT2< VT1.
2)Watch the lamp when it will be lighted, to determine IGT and
VT2T1(sat).
3)Fill the table 3
Table 3( mode III+ )

VT2 –VT1 (V)

IG (mA)
IT2 (mA)
 Lamp
4) From table 1 find: IGT = mA , and (VT2 –VT1)sat = V , IT2(H)=
mA.
5) Decrease the gate current and note that the TRIAC stays switching on.
d) Mode III- (negative gate current, and VT2< VT1 )
1) Connect the two links 1, 2(down) in Fig.2 to have negative IG
and VT2< VT1.
2) Watch the lamp when it will be lighted, to determine IGT and
VT2T1(sat).
3) Fill the table 4
Table 4( mode III-)

VT2 –VT1 (V)

IG (mA)
IT2 (mA)
Lamp
4) From table 1 find: IGT = mA , and (VT2 –VT1)sat = V , IT2(H)=
mA.
5) Decrease the gate current and note that the TRIAC stays switching on.

II) The TRIAC as half-wave and full-wave rectifier.

1) Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.3.

IT2

Fig.3 Half-wave and full-wave

IG rectification
 2) Add an ammeter (dc) to measure IG.
3) Connect the oscilloscope to the two ends T1 & T2 of TRIAC.
4) Connect an ammeter (ac) to measure the current IT2.
5) Watch the lamp and note three different stages (no light, small and big
brightness).
6) Increase the current IG and fill the table 5 and watch the lamp and
oscilloscope
Table 5

VT2 –VT1 (V)

(ac)
IG (mA)
(dc)
IT2 (mA)
(ac)
No No Small Small Big Big
Lamp
light light brightness brightness brightness brightness

7) Sketch the shape of signal for three causes of TRIAC:

• switched off,
• switched on with mode I+ (or mode III+) (half-wave rectifier)
• and switched on with two modes I+ & III+ (full-wave rectifier).