Untitled

BIOLOGY SENIOR TWO 2020
TABLE OF CONTENTS
UNIT 1: CLASSIFICATION OF KINGDOM ANIMALIA ................................................................................. 1
1.1. Introduction................................................................................................................................................. 1
1.2. General characteristics of animals ...................................................................................................... 1
1.3. Phylum chordata ....................................................................................................................................... 1
1.4 Phylum Arthropoda ..................................................................................................................................... 5
1.5 Other Phyla belonging to Kingdom Animalia .................................................................................... 9
1.6 Need for classification of animals .........................................................................................................10
1.7 End of unit assessment .............................................................................................................................11
UNIT 2: INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL BIOLOGY ...................................................................13
2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................13
2.2 Common terms used in the study of Ecology ..................................................................................13
2.3 Energy flow in ecosystems ......................................................................................................................15
2.4 How energy flows in an Ecosystem .....................................................................................................18
2.5 Calculating energy transfer between trophic levels ......................................................................18
2.6 Ecological pyramids....................................................................................................................................19
UNIT 3: PASSIVE MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES ACROSS A CELL MEMBRANE .......................23
3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................23
3.2 Diffusion of gases and solutes .................................................................................................................23
3.2 Osmosis............................................................................................................................................................24
3.3 Role of osmosis in plants and animal cells ........................................................................................26
UNIT 4: ACTIVE TRANSPORT ...........................................................................................................................30
4.1 Definition........................................................................................................................................................30
4.2 Importance of active transport .............................................................................................................30
4.3 Factors affecting active transport ........................................................................................................30
Page i of 132
Prepared by M. Prosper
4.4 Process of active transport .....................................................................................................................31
4.5 Differences between active and passive transport .........................................................................33
UNIT 5: IDENTIFICATION OF FOOD COMPONENTS................................................................................35
5.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................................................35
5.2 Testing for starch and other sugars ....................................................................................................35
5.3 Testing for proteins – Biuret test ....................................................................................................37
5.4 Testing for lipids – Ethanol emulsion test ........................................................................................38
5.5 Testing for vitamin C ................................................................................................................................39
5.6 Food preservation .......................................................................................................................................40
UNIT 6: ENZYMES .................................................................................................................................................41
6.1. What are enzymes? ...................................................................................................................................41
6.2 Characteristics of enzymes ......................................................................................................................41
6.3 Types of enzymes.....................................................................................................................................41
6.4 Factors affecting enzyme activity .....................................................................................................41
6.5 Mode of action of enzymes......................................................................................................................43
6.6 Importance of enzymes in living organisms ..................................................................................43
UNIT 7: PHOTOSYNTHESIS................................................................................................................................45
7.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................................................45
7.2 Necessity for chlorophyll, light energy and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis ..............45
7.3 Limiting factors of photosynthesis ....................................................................................................45
7.4 Adaptations of the leaf for photosynthesis .......................................................................................46
7.5 Importance of photosynthesis.............................................................................................................47
7.6 Mineral requirements in plants .............................................................................................................47
7.7 Uses and dangers of nitrogen and other fertilizers .......................................................................48
Page ii of 132
UNIT 8: TRANSPORT OF WATER, MINERAL AND ORGANIC FOODS IN PLANTS ........51
8.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................51
8.2 Transport system in plants .....................................................................................................................51
8.3 Distribution of vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) ......................................................................52
8.4 Water and minerals uptake ....................................................................................................................53
8.5 Source and sink of food products. ........................................................................................................55
8.6 Transpiration ................................................................................................................................................55
8.7 Wilting in plants ..........................................................................................................................................56
8.8 Adaptations of plants to different environmental conditions...................................................57
8.9 Translocation of organic food ................................................................................................................59
8.10 End of unit assessment ..........................................................................................................................59
UNIT 9: GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN HUMANS AND PLANTS ................................................................61
9.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................61
9.2 Characteristic features of respiratory surfaces ...............................................................................61
9.3 Mechanism of breathing in humans ....................................................................................................61
9.4 Gaseous exchange at the alveoli ............................................................................................................62
9.5 Respiratory diseases ...................................................................................................................................63
9.4 Gaseous exchange in plants .....................................................................................................................68
UNIT 10: EXCRETION IN HUMANS ................................................................................................................71
10.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................................71
10.2 Human excretory organs and their products ...............................................................................71
10.3 The role of the liver in excretion ......................................................................................................71
10.4Structure of the human urinary system ..........................................................................................72
10.5 Factors that affect urine production ...............................................................................................76
10.6 Practices that maintain healthy urinary system ........................................................................76
Page iii of 132

UNIT 11: JOINTS AND MOVEMENT ..............................................................................................................78
11.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................................78
11.2 Joints ............................................................................................................................................................78
11.3 Acion of antagonistic muscles in the movement of a hinge joint .........................................82
11.4 Practices that promote healthy joints and bones .......................................................................83
UNIT 12: INFECTIOUS DISEASES ....................................................................................................................85
12.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................................85
12.2 Transmission of infectious diseases ....................................................................................................85
12.3 Defense against infection ......................................................................................................................85
12.4 Symptoms, prevention, control and treatment of common infectious diseases .............88
UNIT 13: IMMUNITY AND VACCINATION ...................................................................................................94
13.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................................................94
13.2 Antibodies and antigens ........................................................................................................................94
13.3 Immune response ....................................................................................................................................96
13.4 Importance of breastfeeding infants ................................................................................................98
13.5 Immunisation and autoimmunity ......................................................................................................99
13.6 End of unit assessment .......................................................................................................................100
UNITY 14: SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR AND SEXUAL RESPONSE ............................................................101
14.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................101
14.2 Male and female sexual response ....................................................................................................101
14.3 People and sexual relationships .......................................................................................................103
14.4 Violation of sexual human rights ....................................................................................................104
UNIT 15: PREGNANCY PREVENTION.........................................................................................................106
Page iv of 132
15.1 Intoduction ..............................................................................................................................................106
15.2 Natural contraceptives methods .....................................................................................................106
15.3 Artificial birth control .........................................................................................................................109
15.5 Abortion....................................................................................................................................................116
15.6 Menopause ...............................................................................................................................................116
15.7 Family planning .....................................................................................................................................117
UNIT 16: REDUCING RISK OF STIs AND HIV ..........................................................................................119
16.1 Transmission of STIs ............................................................................................................................119
16.2 Transmission of HIV (Human immunodeficiency virus) infection.......................................120
16.3 Ways of reducing STIs and HIV infection ....................................................................................120
16.4 Treatment of STIs and HIV...............................................................................................................121
Glossary ....................................................................................................................................................................122
References................................................................................................................................................................126
Page v of 132
Dear learner,
You are already in senior four of A’ level with Biology as a core subject, and you became familiar with the
subject of Biology. Studying Biology is not difficult, you just need certain good strategies to be successful:
1. Read your syllabus before starting the lesson in order to prepare the subject content of the day.
Write down notes of important subject contents and questions raised.
2. During the course delivery, please do follow carefully teacher’s comments and highlight main
points.
3. Revise daily your notes and record encountered difficulties.
4. Make research and do as many exercises as possible to fix properly the learned content.
5. Do your home works. Your homework should be done as soon as possible. Do not wait till the
day of submission of the home works. Do not let other people work for you. Do the homework
yourself, it is for your benefit.
6. “Good luck” in science means to work hard.
Please contact me!

I have verified the information in this syllabus to the best of my ability, but you may find things that have
hanged (or even that I made mistakes!). As a reader of this syllabus, you can help me to improve it by
sending me your feedback. Please let me know about any errors, inaccuracies, misleading or confusing
statements that you find anywhere in this syllabus. Please also let me know what I can do to make this
syllabus more useful to you. I take your comments very seriously and will try to incorporate reasonable
suggestions by answering them.
Reach me on: [email protected]
Page vi of 132
UNIT 1: CLASSIFICATION OF KINGDOM ANIMALIA

1.1. Introduction
Classification is the process of grouping organisms according to their similarities and differences. Organisms
sharing similar characteristics are placed together in one group.There are 36 recognized animal phyla, of
which nine (Mollusca, Porifera, Cnidaria,Platythelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida, Arthropoda, Echnodermata
and Chordata) contain the vast majority of described species.
1.2. General characteristics of animals
 They are multicellular organisms.
 They have eukaryotic cells.
 Their cells are differentiated into tissues and organs.
 They are all heterotrophic, meaning they depend on other organisms for food.
 Their cells lack cell walls, cell sap and chloroplasts. They only have cell membranes and this makes
their cell to be irregular in shape.
 Most animals are able to move the whole body from one place to another (locomote).
 Reproduction in most animals takes place through fusion of gametes.
 They respond to external stimuli.
1.3. Phylum chordata

The main characteristics of organisms in phylum Chordata are:
1. Presence of a chord like structure called notochord. The notochord supports the body in lower
chordates while in higher chordates (vertebrates) it is present only during embronic stages. It is replaced
by a vertebral column.
2. Presence of a vertebral column which forms part of an internal skeleton. Vertebral column is a bony
structure made up of vertebrae. It protects the spinal cord.
3. Presence of a nervous system with a brain which is connected to a hollow nerve tube or a single tubular
nerve cord. The nerve tube runs along the back and forms a brain anteriorly.
4. Bilateral symmetry: this means that the body can be divided along one plane into two equal halves that
are roughly mirror images of each other.
Organisms in the phylum Chordata can further be subdivided into 5 different classes. These are: Pisces
(fishes), Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves (birds) and Mammalia
a. Class Pisces
The term ‘Pisces’ is derived from a Latin word ‘Piscis’ which means fish. Therefore, the class pisces is made
up of the fish family. Ee.g.: Tilapia, Shark and Mud fish
Main characteristics of animals in class Pisces

1. All fishes are aquatic. They live in places such as seas, lakes, oceans, rivers and dams.
2. The skin of the fish is covered with scales which overlap backwards.
3. Fish have gills which are used for gaseous exchange. The gills are located in a space called gill cavity on
the side of the head. The number of gills in a fish ranges from 4 - 7 pairs.
Page 1 of 132
4. Fish have fins that aid in movement. The fins on the sides of the body are usually found in pairs, for example,
the pelvic and pectoral fins. The dorsal, ventral and tail fins are usually unpaired.
5. Fish are poikilothermic: Their body temperature is dependent on environmental temperature because they
cannot regulate their own body temperature.
6. Fish exhibit external fertilisation where eggs are first laid by the female then the male sheds sperms over
them.
7. Fish have a lateral line on their body for sensitivity.
8. Fish have a single circulatory system with a two chambered heart.
Figure1.1: External features of Tilapia fish
Note: Fish use gills for gaseous exchange except lung fish that lives in oxygen deficient swamps and use
lungs for breathing.
Adaptation of fish to aquatic environment

1. Fishes have gills to breathe under water (gaseous exchange).
2. they have Streamlined body to allow water to easily pass over them, reducing friction (resistance) as they
swim.
3. They have fins and tails that allow fish to move through water. The tail propels the fish while fins guide
their movement in water by controlling their direction and balance.
4. Lateral line allows fish to detect vibrations in water, alerting them of predators.
5. Huge number of eggs: a single fish can lay more than a million eggs, which can all be fertilised. However,
a lot of eggs are eaten by predators while others are washed away by water currents. A large number of eggs
ensures that at least some will survive to maturity.
b. Class Amphibia
The word amphibia comes from the word ‘amphi’ which means ‘dual’ or ‘two’. This class of chordates can
live both on land and in water. Most adult amphibians live on land. However, they go back to the water to
breed. Examples are: Frog, Toad, Salamander, Newt.
Page 2 of 132
Figure 1.2: Examples of amphibians

Main characteristics of animals in class Amphibia
1. They have mucus glands under the skin to keep it moist.
2. The skin has no scales.
3. Adult amphibians use the lungs, moist skin and mouth cavity for gaseous exchange. However, their young
ones use external gills for gaseous exchange while in water.
4. The adult female amphibians always lay their eggs in water.
5. They exhibit external fertilisation.
6. They have two pairs of limbs.
c. Class Reptilia
The term ‘Reptilia’ comes from a latin word, ‘Reptilis’ which means ‘crawl’. The animals in this class move
by creeping or crawling. Unlike amphibians, reptiles do not breed in water because they lay eggs with
leathery shells; hence cannot dry out. Examples of reptilia are; snakes, turtles, tortoises, crocodiles and
lizards.
Figure 1.3: Examples of reptile: Crocodile

Main characteristics of animals in Class Reptilia
1. They have a dry scaly skin. Some like the tortoise have scales which have hardened to form a shell.
2. They are mostly terrestrial with a few being partially aquatic.
3. They undergo internal fertilisation, where the male introduces sperms into the female body. The eggs laid
thereafter are covered with a shell.
4. Most of them have two pairs of legs except the snake.
Page 3 of 132
Fig 1.4:Parts of a lizard
d. Class Aves (birds)

The term ‘aves’ comes from a Latin word ‘Avis’ which means bird. Animals in this class consist of birds
such as the humming bird, ostrich, fowl, sparrow, hawk and eagle.
Figure 1.5: Parts of a hen
Adaptations of birds to their environment

1. The forelimbs of birds are modified to form wings for flight. The sternum of pectoral girdle is expanded for
attachment of flight muscles.
2. Flight birds are light in weight. Their bones are air-filled and therefore have low density to enable ease of
flight.
3. Birds lay eggs with hard calcareous shells to avoid drying out.
4. The beaks of birds are modified for different modes of feeding, for example:
• Seed eaters – like sparrows have short thick conical bills for cracking seeds.
• Flesh eating birds – like hawks have sharp curved beaks for tearing meat.
• Nectar eating birds – like humming birds have long slender beaks to probe the flowers.
• Insect eaters – like bee-eater have thin pointed beaks.
• Filter feeders – have serrated beaks to filter food from muddy water. An example is the duck and
flamingoes.
• Water plant eaters – like ducks have flat beaks to strain small plants and animals from the water.
Page 4 of 132
5. Birds have different types of feet to adapt them to their different environments. These include:
• Feet for grasping – like those of a kingfisher. They are large and curved to grasp a prey tightly.
• Feet for scratching – like those of chickens. They have nail-like toes to scratch the soil for food.
• Swimming birds – like ducks have webbed feet used like paddles.
• Perching feet – like that of a robin. They have long back toes to grab and perch tightly on a tree branch or
bark.
• Feet for running – like those of ostrich. They have three toes to enable stability when running.
e. Class Mammalia
The term Mammalia is derived from the Latin word ‘mammalis’ which means ‘mammal’ or ‘mamma’ which
means milk secreting organ of female mammals. Most mammals are terrestrial except a few like dolphins and
whales which are aquatic.
Exapmles of mammals: dogs, camel, humman being,
Main characteristics of animals in Class Mammalia
1. They have mammary glands. They suckle and take care of their young ones.
2. Their bodies are covered with fur, hair or wool.
3. They give birth to young ones except the duck-billed platypus and spiny ant-eater which lay eggs.
4. They have external ears. These are the only class of chordates that have the external ears.
5. They exhibit internal fertilisation.
6. They are Homeothermic. Their body temperatures do not depend on the environment. It is maintained
constantly.
7. They have differentiated teeth (i.e incisors, canines, pre-molars and molars) each with different function.
They are therefore referred to as heterodonts. Others with uniform teeth differing only in size are
homodonts.
1.4 Phylum Arthropoda

The word arthropod comes from two words ‘Arthros’ meaning ‘jointed’ and ‘poda’ meaning ‘leg’ or ‘foot’.
Therefore arthropods are animals with jointed appendages. It is the largest phylum in the animal kingdom.
The animals in this group inhabit land, water and soil.
Some arthropods are useful in many ways, for example:
• Butterflies and bees act as pollinators of flowering plants.
• Bees make honey.
• Lobsters are used as food.
Some arthropods are harmful to other living organisms, for instance:
• Ticks transmit diseases in animals.
• Mosquitos transmit malaria.
• Tsetse flies transmit trypanosomiasis.
• Aphids destroy crops such as maize, coffee and cassava.
Main characteristics of organisms in phylum Arthropoda

1. They have jointed legs (appendages).
2. They have a tough coat or covering made of chitin. This coat forms an outer skeleton known as the
exoskeleton. The tough coat protects the internal organs against damage. The exoskeleton does not grow. It
is usually shed in a process known as moulting to allow the organism to grow.
Page 5 of 132
3. They have bilateral symmetry. This means that they can be cut into two similar halves in only one way.
4. Muscles for movement are attached on the cuticle or exoskeleton, for example in insects.
5. They have a fluid filled body cavity called haemocoel for example in earthworms.
6. Their bodies are segmented.
Organisms in phylum Arthropoda can further be grouped into various classes. The organisms are grouped on
the basis of:
• Number of legs
• Presence and absence of antennae
• Number of antennae
• Number of body parts
• Type of eyes
The 5 classes of phylum Arthropoda are: Insecta, Arachnida, Crustacea, Diplopoda and Chilopoda
a. Class Insecta
This is the largest class in the phylum Arthropoda. The term ‘insecta’ comes from the word ‘incised’ which
means ‘cut.’ The body of organisms in this class are divided into three distinct parts; that is head, thorax
and abdomen.
Main characteristics of organisms in class Insecta
1. They have three distinctive body parts; head, thorax and abdomen.
2. They have a pair of long antennae.
3. They have three pairs of jointed legs, which are attached to their thorax.
4. They have a pair of large compound eyes.
5. Some have one or two pairs of wings that are attached to the thorax.
6. They breathe by means of spiracles, which are found on the sides of the abdomen and thorax.
Figure 1.6: Parts of an Insect
b. Class Arachnida
This class of arthropods includes spiders, mites, ticks and scorpions.
Page 6 of 132
Figure 1.7: Examples of Arachnida
Main features of organisms in class Arachnida

1. The body is divided into two parts: cephalothorax and abdomen. The head and thorax are joined to form a
cephalothorax.
2. They have four pairs of jointed legs attached to the cephalothorax.
3. They have simple eyes about 8 in number.
4. They do not have antennae. Instead they have a pair of pedipals.
5. They posses a pair of poison glands called chelicerae.
c. Class Crustacea
The term crustacea is derived from “crusta” which means a ‘hard shiny coat’. They are aquatic arthropods
except for wood lice which are the only fully terrestrial crustaceans.
Figure 1.8: Examples of crustaceans

Main characteristics of organisms in class Crustacea
1. Their body is divided into two parts: the cephalothorax and the abdomen. The head and the thorax are joined
to form the cephalothorax. The cephalothorax is covered by a shiny coat known as carapace.
2. They have different types of appendages. Their appendages are modified to form legs for walking, feeding,
protection, and for swimming.
3. They have two pairs of antennae.
4. They have a pair of compound eyes at the end of stalks.
5. They have ten or more legs. The walking legs are usually located on the cephalothorax while the swimming
legs are located in the abdomen.
6. They breathe by use of external gills on the underside of the carapace.
Page 7 of 132
d. Class Diplopoda
Diplopoda means arthropods with two pairs of legs per segment. They also have elongated cylindrical
bodies. Diplopods are herbivores and mainly feed on vegetables and dead organic matter. This class consists
of millipedes. Millipedes are of various sizes. There are giant millipedes and small sized millipedes.
Main characteristics of organisms in class Diplopoda
1. They have elongated and cylindrical bodies.
2. Their bodies are divided into two main parts; the head and a segmented trunk. The number of body segments
ranges from 25 – 100.
3. Each body segment has two pairs of legs except the first thoracic segments that have one pair of leg each.
4. They have a pair of antennae.
5. They may have simple or compound eyes, or in some cases no eyes are present.
6. They breathe through spiracles found on the sides of the body segments.
7. Millipedes roll their bodies when disturbed. After coiling, they produce a stinking substance from their
stink glands. This is self- protective behaviour against enemies and predators.
Figure 1.9: External features of a millipede
e. Class Chilopoda
This class is composed of centipedes. They are found in virtually all habitats but unlike the millipedes, they
have less number of legs. Centipedes have only one pair of legs per segment.
Main characteristics of organisms in class Chilopoda

1. They have flat bodies with the legs positioned on either side of the body.
2. They have a pair of legs in each segment.
3. Their body is divided into a head and a segmented trunk. However, they have 15 -21 segments, which are
fewer than those of animals in the class Diplopoda.
4. They are carnivorous. They use their poison claws to kill their prey.
5. They may have compound eyes, simple eyes or no eyes.
6. They breathe through spiracles found on each side of the body segments.
Figure 1.10: External feature of a centipede

Page 8 of 132
Economic importance of arthropods to humans

Some arthropods are hrmful to human being. Some are pests and others cause diseases in plants and human
beings. However, there are those that are of economic importance. The following is the economic
importance of arthropods to human beings.
1. Scientific studies: they are used by human beings scientific studies such as behaviour of animals like
bees and ants.
2. Aerate the soil: arthropods such as millipedes turn the soil as they feed hence they help in aerating
the soil. This improves the soil fertility for plant growth.
3. Source of food: some arthropods such as locusts, white ants, crayfish and prawns are used by human
beings as food.
4. Pollination: insects such as bees and butterflies carry out the process of pollination.
5. Source of income: some farmers keep bees for commercial purposes. They seell honey and beeswax
obtained from bees. The wax can be used in making different products such as candles and furniture
polish.
3. Some arthropods cause harm and injury to human beings as well. Some are poisonous if they bite, for
example, spiders, wasps, centipede and crabs.
1.5 Other Phyla belonging to Kingdom Animalia
Apart from the two phyla; Chordata and Arthropoda, Kingdom Animalia comprises of other lower level
organisms that belong to different phyla. These phyla include: Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida,
Mollusca, Cnidaria, Porifera/sponges, Echinodermata and Coelenterata.
Phyla Main characteristics Examples
Platyhelminthe  Have a mouth but no anus. Tapeworm, liver flukes, flat

s  Dorso-ventrally flattened bodies with worms and planaria
bilateral symmetry.
 Mainly hermaphroditic.
• Rounded unsegmented body with tapering Round worms,

Nematoda ends. hook worms,
• Body covered with thick elastic cuticle. ascaris spp
• Have a simple alimentary canal with mouth
anteriorly and anus posteriorly
Annelida • The bodies have segments (metameric). Earthworms, lung

• Body segments are separated by sheet-like worms, leeches
septa.
• They lack legs; instead each segment has
bristle- like chaetae to aid in locomotion.
• Have an alimentary canal with oral and anal
opening.
Page 9 of 132
Mollusca • The dorsal side of the body is covered by a Octopus, slugs,

hard external shell; although some Molluscs do Squids and snails
not
have a shell.
• The ventral side of the body has one soft
muscular foot adapted for movement,
attachment to surfaces and food capture.
• Have sensitivity structures called tentacles on
which eyes are located.
Coelentreate • Have a sac-like body cavity that also acts as a The sea anemones,
(cnidarian) gut. hydra and jelly fish
• The body has radial symmetry i.e. any section
passing through the body gives two equal
halves.
• Possess tentacles.
• They are sessile. They attach themselves on

Porifera rocks or dead corals. Sponges
• They have a simple body made of a cavity or
interconnected cavities opening to the outside
through pores.
• The body cavities are lined with flagellated
cells that create water currents.
• They lack a nervous system.
• The skin has calcareous exoskeleton and
Echinodermata spines. Sea cucumbers, sea urchins
• Body of the larva has bilateral symmetry and the starfish
while adult body has a five-way radial
symmetry
(pentaradiate).
• The mouth is located on the lower side (oral)
while the anus is located on the upper (aboral)
side.
1.6 Need for classification of animals

There is need for classification because it allows us to:
a. differentiate the different types of animals in their diverse forms and complexities.
b. Identify and give names (scientific names) to animals for easy identification and for one to sort them
out into various groups.
c. Arrange the animals according to their characteristics.
d. Undesrtand the organisms and be able to use them economically.
e. Reflect the complexity of the body form, development and genetic characteristics that can be
exploited by human beings. For example, for hybridisation so as to get new breeds of animals that
can be used in biological control.
Page 10 of 132
1.7 End of unit assessment

1. Identify an echinoderm from the following?
A. Starfish
B. Roundworm
C. Sponge
D. Elephant
2. Among mammals, man is considered to be superior. This is because:
A. Man has sense organs, which are more efficient.
B. Man is born with the ability to speak.
C. Man has a well developed brain.
D. Man possesses hands, which are more skilled than forelimbs of other mammals.
3. When trying to determine whether two birds (male and female) belong to the same species, the most certain
method would be.
A. Mate the two birds.
B. Compare their feathers.
C. Mate the two birds and see if they produce fertile offspring.
D. Compare the colour of their feathers.
4. Which of the following statement is correct?
A. Grasshopper, mosquito, cockroach and spider are all insects.
B. Crab, scorpion, millipede and centipede are all arachnids.
C. Centipede, crab, spider and mosquitoes are all crustaceans.
D. Crab, cockroach, mosquito and spider are all arthropods.
5. (i) Name the two largest groups into which all animals are classified.
(ii) What is the main difference between these two groups?
6. Name the phylum to which all vertebrates belong.
7. Below is a list of important characteristics of different phyla belonging to the animal kingdom.
Write the name of the phylum against each characteristic.
(a) Moves by means of a muscular foot .............................
(b) Posses a notochord and a tubular dorsal nerve chord ............................
(c) Segmented animals with jointed limbs and an exoskeleton of chitin ...........................
(d) Unsegmented soft bodied animals with a hard calcareous protective shell .....................
8. Insects are both useful and harmful explain.
9. Name the characteristic that is common to:
(a) Fish, amphibians, and reptiles.
(b) Amphibians and reptiles but not to fish.
(c) Birds and mammals, but not to reptiles.
10. Study the following diagrams representing organisms in a given phylum.
W X Y Z
Page 11 of 132
a) To which phylum do the above organisms belong? Give reasons for your answer.
b) How does animal Z protect itself from enemies?
c) Which animal above belong to a class that lacks antennae? Name the class.
11. Some animals under class Arachnida are dangerous. They can both bite and sting. Suggest ways in which
such organisms can be handled.
12. Discussion on the topic "are insects important or not important to our environment?"
Page 12 of 132
UNIT 2: INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL BIOLOGY

2.1 Introduction
There is no single organism that can live in isolation. Living things not only depend on the environment for
survival, but they also influenece the environment through their activities. Therefore in nature there exists a
dynamic relationship between an organism and its surroundings.
Ecology (from Greek: οἶκος, "house", or "environment"; -λογία, "study of") is a branch of biology that
studies the interactions among organisms and their biophysical environment, which includes both biotic
(living) and abiotic (non-living) components.
The environment refers to the surroundings or conditions in which living things are. In order to protect the
environment, there is need for conservation. Conservation is the preservation, protection and restoration
of the natural environment. The natural environment includes both living and non-living things that occur in
the environment naturally.
2.2 Common terms used in the study of Ecology
i. Abiotic: Anything that is not, nor has ever been, alive. Some examples of abiotic factors in an
environment include precipitation, sunlight, and minerals.
The abiotic factors in an ecosystem include the following:
(a) Light - The sun is the main source of light energy in all ecosystems on earth. Light is important in any
ecosystem because plants use it to make their own food.
(b) Temperature – Temperature variation in an ecosystem affects the type and distribution of organisms
found in it. Some organisms prefer high temperatures while others prefer low temperatures. Therefore
they will inhabit different parts of the ecosystem.
(c) Atmospheric pressure – This is the pressure exerted by air in the atmosphere. Atmospheric pressure
affects the amount of oxygen in the air. At the sea level, air pressure is high. This reduces at higher
altitudes. Therefore different organisms will occupy different altitudes based on their endurance.
(d) Salinity – This is the degree of salt concentration in water. This is a factor that is mainly found in aquatic
habitats. Some organisms live in salty environments while others live in fresh water environments.
(e) Humidity – This is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. It influences evaporation and
transpiration rates.
(f) pH– This is the degree of acidity or alkalinity. The pH of an ecosystem affects the type of distribution of
organisms found in it.
(g) Wind – This is moving air. Air moves in different directions and speed. Wind influences environmental
factors such as temperature and humidity.
ii. Biotic: Anything that is, or has ever been, alive. Examples of biotic factors in an environment include
organisms, organic molecules, and cells. Biotic is the opposite of abiotic.
iii. Carrying capacity:The maximum number of individuals in a single population that a given
environment can sustain at a given time.
iv. Community: A group of two or more populations of organisms from different species inhabiting the
same location at the same time.
v. Decomposer: An organism that feeds on and breaks down dead or decaying matter in the process
of ecological decomposition. Examples of decomposers include fungi, like mushrooms and molds; worms,
Page 13 of 132
like earthworms and some nematodes; and some bacteria. Decomposers are also called saprotrophs,
meaning "putrid eaters."
vi. Ecosystem: A term describing all the living and nonliving things in a certain location. Ecosystem studies
in ecology explore the interactions between organisms, like individuals, populations, or communities, and
the abiotic components in the environment, like chemicals, landscapes, and the like.
vii. Food chain: A simple, direct, and trophic, or eating, relationship among a group of organisms, where
one organism, like a plant, is the food source for the next organism, like a cow, which in turn is the food
source for the next organism, like a human, and so on and so forth.
viii. Food web: A complex trophic relationship among a group of organisms, consisting of interactions
among multiple food chains (see definition above). A food web describes how
multiple producers and consumers directly or indirectly interact in an ecosystem.
ix. Habitat: The physical environment where a population of a single species lives, or inhabits. A habitat
consists of all the abiotic, or nonliving, resources influencing the population.
x. Niche: An organism's role in an environment, including how it uses its resources, relates to other
organisms, and times its reproduction. Each individual organism has a niche in its population, community,
and ecosystem, but niches are flexible and change depending on circumstances.
xi. Population: A group of organisms of the same species living in the same geographic area.
xii. Biosphere: This is the part of the Earth and its atmosphere capable of supporting life. It is an area where
organisms live, including the ground and the air.
xiii. Producer: This refers to all green plants (for example, beans, mango tree and pine) which manufacture
their own food by the process of photosynthesis.
xiv. Biome: This is a large naturally occurring community of animals (fauna) and plants (flora) occupying a
major habitat. Examples include: forest, grassland, freshwater, marine and desert.
xv. Biomass: This is the total mass of organisms in a given area or volume.
xvi. Edaphic factors: These are all non-living components of an ecosystem both chemical and physical.
They are related to abiotic factors.
Figure2.1: Biological levels in the environment
Page 14 of 132
2.3 Energy flow in ecosystems

The primary source of energy is the sun. Energy enters ecosystems in form of sunlight. Part of it is then
converted into chemical energy by the green plants (producers) through the process of photosynthesis. For
this reason they are known as Autotrophs.
Plants pass on this energy to the grazers who feed on plants for food. These organisms that feed on plants
cannot manufacture their own food. They are therefore known as heterotrophs. Those organisms that feed on
plants directly are known as herbivores. Herbivores fix part of the energy into their bodies; the rest is lost into
the surroundings. They are also in turn eaten by the carnivores who take in part of this energy losing the
largest part in form of heat and waste excreta.
The carnivores are grouped into first level, second level up to the topmost level. The top most carnivores
receive the least portion of energy as most of it has been lost. The last trophic level in an ecosystem is that of
the decomposers. They decompose organic matter thus allowing the recycling of nutrients. Decomposers are
saprophytic organisms. They act on the dead remains of organisms in all the other levels.
It should be noted that sometimes in an ecosystem, organisms can feed on both plants and animals. In this
case, they are known as omnivorous organisms. Examples of such organisms are pigs and human beings.
In ecology, a trophic level refers to the position an organism occupies in a food chain. Green plants form the
first trophic level known as the producers. Some organisms such as herbivores feed directly on the plants to
obtain energy. Other organisms obtain this energy indirectly by feeding on the herbivores. Collectively, these
organisms are called consumers because they cannot make their own food. Herbivores like grasshoppers form
the second trophic level. First level carnivores like the lizards form the third trophic level, followed by snakes
on the fourth level and then eagles come on the fifth level as top level carnivores. Some consumers called the
detrivores derive their energy from non-living organic material such as feaces and fallen leaves.
The table below gives a summary of organism we expect in each trophic level
Table 2:1: Organisms in different trophic levels
Trophic level Composition of organism
Producers First trophic level • Green plants
• Photosynthetic bacteria
• Algae
• Phytoplankton (All are autotrophic)
Consumers Second trophic level • These are plant-eating organisms.
Primary consumers • They depend on plant materials.
• They include filter feeders in water,
herbivores, (all feed on plant materials)
Third trophic level Small carnivores like insectivores insects,
Secondary spider, tadpoles, hydra, small fishes, lizards,
consumers frogs, toads, chameleons etc.
Fourth trophic level Large carnivores such as lions, leopards,
Tertiary consumers cheetah, hyena and sharks among others.
Fifth trophic level Carnivorous that eat tertiary consumers.
Quaternary consumer An example is the hawk that eats owls.
Decomposers • All are saprophytic.
• Most are fungi and bacteria.
• They can only get food from dead materials.
Page 15 of 132
2.3.1 Food chain
A food chain is a linear representation of how organisms eat each other before they are eaten in return. It is a
sequence describing a feeding relationship between producers and consumers.
Examples offood chains
Figure 2.2: food chains
2.3.2 Food web
A food web is a complex series of interconnected food chains. It shows feeding relationships between
various species of organisms in a given community. A food web is composed of all possible food chains in
any given ecosystem. When a schematic representation is made to show other options an organism has for
food, a food web is obtained.
Examples of food webs
Page 16 of 132
e.g.: 1
e.g.:2
Figure 2.3: food webs
The food web comprises the relationship within a community. It is easily made by arranging organisms in
their trophic levels.
The arrows in the food chain indicate the flow of energy from the food web. One organism can provide
energy to more than one trophic level.
Page 17 of 132
2.4 How energy flows in an Ecosystem

Energy from the sun flows through producers to the consumers. Most of the light energy from the sun
getting into the envirnment is lost. Only a small percentage of the light is converted into chemical energy.
This is 1-3% and it is converted through photosynthesis. Over 95% of the light from the sun is absorbed or
dispersed into the environment by water, dust, soil and clouds.
During photosynthesis, green plants convert light energy into chemical energy. Only a small percentage of
this energy is transferred to the next trophic level. This is about 10% only. Therefore, if an ecosystem has a
lot of green plants, there will be more energy transferred. However, if there are very few green plants, for
instance in unfertile area, the amount of energy transferred to the next trophic level is very little.
What brings about the loss of energy at each trophic level?
Several factors account for the loss of energy as one moves from one trophic level to the next. They include
the following:
• Respiration
• Part of the energy is lost as undigested food matter.
• The rest is lost as excretory products.
Figure 2.4: energy flow in an ecosystem illustrating how energy is lost from one feeding level to the next
2.5 Calculating energy transfer between trophic levels

The amount of energy transferred from one trophic level to the other is measured using the Trophic level
transfer efficiency (TLTE). It is expressed as a percentage.
Energy production at present trophic level
TLTE = x 100
Energy production at previous trophic level
Example: in the first trophic level in a terrestrial environment, the amount of energy produced by the
autotrophs is 10000kcal. The amount of energy at the primary consumers is 1000kcal and that at secondary
consumers is 100kcal. Calculate amount of energy transferred from producers to primary consumers.
Page 18 of 132
Energy production at present trophic level

TLTE = x 100
Energy production at previous trophic level
1000
TLTE = x 100
10000
TLTE = 10%
2.6 Ecological pyramids
Ecological pyramids are diagrams that show how important factors in an ecosystem such as energy, biomass
and population size change at each trophic level. Traditionally, these diagrams place the primary producers
(green plants) at the bottom. The highest trophic levels are placed at the top. The size of the portion of the
diagram associated with each trophic level shows the amount of factor in consideration. A food chain can be
expressed in a measurable way by using pyramid of numbers or pyramid of biomass.
2.6.1 Pyramid of numbers
The pyramid of numbers is a diagramatic representation of numbers of organisms in each trophic level in a
food chain. In this way, it is possible to know the number of organisms that are capable of transferring
energy from one trophic level to the next.
Figure 2.4: pyramids of numbers
Sometimes the pyramid is not upright, for instance, if you were to construct pyramid of numbers using the
tree as a habitat. It would be the only producer and the consumers such as caterpillars and birds would be
many. If we were to construct pyramid of numbers, the smallest box would represent the tree. It would be at
the bottom and not at the top. The shape of this pyramid would be inverted as can be seen in the figure
below.
Figure 2.4: inverted pyramid of numbers

Page 19 of 132
Figure 2.5: Pyramids of numbers (a) glassland (b) parasitic food chain
2.6.2 Pyramid of biomass

Biomass means the dry mass of any living material at any trophic level in a food chain. Biomass reduces as
one moves from the producers to the various levels of consumers. This is the same trend observed with the
amount of energy.
A pyramid of biomass is a chart drawn to scale showing the amount of biomass at each stage in a trophic
level. The bars become narrower from the base to the top of the pyramid.
Figure 2.6: pyramids of biomass
It is always hard to construct a pyramid of biomass because of the following reasons

• Measuring biomass often means death of the organism.
• Organisms may belong to more than one trophic level in an ecosystem. It is therefore not accurate to
represent it with only one bar.
Note: When making a pyramid of biomass, you must use a scale.
2.6.3 pyramid of energy
A pyramid of energy shows the rate at which energy or mass is transferred from one trophic level to the next
trophic level. Pyramids of energy show the flow of energy through the food chain. Typical units are grams
per square meter per year or calories per square meter per year. As with the others, this graph shows
producers at the bottom and higher trophic levels on top.
Page 20 of 132
Figure 2.7: pyramid of energy

1. Choose the best word from the word bank to complete each sentence. (consumer, decomposer, producer,
carnivore, herbivore, omnivore, food chain, food web)
a. . A __________is an illustration that shows how energy is passed from one living thing to another.
b. A __________ is an illustration that shows how animals are connected in their search for food within an
ecosystem.
c. Mushrooms cannot make their own food and they do not eat food. Instead, they get their energy by
breaking down and absorbing dead organic matter. These types of living things are called _________.
d. A leopard seal eats fish and penguins. It never eats plants. Since the leopard seal eats only meat, it is a
_______________
e. A deer eats grass and plants found in its habitat. Since the deer eats only plants, it is a __________.
2. Use the food web in the picture below to answer the questions.
Page 21 of 132
a. Name the living things in the food web that are producers.
b. Name the living things in the food web that are consumers.
c. Which living things does the snake eat?
d. Which living things does the hawk eat?
e. What is eaten by the rabbit?
3. During an ecological tour of Lake Muhazi, a group of students from Kagarama Secondary school recorded
the following observations.
(i) Tilapia feeds on mosquitoes larvae.
(ii) Mosquito larvae feed on planktonic algae.
(iii) Planktonic crustaceans feed on planktonic algae.
(iv) Hawks feed on tilapia, worms and planktonic crustaceans.
(a) From this record of observations, construct a food web.
(b) From the food web you have constructed in (a) above, isolate and write down a food chain that ends with
(i) Hawk as a secondary consumer
(ii) Hawk as a tertiary consumer
(c) (i) Which group of organisms in this lake are the producers?
(ii) The biomass of the producers in this lake was found to be greater than that of the primary
consumers. Give an explanation for this observation.
(d) Using the food web you constructed in (a) above, name
(i) Two organisms that compete for food in the lake?
(ii) The source of food the organisms in (d) (i) above compete for.
(e) State ways by which human beings may interfere with this lake ecosystem.
Page 22 of 132
UNIT 3: PASSIVE MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES ACROSS A CELL

MEMBRANE
3.1 Introduction
Our bodies are made of cells that carry out several metabolic and physiological processes. In order to carry
out these life processes, a cell needs to take in various substances. It also produces certain substances, some
of which are waste products which may be toxic and can harm the organism, hence need to be removed from
cells.
Other products are useful to cells within the tissue. These useful substances are transferred to cells where they
are needed for important metabolic processes like respiration.
Therefore substances are always moving into and out of the cells. The way substances move into and out of
the cells depends on certain properties of the substances, for example, size of the molecule and the type of
substance. There are three main physiological processes by which substances move in and out of cells. These
are diffusion, osmosis and active transport.
3.2 Diffusion of gases and solutes
Diffusion involves movement of particles (ions or molecules) from a region of high concentration to a region
of low concentration. This process continues until the particles are uniformly distributed throughout the
system or until equilibrium is reached.
Figure 3.1: diffusion of particles

Diffusion takes place in gases and liquids. It is fastest in gases than in liquids. The particles diffusing have
their own internal energy (kinetic energy) that enables them to move. The process of diffusion comes to a
stop when the concentration of substances or particles on both sides is equal.
Net movement of particles will always take place whenever there is a difference in concentration of particles
between two regions. This difference is known as concentration gradient.
Factors that influence the rate of diffusion
a. Temperature
An increase in temperature increases kinetic energy in the molecules hence inceasing the rate of diffusion.
Page 23 of 132
b. Concentration gradient
The greater/bigger the concentration gradient the faster the rate of diffusion.
When the concentration gradient is low, diffusion rate is also slower.
c. Size of molecules
Larger molecules are heavier and will diffuse at a slower rate compared to smaller molecules which are
lighter.
d. Diffusion distance
The shorter the distance of the membrane, the faster the rate of diffusion. It takes a longer time for molecules
to diffuse across a thick membrane while It takes less time for molecules to diffuse across a thin membrane.
e. Surface area to volume ratio
When the surface area to volume ratio is large, more of the substance diffuses across it than when it is small.
Importance of diffusion odf gases and solutes and water as a solvent
Gases
Diffusion of gases is important because:
 It is necessary for the process of gaseoaus exchange in all living organisms. For example, in
humanbeings, oxygen moves from a region of high concentarion in the airsacs to a region of low
concentration in the blaood.
 During the process of photosynthesis, plants are able to obtain carbon dioxide from the air and
release oxygen into tha air.
Solutes
The importance of diffusion of solutes is;
 It enables absorption of diisolved nutrients in living organisms such as bacteria and fungi.
 It enables dissolved salts to get into the plant through the root hair cell.
 It helps in absorption of some digested foods.
Water as a solvent
Water is important as a solvent because:
 Waste products in living organisms cannot be excreted unless they are dissolved in water.
 Secretion of enzymes and hormones cannot take place unless they are dissolved in water
 Minerals have to be dissolved in water for them to be absorbed by plants.
 About 75% of water is contained in most cells.
3.2 Osmosis
Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a region of high water potential (dilute solution) to a
region of low water potential (concentrated solution) through a partially permeable membrane.
Since the concentration of solutions is defined in terms of solute concentration and not in terms of water
content; water molecules diffuse from less concentrated solution (fewer solutes, more water) to a more
concentrated solution (more solute, less water).
Page 24 of 132
Figure3.2: Movement of water molecules through a semi-permeable membrane
Concentration of a solution depends on the amount of solute dissolved. A dilute solution has more water
molecules compared to solute molecules whereas a concentrated solution has more solute molecules than
water molecules.
Figure 3.3: (a) Dilute solution (b) Concentrated solution
Osmosis in animal cells
Osmosis is an important way of moving water in and out of the cell when needed. If a cell uses up water in
its chemical reactions, the cytoplasm becomes more concentrated and more water will immediately move in
by osmosis. Similarly, if the cytoplasm becomes too dilute due to water produced during chemical reactions,
water will leave the cell by osmosis, restoring the balance.
However, osmosis can cause some serious problems in animal cells. If the solution outside the cell is more
dilute than the cell content (hypotonic solution), then water will move into the cell by osmosis, diluting the
cytoplasm. The cells will swell and may eventually burst. If the solution outside the cell is more
concentrated than the cell contents (hypertonic solution), then water will move out of the cell by osmosis.
The cytoplasm will become very concentrated and the cell will shrivel up.
Osmosis in plant cells
When water moves into a plant cell by osmosis in this way, the vacuole gets bigger and the cytoplasm is
pressed against the cell walls. The force exerted on the cell walls is called turgor. When the cytoplasm is
pressing against the wall of the cell so hard that the more water can enter the cell, the cell is said to be fully
turgid. The rigid cells give the plant strength and support. They allow the stems, leaves and flowers to be
upright so the tissues can function properly.
If the surrounding becomes more concentrated than the plant cells, then water will leave the cell by osmosis.
The vacuole shrinks and the cell becomes much less rigid, it is flaccid (flabby). If water continues to leave
Page 25 of 132
the cell by osmosis, eventually the cytoplasm pulls away from the cell walls. This process is called
plasmolysis (the shrinking of protoplasm away from the cell wall of a plant due to water loss) and the cell is
plasmolysed.
Figure 3.4: Effect of osmosis in animal and plant cells
3.3 Role of osmosis in plants and animal cells

1. Uptake of water by roots
Plants absorb water from the soil inner cells in the root by osmosis. The cell sap in root hair cells usually has
a higher solute concentration than water in the soil. Therefore, root hair cells are able to take up water from
the soil by osmosis.
2. Movement of water from cell to cell in tissues

When a cell takes up water by osmosis, its solute concentration becomes lower (it becomes more dilute)
compared to the cell adjacent to it. As a result, water moves from it to the adjacent cell whose solute
concentration is higher (more concentrated). In this way, water moves from the root hair cells to the leaves.
Page 26 of 132
Figure3.5: Movement of water from cell to cell in tissues
3. Opening and closing of stomata

When guard cells gain water by osmosis from the surrounding cells, they become turgid. This changes their
shape, making the stomata to open. As a result:
• Gaseous exchange takes place through the open stomata.
• Water vapour also exits through the open stomata.
When guard cells lose water through osmosis to surrounding cells, their size and shape changes. This makes
the stomata to close.
Figure 3.6: (a)Open stoma (b) Closed stoma

4. Feeding in insectivorous plants
Insectivorous plants such as Pitcher plant trap insects when there is a sudden change in their turgor pressure
when disturbed by the insect.
Page 27 of 132
1. Which one of the following describes osmosis.

A. Movement of sugar molecules.
B. Movement of water molecules,
C. Movement of sugar and salt molecules.
D. Evaporation of water.
2. What will happen to an animal cell when it is placed in an isotonic solution?
A. Shrink
B. Burst
C. Remain the same
D. Expand
3. What kind of a membrane is partially permeable?
A. A membrane made of plant tissue.
B. A membrane that is made up of water molecules.
C. A membrane that allows certain substances to go into and out of cells.
D. A membrane that surrounds a food vacuole.
4. A learner set-up an experiment shown below to investigate osmosis.
(a) Draw the diagram to show the results of this experiment.

(b) Account for observations you made in (a) above.
(c) What does the visking tubing represent in a plant cell?
5. An animal cell bursts when placed in water but a plant cell does not. Explain
5. Slices of onion epidermis were placed in different concentrations of sucrose solution. The percentage of
plasmolysed cells was determined after thirty minutes. The results were as follows:
Conc. of sucrose solution (Molar) 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75
% of plasmolysed cells 0 5 20 80 100
(a) What does the word plasmolysis mean?

(b) What causes plasmolysis of cells?
(c) Does plasmolysis also occur to animal cells? Explain.
(d) Explain the results of 0.55 molar sucrose solution.
Page 28 of 132
(e) What is the relationship between molar concentration of sucrose solutions, and percentage of plasmolysed
cells?
(f) What description or term would be used on a plant where 100% of its cells were plasmolysed?
6. Two potatoes were peeled. One of them was boiled. A cavity was made in each of the potatoes and the
experiment was set up as shown below. The experiment was left undisturbed for 24 hours.
(a) Draw a diagram to illustrate the result in each figure.

(b) Give reasons to support your answer in (a) above.
7. Why is diffusion and osmosis referred to as passive processes?
9. What would happen if osmosis was not available in plants?
10. What is turgidity and mention its importance in plants?
Page 29 of 132
UNIT 4: ACTIVE TRANSPORT

4.1 Definition
Active transport is the movement of molecules across a cell membrane fron a region of low concentration
to a region of hight concentration against a concentration gradient.
It is also defined as “the movement of particles through the cell membrane from a region of lower
concentartion to a region of higher concentration using energy.”
The energy required is poroduced during the process of cellular respiration by mitochondria. It is in the
form of ATP adenosine triphosphate). A special transport protein called carrier protein in the cell
membrane is used in the movement of a molecule across the cell membrane.
Example of active transport
Sodium-Potassium pumb: sodium ions are higly concentrated outside the cell while potassium ions are
highly concentrated inside the cell. They are transported by active transport against a concentartion gradient
using energy in form of ATP.
Figure 4.1 movement of ions (Na+ and K+) by carrier proteins

4.2 Importance of active transport
Active transport is essential for both plants and animals.
 It aids in the absorption of food substances such as vitamins, amino acids and simple sugars like
glucose by the epitherial cells in the small intestines and into the blood stream to be transported to
other parts of the body.
 It ensures uptake of mineral salts into the plant through the root hair cells.
 It helps in selective reabsorption of substances such as glucose and ions by the kidney tubules.
 It helps in the accumulation of iodine by the thyroid gland.
4.3 Factors affecting active transport
1. Oxygen concentration: active transport needs energy. If there is no oxygen, there is no energy. The
amount of energy produced depends on the amount of oxygen available. The more the energy
available, the higher the rate of active transport. The rate of active transport is directly proportional to
the amount of available oxygen.
Page 30 of 132
2. Temperature: a rise in temperature increases the rate of respiration. This is up to an optimum

temperature of 30-40°C. The rate of active transport increases with an increase in temperature. A
temperature above the optimum reduces the rate of respiration hence reducing active transport.
3. pH level: the pH values affect enzyme's activity hence the rate of active transport.
4. poisons: substances like cyanide either stop or interfere with the process of respiration as they can
make an enzyme inactive. If enzymes involved in the release of energy during respiration are
affected, there will be lack of energy. This will prevent active transport from taking place.
Role of proteins in active transport
The moveent of substances across a mebrane by active requires carrier proteins. They pick up
molecules of a substance from one side of the cell membrane and transport them across against the
concentration gradient. Carrier protein molecules have binding sites for molecules. the molecules to
be transported bind to the carrier protein using energy. The carrier proteins change shape and the
particles are transported to the other side of the membrane, and they difuse away from the carrier
protein.
Figure 4.2: movement of glucose molecule by carrier proteins

Each carrier protein moves a specific molecule. For instance, a carrier protein that moves nitrite ions cannot
move glucose.
4.4 Process of active transport
Some molecules or particles are just too large to pass through the plasma membrane or to move through a
transport protein. So, cells use two other active transport procces: exocytosis and endocytosis.
1. Endocytosis
Endocytosis is the process by which large molecules move into a cell without passing through the cell
membrane.
There are two types of endocytosis: phagocytosis and pinocytosis.
Page 31 of 132
a. Phagocytosis
Phagocytosis is a process by which a cell engulfs large molecules to form a phagocytic vesicle enclosing the
particles. Phagocytosis is also known as “cell eating”. This is because the molecules are ingested.
Phagocytosis occurs in specialized cells called phagocytes.
The stages of phagocytosis are:

Stage 1: attachement: the molecule (bacterium) is attached to the cell membrane.
Stage 2: ingestion: the phagocyte flows around the bacterium until it completely engulfs it.
Stage 3: killing: the engulfed bacterium is then enclosed within a membrane bound vacuole called a
phagosome.
Stage 4: degradation: engulfed bacterium (molecule) is now destroyed. The phagocyte digest thes the
ingested molecule with hydrolytic enzymes which are contained in sacs called lysosomes.
Stage 5: exocytosis: after being destroyed, the molecule is then removed from the cell by exocytosis.
Figure 4.3: stages of phagocytosis

a. Pinocytosis
Pinocytosis is the process by which a cell ingest liquids into a cell by the budding of small vesicles from the
cell membrane. A droplet sticks to the membrane. A pocket then forms and pinches off to form a vesicle,
which subsequently ruptures, releasing its contents into the cytosol.pinocytosis is also known as “cell
drinking”.
2. Exocytosis
Exocytosis is a process by which the contents of a cell vacuole are released to the exterior through fusion of
the vacuole membrane with the cell membrane.
Page 32 of 132
Materials removed include solid particles, undigested remains from food vacuoles among others.
Figure 4.4: exocytosis
Examples of exocytosis include:

 Secretion of digestive enzymes by pancreas
 Secretion of milk from mammary glands
 Secretion of mucus by salivary glands.
4.5 Differences between active and passive transport
Active transport Passive transport
Energy is required No energy is required
Molecules move from an area of low concentration Molecules move from an area of high concentration
to an area of high concentration against the to an area of low concentration along the
concentration gradient. concentration gradient.
It needs a transport protein in the cell membrane It is not necessary to have a transport protein in the
cell membrane
It involves endocytosis and exocytosis processes It involves osmosis and diffusion processes
Transports proteins, ions, large cells and complex Transports anything soluble in water, oxygen and
sugars. carbon dioxide.
1. Fill in the blanks.

a. Active transport is a/an ................requiring processess. (energy/food)
b. Too high and too low temperature reduces the rate of ...........transport (acative/passive)
c. The active transport is carried out by .............proteins (barrier/carrier)
d. Active transport moves materials from ..............to..............concentraction
(higher,lower/lower,higher).
2. Multiple choice questions.
i. Which of the following uses a vesicle to transport substances into the cell?
a. Osmosis c. Exocytosis
b. Endocytosis d. Simple diffusion.
Page 33 of 132
ii. Exocytosis moves substances:

a. Without the use of energy c. Into the cell
b. From high to low concentration d. Out of the cell.
iii. Active transport allows molecules to move:
a. Across a concentratration gradient c. With a concentratration gradient
b. Against a concentratration gradient d. In a concentratration gradient.
3. Define active transport .
4. List two importance of active transport in plants and animals.
5. Discus factors affecting active transport.
6. What is importance of active transport?
7. What are carrier proteins? State their functions.
8. Solve the puzzle.
Across
2. Type of transport that requires energy.
3. Prefix that means “inside”.
4. The engulfing of large particles.
5. Prefix that means “outside”.
Down
1. Type of transport that does not require energy.
6. Active transport will remove...........ions, while taking in potassium ions.
Page 34 of 132
UNIT 5: IDENTIFICATION OF FOOD COMPONENTS

5.1 Introduction
An important aspect of foodis daily intake of nutrients. Nutrients consist of various chemical substances in
the food that make up a diet. Many nutrients are essential for life. These are carbohydrates, fats, vitamins,
proteins and minerals.
You can test for the presence of important nutrients in food by using chemical reagents, or you can predict
presence or absence of nutrien in food.
5.2 Testing for starch and other sugars
a. Chemical test for starch – iodine test
The iodine test is used to test for the presence of starch. When treated with with starch, iodine solution
(yellow or brown in colour) produces an intense blue-black (dark blue) colour.
Materials required:
Chemicals: iodine solution, distilled water.
Miscellaneous: petri dish, marker and dropers
Food sample: potato
Procedure
1. Place a slice of food material (potato) in a Petri dish.
2. Add a few drops of iodine solution to it.
3. Notice any colour change.
If starch is present (positive test), food material will turn blue-black in colour. Negative test on the other
hand shows no change in colour.
b. Chemical tests for sugars
Based on their reaction with Benedict’s solution sugars are grouped into two.
• Reducing sugars
• Non-reducing sugars
i. Reducing sugars
Benedict’s solution is a clear blue solution used to test simple/reducing sugar, such as glucose and fructose
as well as disaccharides like maltose.
In the presence of simple sugar, the blue solution changes colour to green, yellow and brick-red (orange)
depending on the amount of sugar.
Material required: bunsen burner, waterbath, thermometer, test tubes, marker, dropper, test tube stand, test
tube claps.
Chemicals required: Benedict’s solution, distilled water.
Food sample: glucose
Procedure:
Page 35 of 132
1. Mix small amount of each food sample (glucose) with distilled water to make a test solution.
2. To a test tube, add 1cm3 of solution to be tested.
3. If testing more than one solution, label each test tube with a marker.
4. Add 10 drops of Benedict’s solution to each test tube.
5. Carefully heaat the test tubes by suspending in a hot waterbath at about 40-50 degrees celsius for five
minutes.
6. Note any colour change.
If sugar is present, solution will turn gree, yellow, orange or red-brown depending on sugar concentration.
Figure 5.1: results of reducing sugar test (Benedict’s test)
ii. Non-reducing sugars

Some sugars such as sucrose are unable to reduce the copper ions in Benedict’s solution. This makes the
colour of Benedict’s solution to persist when these sugars are boiled with it. Such sugars are called non-
reducing sugars. Most non-reducing sugars are disaccharides. This means they contain two single sugar units.
Procedure
1. Take 1 cm3 of sucrose

2. Add 1cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl)
3. Boil the mixture and cool Boiling the sucrose solution with dilute
4. hydrochloric acid hydrolyses sucrose to glucose and fructose. Both of these are reducing sugars and
as such, the colour of the Benedict’s solution changes from blue to orange/brown precipitate).
5. Add 1cm3 of NaOH solution (or sodium hydrogen carbonate).
6. Shake to mix
7. Add 1cm3 of Benedict’s solution and boil again.
Page 36 of 132
The solution which was initially blue becomes yellow, from yellow to green, from green to orange or red-
brown precipitate.
Figure 5.2: Test for non-reducing sugars
5.3 Testing for proteins – Biuret test

Biuret reagent is a blue solution used to identify the presence of proteins in food. When it reacts with
protrins, it changes colour to pink-purple. Materials required: test tubes, marker, dropper, test tube stand
Chemicals: Biuret solution, distilled water.
Food sample: egg albumen (or milk).
Page 37 of 132
Procedure:
1. To a test tube, add food sample (egg albumen or milk) to be tested.
2. Add 3 to 5 drops of Biuret reagent solution and shake gently to mix.
3. Note any colour change.
Pink or purple colour indicates the presence of proteins.
Caution: Biuret solution is corrosive and can cause burning sensation. Handle it carefully.
Note: The Biuret’s test uses several reagents that are mixed in equal proportions. Copper (II) sulphate and
sodium hydroxide make up the reagent.
Figure 5.3: Biuret test

5.4 Testing for lipids – Ethanol emulsion test
Lipids are composed of fats and oils. Fats are solid at room temperature while oils are liquid at room
temperature. Cooking oil, animal fats, groundnuts, meat among others, all contain lipids.The ethanol
emulsion test is a food test which determines the presence of lipids.
Materials required: test tubes, marker, dropper. Measuring cylinder, test tube stand.
Chemicals required: ethanol, distilled water.
Food sample: vegetable oil
Procedure:
1. Take food sample (vegetable oil) and place in a dry test tube.
2. Add 95% ethanol into the tube and shake thoroughly.
3. Pour this solution into another test tube of distilled water.
4. Observe for changes.
A white (milk-like) emulsion indicates the presence of fats or oils.
Page 38 of 132
Figure 5.4: testing of lipids (fats)
5.5 Testing for vitamin C

A reagent known as Dichlorophenol indophenol (DCPIP) is used to test for vitamin C. DCPIP is a deep blue
reagent in colour. When vitamin C is present in a food sample, the blue colour disappears (decolourised).
Fresh fruits and green vegetables contain vitamin C.
Apparatus required: mortar and pestle.
Chemicals required: DCPIP reagent, distilled water.
Food sample: lemon juice.
Procedure:
1. Prepare test solution by squeezing lemon.
2. Pour vitamin C extact into dropper bottle and add 30 ml of distilled water.
3. Fill a test tube with 50 drops of DCPIP.
4. Now add juice one drop at a time to the indicator solution in the test tube.
5. Count drops until dark blue colour turns clear.
Lemon juice will turn colourless stating presence of vitamin C.
Summary of standards for identification of nutrients
No Test Nutrient Observation/colour change
1 Iodine solution test Starch Blue-black
2 Benedict’s test Sugar Green, yellow or brown red
3 Biuret test Protein Pink or purple
4 Ethanol emulsion test Fats/oils White emulsion
5 DCPIP Vit C Clear colourless solution
Page 39 of 132
5.6 Food preservation

Food preservation ensures that food remains in a state where it is
 Not contaminated by pathogenic organisms or chemicals.
 Does not lose optimum qualities of colour, texture, flavour and nutritive value.
One of the most common methods for preserving foods today is ”canning”: to enclose them in a sterile
container. The container can be glass, plastic or a metal can.
The basic principle behind canning is that a food is sterilized, usually by heating and then placed within an
air-tight container. In the absence of air, no new pathogens can gain access to the sterilized food.
1. Fill in the blanks:
a. The iodine test is used to test for the presence of ........ .(starch/protein)
b. Potato will turn ........black showing the presence of starch. (red/blue).
c. ......... solution is used to identify the presence of protein. (Benedict/Biuret).
d. Benedict’s solution gives colour according to the amount of ........present (sugar/starch).
e. Positive tests of fats give......... .(blue emulsion/white emulsion).
2. You are provided with a substance labelled H (freshy curdled milk), iodine solution, 1% copper (II)
sulphate solution, 10% sodium hydroxide solution and Benedict’s solution. Filter the substance and
collect the filtrate. Filtration is expected to be complete about 30 minutes. Using the reagents
provided, test for the food substances in the residue and filtrate. Record your procedures,
observations and conclusions in a table similar to the one shown bellow.
Food substance Procedure Observations Conclusions
Test on residue
Test on filtrate
3. Explain the chemical tests that you can carry to identify the presence of proteins in a food sample.
4. Outline the steps followed in identifying a reducing sugar in a food substance.
5. When one is testing for starch, a blue-black precipitate is usally formed, explain.
6. Name the positive results for identifying starch, proteins and vitamin C.
7. Some drops of fresh pineapple fruit juice are needed drop by drop to DCPIP solution. The deep blue
colour of the DCPIP quickly fades.
a. What does the disappearance of the blue colour indicate about the type of food substance present
in the juice?
b. What is the importance of this food substance to the human body?
8. (a) A test tube containging some sucrose solution was treated with Benedict’s solution and then
heated gently. The mixture remained blue. What does this indicate about sucrose?
(b) In another test tube, a few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid were added to some sucrose solution and the
mixture was boiled. What chemical change will take place?
(c) After cooling the mixture in (b), a few drops dilute sodium hydrogen carbonate solution were added in
the mixture. Explain this reaction.
(d) After a little while, a few drops of Benedict’s solution were added to the mixture obtained in (c) above. A
deep orange precipitate formed. What conclusion can you draw from this result about sucrose?
Page 40 of 132
UNIT 6: ENZYMES
6.1. What are enzymes?
Enzymes are biological catalysts that are proteins in nature. They speed up or slow down the rate of
chemical reactios in the body without being used up themselves. These reactions taking place in the living
organisms are referred to as metabolism and they occur in much the same way as any other chemical
reactions in a laboratory.
6.2 Characteristics of enzymes
 All enzymes are proteins in nature.
 Enzymes are produced in living cells.
 Enzymes are specific- this means that an enzyme catalyses only one kind of substrate and not others.
 Enzymes are affected by changes in temperature and pH – an enzyme works best at specific optimum
and pH.
Some enzymes work best at low pH (acidic medium) while others work best at high pH (alkaline
medium). Most enzymes in the human body for instance work best at neutral or slightly alkaline pH.
Examples are: lipases, peptidases and amylase. A few enzymes like pepsin that digests proteins in
the stomach works best at an acidic pH of 2.
 Enzymes work rapidly- enzymes work very fast in converting substrates into products.
 Enzymes are efficient – this means
 They are required in very small amounts.
 They are not used up in a reaction and can therefore be reused.
 Enzymes catalyse reversible reactions: this means that enzymes can change a substrate into products
and the products back to the original substrate.
 Active sites of enzymes can be deactivated or slowed down by the substances called inhibitors, e.g:
cyanide (a poison).
6.3 Types of enzymes

There are two types of enzymes:
a. Intracellular enzymes: enzymes that are used within the cells that produce them. E.g: catalase in
liver cells.
b. Extracellular enzymes: enzymes that are used out of cells that produce them. For instance, digestive
enzymes secreted into the alimentary canal to help in digestion.
6.4 Factors affecting enzyme activity

Enzymes are very sensitive. Changes in their working conditions interfere with their ability to catalyse
reactions.
There are a number of factors that affect enzyme activity. These are: temperature, pH, enzyme
concentartion, substrate concentration and inhibitors.
a. Temperature
The temperature at which enzyme work best is called optimum temperature. Temperatures lower than the
optimum cause enzymes to be anactive; therefore they work at slow rate. Higher temperatures than optimun
Page 41 of 132
he temperature destroy enzymes. Such temperatures destroy the binding sites of enzymes and the enzymes
are said to be denaturated. A denatured enzyme cannot function. In human beings, most enzymes begin to
denature at 40°C.
Figure 6.1: graph for rate of enzyme activity in relation to temperature

b. pH
pH is a measure of acidity or alkalinity of a substance.
Some enzymes work best in neutral conditions, others in acidic conditions while others act best in alkaline
conditions. Each enzyme has its own optimum pH. This is where the rate of reaction is highest. For instance,
stomach enzymes like pepsin and rennin work best in acidic conditions (pH 1-2), while salivary amylase
(ptyalin) in the mouth works in slightly alkaline conditions.
Figure2.6: graph of rate of enzyme activity in relation to pH for different enzymes
Page 42 of 132
6.5 Mode of action of enzymes

Enzymes have special areas called active sites where substrates bind.
A substrate is a reactant that an enzyme acts on. For the reaction to occur, the substrate molecules must fit
into the active site of an enzyme forming enzyme-substrate complex; which is an unstable molecule which
dissociates into enzyme and product. The enzyme then picks other substrate molecules.
Figure 6.3: Lock and key mechanism

The enzyme therefore works like a lock and key pattern hence called ”lock and key hypothesis”
Once the products have been formed, they must be taken away from the enzyme so that more substrates are
converted into products. However, if they are not taken away, the products will be converted back to
substrates since the process reversible.
6.6 Importance of enzymes in living organisms
Enzymes are important in living organisms as they act as catalysts (they speed up the rate of metabolic
process and chemical reactions).
Enzymes are needed for digestion of food, repairing and worn out tissues, organs and cells, photosynthesis,
respiration, stimulation of the brain and nerve impulse transmission. Without enzymes, these processes
would be very slow and not able to keep living organisms alive.
Enzymes are also important inthe process of detoxification in living organisms. Toxic substances are broken
down by enzymes then excreted.
1. Enzymes are important in living organisms for the following reasons except.
a. They sustain life. c. They speed up the rate of reaction.
b. They slow down the rate of reaction d. They are catalysts.
2. What is the name of the part of the enzyme where the substrate binds?
a. Active transport c. Active transport
b. Substrate d. Product
3. Most enzymes are............
a. Vitamins c. Proteins
b. Carbohydrates d. Fats
4. Define catalysts.
5. State four characteristcs of enzymes.
Page 43 of 132
6. Give 3 examples of enzymes and their functions.

7. Explain the effect of teperature on enzyme activity and draw a graph to support your answer.
8. Discuss the lock and key hypothesis with the aid of diagrams.
9. The graphs below represent the rate of reaction of two enzymes, X and Y, acting on the same
substrate at different pH and at room temperature.
a. Give the optimum pH for

i. Enzyme X
ii. Enzyme Y
b. Which of the two enzymes is more active in an alkaline medium?
c. At which pH is the rate of reaction of the two enzymes the same?
d. State two ways in which the rate of reaction of the two enzymes could be increased.
10. Explain the following properties of enzymes:
a. Enzymes act as catalyst
b. Enzymes are specific
c. Enzymes are very efficient.
Page 44 of 132
UNIT 7: PHOTOSYNTHESIS
7.1 Introduction
Plants are autotrophs. This means that plants can synthesize their own food. Plants use energy from the sun,
carbon dioxide and water as raw materials to make food in process known as photosynthesis. They have
chrolophyll which traps light energy from the sun. The chlorophylls are found in chloroplasts. Chloroplast
is an example of a plastid. It is an organelle in a plant cell where photosyhntesis takes place. Cells that have
chloroplasts are called photosynthetic cells. During photosynthesis, oxygen is given off as a by-product.
chlorophyll
Water + carbon dioxide > glucose + oxygen
sunlight
7.2 Necessity for chlorophyll, light energy and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis
a. Chlorophyll
Chlorophyll is a pigment that gives plants and algae their green colour. It is necessary foe photosynthesis
since it absorbs light energy required. It converts the light energy to chemical energy which synthesises
water and carbon dioxide to form glucose and oxygen. Leaves that do not have chlorophyll do not undergo
photosynthesis.
b. Light energy
Light energy is necessary for photosynthesis because it provides the energy needed to ensure the reaction
occurs.
c. Carbon dioxide
CO2 is necessary for photosynthesis because it is converted into sugars such as glucose that is needed by the
plant.
7.3 Limiting factors of photosynthesis
A factor is called a limiting factor bacause it restricts the rate at which the process can take place. Three
factors can limit the speed of photosyhntesis: amount of CO2, light intensity and temperature.
a. Carbon dioxide concentration
Insufficient carbon dioxide in the air slows down the

rate of photosynthesis. Without CO2, plants cannot
photosynthesize even when there is enough light
energy.
Increase in CO2 increases the rate of photosynthesis.
This continues only to a certain point where the rate
of photosyntheis does not increase further with more
carbon dioxide.
Figure 7.1: Graph of carbon dioxide on the rate of photosyntesis

Page 45 of 132
b. Light intensity
In darkness, plants cannot photosyntesise. In

low light intensity, the rate of photosynthesis is
low. As the light intensity increases, the rate of
photosynthesis also increases. However, at some
point, the rate of photosynthesis remains the
same even with an increase in light intensity.
This is due to the effect of the other limiting
factors such as temperature and variation in the
amount of carbon dioxide.
Figure 7.2: Graph to show effect of light intensity on rate of photosynthesis

c. Temperature
At lower temperatures, the rates of

photosynthesis are too low. As temperature
increases, the rate of photosyntheis also
increases. Photosynthesis is highest at the
optimum temperature of 40°C. However,
temperatures above the optimum slow down the
rate of photosynthesis since enzymes are
denatured.
Figure 7.3: Graph to show effect of temperature on the rate of photosynthesis.

7.4 Adaptations of the leaf for photosynthesis
Adaptations of the external structures of a leaf for photosynthesis.
Adaptation Function
Large surface area of the leaf The leaves of a plant are broad so as to increase the surface area for
blade maximum absorption of light energy.
Thinness of leaves It craetes a short distance for carbon dioxide to diffuse into the leaves
and oxygen to diffuse out of the leaves during photosynthesis.
Veins They support the leaf.
They transport water to the leaves needed for photosynthesis.
They also transport the sugar such as glucose from the leaves to other
parts of the plant.
Page 46 of 132
Adaptations of the internal structures of a leaf for photosynthesis

Adaptation Function
Chloroplasts Chloroplasts are sites for photosynthesis.
Chlorophyll Chlorophyll absorbs light energy and converts it into chemical energy
needed for photosynthesis.
Waterproof cuticle Reduces the loss of water through evaporation.
Transparent upper epidermis The upper epidermis is transparent to allow light energy to pass
through.
Air spaces in spongy They allow diffusion of gases (CO2 and O2) in and out of the cell for
mesophyll photosyntesis.
Stomata They ensure the diffusion of gases in and out of the cell.
Figure 7.4:: internal structure of a leaf

7.5 Importance of photosynthesis
All life on earth depends on photosynthesis directly or indirectly. Plants make their own food in order to
survive. Without plants, there would be no life on earth.
Photosynthesis:
i. Is a source of energy: food produced during photosynthesis contains energy from the sun and
store as chemical energy. This energy is necessary for the normal life processes to take place.
ii. Provides oxygen in air
iii. Produces food for animals that consume the plants.
iv. Reduces carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
7.6 Mineral requirements in plants
The most important minerals required by plants for healthy growth and development are nitrate and
magnesium.
Nitrate ions are required to synthesise proteins from aminoacids. They also regulate the absorption of other
minerals such as phosphorus and potassium.
Magnesium ions are important for chlorophyll synthesis.
Lack of nitrate ions leads to the following:
Page 47 of 132
 The leaves turn yellow (condition known as chlorosis) and fall.

 Stunted growth since no proteins are being synthesised.
 Purple patches are formed on the leaves.
 It weakens the stem.
Effects of magnesium ions deficiency are:
 The leaves of plants will turn yellow or yellow-green.
 Leaves later turn brown and die.
 Development of yellow, purple, orange and red patches on leaves especially in horticultural plants.
7.7 Uses and dangers of nitrogen and other fertilizers

Fertilizers are used to add minerals into the soil that are needed for the growth and development of plants.
This will help in improving the fertility of the soil.
Fertilizers, particulary nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium provide plants with the essential chemical
elements needed for their proper growth.
Table: Some fertlizers and their essential elements
Fertilizer Essential elements
Ammonium nitrate Nitrogen
Ammonium sulphate Nitrogen
Ammonium phosphate Nitrogen and phosphorous
Potassium nitrate Potassium and nitrogen
Urea Nitrogen
Dangers of nitrogen and other fertilizers

1. Water pollution
Excessive use of inorganic fertilizers leads to water pollution. These are leached in the soils and carried to
water bodies resulting to algae bloomb or eutrophication (a situation where there is not enough dissolved
oxygen in the water for aquatic organisms to survive).
2. Change in soil pH
Acidic fertilizers lower pH and make soils acidic while basic fertilizers raise the soil pH. These changes in
soil pH affect the activity of soil micro-organisms.
3. Increase of soil salinity
Excessive use of nitrogen and other fertilizers increases soil salinity, a process known as salination. This
makes the soil solution to be more concentrated than the cell sap of cells. This will cause water to move out
plant cells by osmosis. It also results to change of pH when the salts accumulate in the soil leading to loss of
soil fertilty.
Page 48 of 132

i. Plants take up carbon dioxide from the small openings called.
a. Leaves c. Stomata.
b. Mesophyll cells d. Palisade cells.
ii. Nitrates or phosphate from fertilizers can cause .............. in water.
a. Variegation c. Chlorosis
b. Eutrophication d. Floor
iii. .............. is / are necessary for photosynthesis.
a. Chlorophyll c. Light energy
b. Carbon dioxide d. All the above.
iv. ............. cells in the leaf absorb the sunlight.
a. Mesophyll c. Companion
b. Chlorophyll d. Palisade
v. Chlorophyll is ................. and it is needed for.............
a. Green pigment on leaves, photosynthesis
b. Green pigment on leaves, transpiration
c. Photosynthesis, green pigment on leaves
d. Transpiration, photosynthesis.
2. Define the term photosynthesis.
3. List the factors necessary for photosynthesis.
4. Explain how the internal and external structures of a leaf are adapted for photosynthesis.
5. Mention the by-product of photosynthesis.
6. What is chlorosis.
7. What is the role of magnesium in chlorophyll synthesis?
8. Describe the uses, and dangers of nitrogen and other fertlisers.
9. What is eutrophication?
10. The experimental set-up below is placed in the sun for some days.
The rate of bubbles given off per unit of time, from the cut end of the water plant (Hydrilla) is
measured. The results obtained are shown in the table below:
Page 49 of 132
Day Daylight condition Average number of bubbles per minute

1 Very cloudy and dull 3
2 Less cloudy 8
3 Quite sunny 15
4 Very bright sunshine 25
5 Cloudy and dull (no light) 4
a. Name the gas that is being given off by the plant.

b. During which biological process is this gas being produced?
c. What conclusion can you draw from the results shown in above table (from this experiment)?
d. Briefly describe how you would use this experimental set-up in the laboratory to demonstrate the
effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis.
11. The diagram below shows a cross section through a green leaf.
i) Identify the structures labeled A, B, C and D.

ii) What is the function of A and D?
iii) Explain any two adaptations of the leaf for photosynthesis.
Page 50 of 132
UNIT 8: TRANSPORT OF WATER, MINERAL AND ORGANIC

FOODS IN PLANTS
8.1 Introduction
Plants manufcture food by the process of photosynthesis. Plants absorb water and minerals for this process.
The absorption of water and minerals is done from soils through roots of plants. The food manufactured by
plants provides energy. This energy is needed by all parts of the plant. Trasnport is through specialized
transport system known as vascular bundles. They are structurally adapted for transport of food, water and
minerals in plants.
8.2 Transport system in plants
Vascular bundles are transport system of plants. There are two different tissues in plants which make up the
vascular bundles: xylem and phloem tissues.
a. Xylem
Xylem is the system of tubes and transport cells that conducts water
and dissolved minerals. They have different types of elements:
Tracheids: long, thick, spindle shaped with pits in their thick
walls. Water flows through these pits.
Vessels: are long, cylindrical cells with a spacious lumen. Cells
are arranged end to end and cross walls are completely
dissolved. These perforations allow water to easily flow
through xylem vessels.
Functions of xylem
The main function of xylem is to conduct water and minarals from
the roots to other parts of the plants. Xylem also supports and
strengthens the systems of plants.
Figure 8.1: vessels an tracheids

b. Phloem The phloem tubes are made up of columns of living
cells. These cells are cylindrical with cytoplasm
but without a nucleus. The cell walls between two
cells have holes that look like a sieve, which allow
transport of food substances to occur in the tube.
Phloem transports food materials both in upwards
as well as downwards directions.
The elements of the phloem are:
Sieve tubes: they are hollow cylindrical cells.
Sieve cells are separated by perforated plates
called sieve plates.
Companion cells: cells that deliver ATP, proteins
Figure 8.2: Phloem and other nutrients to sieve elements.
Page 51 of 132
Function of phloem
The phloem transports food substances made during photosyntesis (sugar and amino acids) from leaves to
other parts of the plant. The movement of food substances from the leaves to other parts of the plant is
known as translocation.
8.3 Distribution of vascular tissue (xylem and phloem)
Xylem and phloem run parallel to the length of the stem and root. They occur side by side to form
continuous longitudinal channels. They are found in leaves, stems and roots.
Figure 8.3: Distribution of xylem and phloem

1. In leaves: vascular tissue is present in the form of a bundle called vascular bundle.
2. Stem: the organisation of vaascular tissues is different for various types of plants. It varies from the
scattered vascular bundles (containing both xylem and phloem) of monocots to more orderly ring
formation found in dicots.
Page 52 of 132
Figure 8.4: T.S of dicot and monocot systems showing xylem and phloem
3. Root: the vascular system is discontinuous. Xylem forms a hard central water conducting core.
8.4 Water and minerals uptake
Water uptake
Water is absorbed from the soil by roots and transported by xylem vessels to other parts of the plants. The
soil particles are usually surrounded by a film of water except during dry spells. Root hair cells absorb
water from the soil by osmosis.
The sap of the root hair cell is hypertonic to the soil particles. This is because it has dissolved sugar and
salts. Due to this concentration gradient, water molecules move by osmosis from the soil through the
epidermis of root hair cells into the cell sap.
The water moves from the epidermis through the cortex. The water is travelling between the cells. The
water then passes through the cortex. The water is travelling through the cytoplasm of the cells that are
found in the endodermis before entering the xylem. It then moves to the xylem vessels found in the stem
then to leaves. Xylem connects roots to the leaves through stem and branches. In this manner, water and
minerals are carrier to the entire plant. The water escapes through the stomata (transpiration).
Page 53 of 132
Figure 8.5: water transport in the xylem vessel

Factors that affect the rate of water uptake in plants
1. Soil water: amount of moisture in the soil. When there is a lot of water in the soil, the rate of water
uptake increases. When there is little soil water, the rate of absorption (water uptake) reduces causing
the plant to wilt.
2. Soil teperature: very high temperatures reduce the rate of absorption. This is because high
temperatures lead to a decrease in the amount of soil moisture. Very low temperatures also lead to a
decrease in the rate of absorption.
Page 54 of 132
3. Soil air: for water to be absorbed by the roots, energy is needed. Energy is produced during the
process of respiration hence the need for soil air which determines the rate of respiration.
4. Transpiration rate: the rate of transpiration affects the rate of water uptake. This is because of
transpiration pull in the xylem vessels which ensures that water is pulled upwards.
Minerals uptake
Mineral uptake refers to transportation of minerals from the soil into the plant through the roots.
Xylem vessels transport minerals to other parts of the plant through the process of active transport. Roots
hair cells uptake ions from the soil actively (using energy in the form of ATP). Therefore, there is need for
abundant oxygen supply to the soil for respiration to take place.
8.5 Source and sink of food products.
A source is a structure (or an area) in the plant that produces sugars. Leaves are examples of sources. This is
where sugar is manufactured through the process of photosynthesis.
Sinks are areas in the plant where sugars are stored or used. Generally sikns are growing roots, stems,
developing leaves and fruits.
Phloem tissue transport food (sugars) from sources to sinks.
Figure 8.6: source and sink of food products

8.6 Transpiration
Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from the surface of the leaves through the stomata. Transpiration
can be defined again as the evaporation of water from plants.
Evaporation can be defined as the process where liquid water is transformed into gaseous state (vapour).
Since it is not easy to separate transpiration and evaporation, the process is also known evapotranspiration.
Page 55 of 132
Factors that affect the rate of transpiration

Physical factors
a. Light intensity: an increase in light intensity results in an increase in transpiration, since it increases
the rate of photosynthesis which results in an increase in stomata openig.
b. Temperature: high temperature increase the rate of evaporation hence an increase in the rate of
transpiration.
c. Humidity: humidity is the amount of water vapour in the air. When the relative humidity is high, the
stomata close hence reducing transpiration. When the relative humidity is low, the stomata open and
release water vapour into the atmosphere since there is a high atmospheric demand.
d. Water supply: if the plant has little water available, it will close its stomata. This will cause a
decrease in the rate of transpiration.
Biological factors
Biological factors which influence the rate of transpiration are:
a. Leaf size and shape (example: braod or needle shaped).
b. Number and distribution of stomata on leaves)
Figure 8.7: A potometer (a device used for measuring the rate of water uptake of a leafy plant shoot. The
main reason for water uptake by a cut shoot is transpiration (evaporation in plants) and is affected by the
transpiration stream.)
8.7 Wilting in plants
Wilting is a condition in plants where more water is lost by evaporation that is absorbed from the soil.
Temporary midday wilting is common during hot, sunny afternoons but plants can rehydrate over night
when lower temperatures result in decreased water losses.
Wilting in plants makes both leaves and flowers to droop. Drooping of leaves is advantageous since it
reduces the surface area of the leaf exposed to the atmosphere thus reducing the rate of transpiration.
Page 56 of 132
Figure 8.8: (a) healthy plant, (b) wilting plant

If wilting goes on for too long, plants may die.
8.8 Adaptations of plants to different environmental conditions.
Adaptations are special features that allow a plant or animal to live in a particular place or habitat. Plants
adapt to help them survive (live and grow) in different areas. Plants are grouped into three and they all have
various adaptations to their environment. Those are:
 Hydrophytes
 Mesophytes
 Xerophytes
a. Hydrophytes (aquatic plants)

Hydrophytes are plants which live completely or partially submerged in water. They have adapted
themselves to live under water. Example: Hyacinth.
Adaptations of hydrophytes to their environment.
1. Their leaves have a large surface area to increase the rate of transpiration.
2. They have reduced xylem vessels since they can absorb water and other nutrients from the
surrounding water through their surface cells.
3. They have no stomata on the lower surafce on the leaves. Submerged leaves do not have any stomata.
4. They have reduced roots. The main function of the roots is to support the plants. Most of the plants
lack root hairs.
Figure 8.9: aquatic plant
Page 57 of 132
b. Mesophytes
Mesophytes are plants which grow under moderate to hot and humid conditions. For example, maize,
tomato,...
Adaptations of mesophyes
1. The root system is well developed with the

taproot in dicotyledous and fibrous roots in
monocotyledonous.
2. The stem is solid and well branched.
3. Leaves are green and well developed. The
leaves have stomata on the lower surface.
Figure 8.10: some mesophyte plants
c. Xerophytes (desert plants)

Xerophytes are plants which live in dry conditions such as deserts and sand hills. Examples: Cactus,
Euphorbia,...
Adaptation of xerophytes
1. They produce a long taproot that grows deep into the soil in search of water.
2. Leaves undergo various types of

modifications in order to reduce
transpiration, or even store water.
 Leaves are reduced in size.
 Leaves are reduced to spines.
 There is multiple epidermis and sunken
stomata.
3. Some xerophytes have thick and freshy

stems that perform the function of storage
and reserve water.
4. Some plants have superficial roots which
grow out horizontally keeping close to the
surface. This puts them in a position to
absorb the maximum amount of water
after a short shower rain.
Figure 8.11: Euphorbia virosa, a xerophitic plant

Page 58 of 132
8.9 Translocation of organic food

Translocation is the traansport of manufactured food substances from their sites of synthesis (mainly
leaves) to the sites where they are utilised or stored.
Translocation typically begins in any plants location where sucrose (or other organic solute) is in high
concentation; i.e where sucrose has been manufactured by chloroplasts.
There is a lower sucrose concentration in the sieve tubes of the phloem. The concentration difference causes
the sucrose to diffuse towards and into the phloem of the leaf and hence to the phloem of the stem. The
manufactured food is distributed to all parts of the plant along continuous cellular channels formed by the
phloem cell.
Stored products such as starch present in sinks (roots and stems) are reconverted into sugars then
translocated by phloem tissues to other parts for the purposes of respiration, growth or tissue repair. Amino
acids are also transported along the phloem tissue.
Comparison between transpiration and translocation
Translocation Translocation
It is the loss of water vapour from the plant It is the transport of manufactured food
leaves by evaporation. substances from their sites of synthesis to the
sites where they are utilized or stored.
It takes place in the leaves of plants through It takes place mainly through the phloem
the stomata. vessels.

i. Vascular tissue is present in
a. Root, stem and leaves c. Stem and leaves
b. Root and stem d. None of the above.
ii. Plants transpire faster at..................... temperatures.
a. Higher c. Moderate.
b. Lower d. Cold.
iii. Translocation transports
a. Organic material c. Sugars
b. Aminoacids d. All of the above.
iv. Xylem vessels can transport water in...................direction.
a. One b. Two c. Three d. Four
v. Which of the following is not a factor that affects the rate of water uptake in plants?
a. Soil water c. Transpiration rate
b. Soil temperature d. Soil pH
vi. A ............... refers to a structure that produces photosynthetes for a plant that is growing.
a. Source c. Sink
b. Phloem d. Xylem
2. What is wilting?
3. Give adaptations of xerophytes.
4. Create a table to compare transpiration and translocation.
Page 59 of 132
5. Explain the following:

a. Why is it advisible to remove some leaves when transplanting a seedling?
b. There are generally fewer stomata on the upper side of xerophytes than on the lower side.
6. Identify the importance of water uptake in plants.
7. (a). Define transpiration.
(b). Describe two advantages and two disadvantages of transpiration in plants.
8. Explain how the following environmental factors influence the rate of transpiration in a living plant.
a. Temperature b. Humidity
9. The following table shows the relative rates of transpirtion in the three different trees growing under
similar conditions. Suggest reasons to account for the different rates.
Tree Relative transpiration rate
Mango 200
Cactus 15
Pine 80
10. Study the diagrams below and answer the questions that follow.
a. What is the aim of the experiment?

b. Accout for the observed results.
c. Does the set-up shown in the experiment affect the flow of water up the plant? Give reasons for your
answer.
d. What would you expect to eventually happen to the tree that has had a complete ring of the bark
removed? Cive reasons for your answer.
Page 60 of 132
UNIT 9: GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN HUMANS AND PLANTS

9.1 Introduction
Gaseous exchange is the passage of respiratory gases (O2 and CO2) across the respiratory surfaces (gaseous
exchange surfaces) in living organisms.
Small organisms such as bacteria, algae, protozoa and earthworms have a large surface area to volume ratio.
Therefore, diffusion of gases across their body is enough to cater for their for their respiratory requirements.
In plants gaseous exchange is through the leaves whereas in some plants it is through the stems.
In multicellular organisms, gaseous exchange is complex and requires specialized respiratory surfaces.
Importance of gaseous exchange
Gasesos exchange is an important process because it ensures:
1. Transfer of oxygen from the environment to the individual cells for respiration.
2. Elimination of carbon dioxide which could be harmful (toxic).
3. Production of energy that is essential for the survival of an organism.
4. Plants obtain carbon dioxide from their surrounding for the process of photosynthesis.
9.2 Characteristic features of respiratory surfaces
Gaseous exchange surfaces:
1. Have large surface area to allow adequate and fast gaseous exchange.
2. Are moist surfaces to dissolve gases as they diffuse across it.
3. Have rich supply of blood for quickly transporting gases to and from the cells.
4. Have thin surface/walls to maximize the diffusion of gases.
5. Have high diffusion deficit/ concentration gradient to ensure faster diffusion of respiratory
gases.
6. Are highly vascularised in animals to ensure a stable flow of air and water.
9.3 Mechanism of breathing in humans
Breathing is a process of taking air in and out of the lungs.
We normally breath 10-15 times per minute. Breathing takes place in two phases known as inhalation and
exhalation.
Inhalation (inspiration) is the process of taking air into the lungs whereas exhalation (expiration) is the
process of expelling air out.
The processes that take place during the process of inhalation and exhalation are listed in the table below.
Inhalaion (inspiration) Exhalation (expiration)
The diaphragm and the muscles attached to the ribs The diaphragm and the rib muscles are relaxed.
contract.
The thoracic cavity expands as ribs move upwards The thoracic cavity returns to its normal size as ribs
and outwards. move down and inwards.
The volume of the thorax increases and the pressure The volume of the thorax reduces and the pressure
decreases in the lungs. increases in the lungs.
Air is pushed inwards and the lungs outwards. Air is pushed outwards and the lungs inwards.
Page 61 of 132
Figure 9.1: inhalation and exhalation

Comparison of inhaled and exhaled air
Inhaled air is composed of: Exhaled air is composed of:
 21% oxygen  16,4% oxgen
 0,03% carbon dioxide  4,4% carbon dioxide
 79% nitrogen gas  79% nitrogen gas
9.4 Gaseous exchange at the alveoli

Alveolus (plural: alveoli) is any of the many tiny air sacs of the lungs which allow for rapid gaseous
exchange.
Gas exchange between alveoli and blood is through the process of diffusion. The concentration of oxygen in
the alveoli is lower than in the air inhaled into the alveoli. The alveoli are highly concentrated with carbon
dioxide. This causes oxygen from the air in the alveoli to diffuse into the blood while the carbon dioxide
from the blood to diffuse out of the capillaries and into the alveoli.
From the alveoli, the CO2 is expelled out of the body through the air exhaled. This air passes out through the
bronchi, tra chea, larynx, nasal chamber or mouth.
The blood that leaves the alveoli is rich in oxgen. Oxygen diffuses into the red blood cells and combines
with haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin. The blood rich in oxygen is carried to all parts of the body via
the aorta from the heart.
Page 62 of 132
Figure 9.2: the process of gaseous exchange at the alveolus

Adaptations of the alveoli to their function
1. Alveoli are well supplied by a network of blood capillaries which carry blood in and out of the
alveoli. The blood transports the gases exchanged that is CO2 and O2.
Figure 9.3: capillary network of alveoli

2. The walls of the alveoli have thin epithelial cells across which gases diffuse.
3. They are lined with a thin film of moisture which facilitates rapid dirssolution of gases.
4. They are numerous in number and folded to provide a large surface area for gaseous exchange.
9.5 Respiratory diseases
Respiratory diseases are conditions or disorders that affect the organs and tissues that make up the gaseous
exchange system.
Page 63 of 132
1. Asthma
This is a disease that comes about when the air passages in the lungs suddenly narrow as a result of
contraction of their smooth muscles. It is also characterised by an inflow of mucus which clogs the narrow
passages even more. Some substances can trigger an asthma attack. They are called allergens. They include
pollen grains, some type of proteins in milk, pet hairs, dust and even flavours in food. It can also be caused
by stress and anxiety. In some families the disease is inherited.
Symptoms of asthma
• Difficulty in breathing. Breathing can feel so difficult or quick that the patient can faint.
• Wheezing sounds when breathing.
Prevention and treatment
Asthma is treated by two types of medication: long-term control and quick-relief medicines that help reduce
airway inflammation and prevent asthma symptoms.
 Quick-relief medicines relieve asthma symptoms that flare up.
 People with asthma should avoid an environment that is likely to bring on asthmatic attack. This is
by avoiding contact with allergens.
 Asthma patients are advised to carry inhalers that contain a drug which pacifies the condition.
2. Bronchitis
This is an infection of the inner walls of the bronchi. It is caused by bacteria or air pollutants such as smoke
in inhaled air. The infection causes the mucous membrane in the respiratory tract to produce excess mucus.
This causes the cells lining the bronchi and bronchioles not to function properly. As a result, the air passage
to the alveoli becomes blocked with mucus. Severe coughing occurs in an attempt to get rid of the excess
mucus. Breathing also becomes difficult. Bronchitis may be acute or chronic.
Acute bronchitis starts quickly and stops after a few days. The symptoms of acute bronchitis are like those
of a cold.
Chronic bronchitis starts slowly and lasts for a long time. It is a more serious kind of infection. It is
commonly caused by smoking and air pollution.
Symptoms of bronchitis
• Secretion of excess mucus
• Coughing
• Difficulties in breathing.
• Acute bronchitis is treated by simple measures that include: getting plenty of rest, drinking lots of fluids
and taking a cough syrup.
• People with chronic bronchitis should take antibiotics every time they have a cold with a fever.
• A doctor should be consulted at the early stages of bronchitis.
• Avoid smoking whether directly or passively.
• Avoid polluted air.
3 . Emphysema
This results from long untreated bronchitis where the bronchioles in the lungs become blocked. This causes
damage to delicate walls of the alveoli due to high pressure when coughing. This leads to reduced surface
Page 64 of 132
area for gaseous exchange. The lungs become distended and inelastic that gases cannot be exchanged
efficiently.
The patient becomes weak due to insufficient oxygen supply to tissues.
Running and walking can prove to be hard when one has this condition.
Emphysema is treated according to the severity of symptoms. Bronchodilators are normally given to help
relieve coughing, shortness of breath and breathing problems.
Early treatment of bronchitis with antibiotics to prevent secondary infection can help to prevent emphysema.
4. Pneumonia
Pneumonia is an infection of the lungs. It is caused by bacteria called Pneumococcus that spreads through
the air. It can also be caused by a virus or a fungi. Infection proceeds from the mouth down into the lungs.
As a result of the infection, a fluid is produced which collects in the alveoli. The lungs become solid and
have no air. This prevents exchange of gases in the lungs.
Signs and symptoms
• Sudden chills and high fever.
• Rapid shallow breathing and sometimes wheezing.
• Cough with yellow, greenish colour or mucus with some blood.
• Chest pains.

• Overcrowded places should be avoided and good ventilation in living rooms should be provided.
• Treatment of pneumonia involves curing the infection and preventing complications. It also depend on
the causative agent: bacterial, viral or fungal.
• Bacterial and fungal pneumonia are treated with drugs while viral pneumonia clears by itself.
5. Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by bacteria called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The source of infection may be
droplets containing bacteria sprayed from the air passages during breathing or sneezing. Tuberculosis
bacteria may attack any part of the body, but they usually invade the lungs, causing pulmonary tuberculosis.
Another source of infection is by drinking raw milk from a cow suffering from bovine tuberculosis.
Signs and symptoms
• Tuberculosis of the lungs starts with a dry cough followed by the spitting of blood, fever and sweating at
night as the infection proceeds.
• If there is no treatment, loss in weight occurs and finally death of the patient.
In addition to tuberculosis of the lungs, there are other forms of the disease in which bacteria attack the
lymphatic glands, bones and other parts of the body.
• Treatment for TB usually involves a long course of antibiotics lasting 6-9 months.
• Avoid overcrowding (overcrowding increases the risk of spread of tuberculosis).
• Avoid taking raw milk. Boil all milk or drink pasteurised milk.
• Immunisation with BCG (Bacillus Calmette Guerin) vaccine in children.
• Isolating patients
Page 65 of 132
6. Whooping cough
Whooping cough is caused by bacteria called Bordetella pertussis. The mode of infection is from one person
to another through inhalation of infected droplets.
Signs and Symptoms
• Whooping cough starts like a cold with fever, running nose and cough.
• Two weeks later, the whooping begins. The patient coughs rapidly many times without taking a breath,
until one coughs up a mass of sticky mucus, and the air rushes back into the lungs with a loud whoop
sound. After the “whoop”, the patient may vomit. Between coughing bouts the patient seems fairly
healthy.
1. Patients should consult a doctor for adequate treatment. Treatment for whooping cough involves taking
antibiotics early before coughing fits begin.
2. Patients should be isolated from contact with other people.
3. Immunisation with vaccines against whooping cough. In infants, the vaccine against whooping cough is
usually combined with those against diphtheria, tetanus and poliomyelitis.
7. Common cold
A common cold is an illness caused by a virus infection located in the nose. Colds also involve the sinuses,
ears and bronchial tubes. Colds last on average for one week. Mild colds may last only 2 or 3 days while
severe colds may last for up to 2 weeks. A cold is a milder illness than influenza.
Nasal secretions containing cold viruses contaminate the hands of people with colds as a result of nose
blowing, covering sneezes and touching the nose. Cold viruses may contaminate objects and surfaces in the
environment of a patient.
Note: Young children are prone to colds.
Cold virus, which is expelled into the air in coughs and sneezes, may land in the nose or eye of another
person and cause infection. Hence transmission.
Signs and symptoms
• Sneezing
• Runny nose
• Nasal obstruction
• Sore or scratchy throat
• Cough
• Hoarseness
• Mild general symptoms like headache, feverishness, chilliness, and not feeling well in general.
Cold is caused by a virus, therefore it will clear after several days. Treatment is mainly tolessen the
symptoms. If a cold persists seek medical advice.
To prevent catching a cold, limit contact with known cold patients, especially during the first three days of
their illness. Practice preventive measures which keep cold virus from entering the nose:
• Wash hands after contact with cold sufferers and objects and surfaces they may have contaminated.
• Keep fingers out of the eyes and nose.
Page 66 of 132
• Avoid having cold patients cough and sneeze on you or in your direction.
8. Influenza
Influenza or 'the flu' is a highly contagious disease caused by infection from influenza type A or B (or rarely
C) virus. These viruses infect the upper airways and lungs. The flu is highly contagious.
Flu is not the same as a common cold, and can be a serious illness. For some people, such as the elderly and
those with underlying medical conditions, the flu can cause serious complications which require
hospitalisation. It can sometimes lead to death. Flu is usually spread through infected people coughing and
sneezing, which temporarily contaminates the surrounding air and surfaces with infected droplets
Signs and Symptoms
Symptoms usually appear 1–3 days after being infected. A person can spread flu to others 1–2 days before
they become unwell and up to 5 days after symptoms develop. The symptoms of influenza can include:
• fever
• dry cough
• muscle and joint pain
• tiredness or extreme exhaustion
• headache
• sore throat
• Stuffy nose
1. Generally, uncomplicated flu is managed by simply resting in bed, drinking plenty of fluids (particularly
water) and taking over-the-counter medication to help relieve the symptoms.
2. Antiviral medications reduce the length of time symptoms last and help people infected return to their
daily routines earlier.
3. Good hygiene is essential to protect yourself and others
4. You can reduce the risk of infection by getting vaccinated.
Effect of smoking on the respiratory system
The respiratory system is not designed to cope with tobacco smoke. Tobacco smoke paralyses the cilia in the
respiratory tract and stops their movement.
In addition, tobacco smoke increases the production of mucus in the air passages. A cough by a smoker is an
attempt to remove the excess mucus from the respiratory system. Besides irritating the trachea and bronchi,
smoke particles interfere with the uptake of oxygen in the air sacs.
When cigarette smoke is inhaled, about one-third of the particles remain in the alveoli. Phagocytic cells
called macrophages can slowly remove many of the particles. However, an excess of particles from smoking
or from other sources of air pollution breaks down the walls of the air sacs and causes the formation of
inelastic tissue. This reduces the functional area of the respiratory surface and in severe cases may lead to a
disease called emphysema. In some cases, lung cancer also develops.
Page 67 of 132
Figure 9.4: lung with cancer and normal lung

9.4 Gaseous exchange in plants
The principal gaseous exchange surfaces for plants are the leaves. Plant leaves have stomatal pores on their
surface where gaseous exchange occurs. Plants do not have a specialised respiratory system like animals.
This is because they are metabolically less active than animals.
Figure 9.5: structure of the leaf

Stomata are pores between guard cells. They are found on the upper or lower epidermis or both. Stomata
allow:
• Entry of carbon dioxide into the leaf for photosynthesis.
• Exit of oxygen.
• Evaporation of water.
Page 68 of 132
Stomata are the main structures for gaseous exchange in leaves of plants. They are found in the epidermis of
leaves, with the exception of submerged plants, stomata are present in all the leaves of plants. Most land
plants have stomata on the lower surface of the leaf.
Figure 9.6: Open and closed stomata
The guard cells control the opening and closing of each stoma.
When the stomata are open, air from the surrounding enters the leaf and occupies the air spaces. Oxygen and
carbon dioxide diffuse into or out of the leaf cells along their concentration gradient.
Gaseous exchange takes place in leaves. Exchange of gases in plants is required for two critical processes:
respiration and photosynthesis. Respiration in leaves takes place during the day as well as night, while
photosynthesis takes place in presence of light. The entire process can be studied as follows:
 At the night, there occurs no photosynthesis, no O2 is produced. Oxygen from the air diffuses into the
leaves to carry out respiration. During respiration, CO2 is produced which diffuses out into the air. Thus,
the net exchange of gas in leaves at night is: O2 diffuses in and CO2 diffuses out.
 During the day, CO2 (generated by respiration) is used up for photosynthesis. Hence, there is no release
of CO2. Instead, O2 is released. The leaves use some of this O2 for respiration and rest of the O2 diffuses
out into the air. So, the net exchange of gases in leaves during the day time is: CO2 diffuses in and O2
diffuses out.
Note that when air is entering or leaving the plant through stomata, the process is not gaseous exchange, but
diffusion. Gaseous exchange refers to the movement of gases between the cells and their surroundings.
Page 69 of 132
1. Which of the following is not true? Gaseous exchange in plants is through ............... .
a. Pneumatophores c. Xylem
b. Stomata d. Lenticels.
2. Which of the following is false? Pneumonia is caused by .............. .
a. Streptococcus pneumonia c. Virus
b. Fungi d. Protozoa
3. Which of the following respiratory diseases is caused by inhaling asbestos dust?
a. Tuberculosis b. Lung cancer
b. Lung cancer c. Asthma
4. Identify the importance of gaseous exchange.
5. Explain the characteristic features of gaseous exchange surfaces.
6. Describe the process of gaseous exchange in the alveoli. Use a diagram.
7. Discuss the causes, spread, treatment and prevention of the following respiratory diseases.
a. Tuberculosis
b. Lung cancer
c. Common cold
8. The diagram below shows a cross section through a green leaf.
i) Identify the structures labeled A, B, C and D.

ii) What is the function of A and D?
iii) Explain any two adaptations of the leaf for photosynthesis.
Page 70 of 132
UNIT 10: EXCRETION IN HUMANS

10.1 Introduction
Life of every organism depends on certain basic processes. Excretion is one among them. Different
organisms follow different modes of excretion. In complex organisms including humans, there is a
specialized system for excretion called human excretory system.
We all obtain our nutrients from different sources which are later digested and metabolized in our body.
After metabolic reactions, the body starts to sort out useful and toxic substances in an individual. As we all
know, the accumulation of the toxins may be harmful and the body removes all the metabolic wastes by the
process called excretion.
10.2 Human excretory organs and their products
Different organisms follow different modes of excretion such as kidney, lungs, skin and eyes depending on
their habitat and food habit.
For example- Aquatic animals excrete waste in the form of ammonia, while birds and insects excrete mainly
uric acid. Humans produce urea as the major excretory product.
Excretory organ Excretory product
Skin Urea, lactic acid, excess salts and excess water in form of sweat.
Kidney Excess salts, excess water and nitrogenous wastes in form of urine.
Lungs Carbon dioxide and excess water in form of water vapour
Liver Bile pigments
Nitrogenous compounds such as ammonia, urea, uric acid and trimethylamine
oxide.
10.3 The role of the liver in excretion
(a) Deamination
The amino acids absorbed in the gut are used in the synthesis of proteins. The body does not store excess
amino acids or proteins. The excess amino acids are broken down in the liver in a process called
deamination. From each amino acid, the amino group (NH2)) is converted to ammonia (NH3). Ammonia
should not be allowed to accumulate in the body because it is highly toxic. The remainder of the amino acid
molecule is changed to glycogen or fat for storage. The ammonia produced from the amino group is quickly
converted to a less toxic substance called urea.
(b) Detoxification
The liver removes harmful substances such as drugs and hormones from the blood. Within the liver, these
substances are converted into inactive or less dangerous forms, for instance, hydrogen peroxide, a highly
toxic by-product of certain metabolic process is rapidly split into water and oxygen by enzyme catalase in
the liver.
catalase
Hydrogen peroxide → water + oxygen
catalase
2H2O2 (aq) → 2H2O (l) + O2( g)
Page 71 of 132
Thus, the liver purifies or detoxifies blood. The inactive substances formed in the liver are returned to the
bloodstream and are finally excreted from the body by the kidneys.
(c) Elimination of Haemoglobin

Haemoglobin from old worn out red blood cells is broken down by the liver cells into pigments. These
pigments are further broken down and eliminated in the bile, giving urine its characteristic yellow colour.
(d) Elimination of sex hormones and cholesterol

After sex hormones have performed their functions, some are modified chemically by the liver cells. Others
are sent to the kidney for renal excretion while others are expelled in bile.
Excess cholesterol is also excreted in bile. If there is a considerable excess amount of cholesterol in the
blood, some may be deposited in the walls of blood arteries obstructing flow.
10.4Structure of the human urinary system

The human urinary system organs include:
 A pair of kidneys
 A pair of ureters
 A urinary bladder
 A urethra
Figure 10.1: human’s urinary system

Kidneys
Kidneys are reddish-brown, bean shaped organs located in the abdominal cavity, each one on each side
of the spine. The right kidney is slightly lower than the left one thanks to the compression by the liver.
Page 72 of 132
Figure 10.2: longitudinal section of a kidney

- Capsule: tough sheath that surrounds the kidney completely and protect it.
- Cortical area (cortex): fibrous area with numerous tiny red granulations.
- Medullar area: it is the area containing cones known as Malpighian pyramids.
- Renal pelvis: sort of funnel into which, urine is discharged as it passes into the ureter.
Ureter
A thin muscular tube called the ureter comes out of each kidney extending from the renal pelvis. It carries
urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder.
Urinary Bladder
It is a sac-like structure that stores urine until micturition. Micturition is the expulsion of urine from the
body. The urine is carried to the bladder through the ureters.
Urethra
This tube arises from the urinary bladder and helps to expel urine out of the body. In males, it acts as the
common route for sperms and urine. Its opening is guarded by a sphincter.
Nephron, urine formation and secretion
Urine is formed in small units called nephrons. Blood carrying excretory wastes enters the kidney through
the renal artery. Renal artery divides into capillaries forming the glomerulus.
The afferent arterioles entering the glomerulus are wider than veins leaving it (efferent). This
creates a high pressure of the blood in the glomerulus.
Ultrafiltration occurs and causes blood plasma, urea, water, salts, glucose, amino acids, etc… to
filter out through the capillary walls into the Bowman’s capsule. Blood cells and blood proteins
remain infiltrated. This ensures that kidney is selective filter, because it hold completely some
compounds and blood cells and let others completely or partially.
Page 73 of 132
Figure 10.3: Nephron
The urine is formed in the nephrons and involves the following steps:
 Glomerular filtration
 Tubular reabsorption
 Secretion
The ultrafiltration: This take place in the renal capsule.

It is a filtration under pressure. The pressure comes from the blood pressure and is known as
hydrostatic pressure or pumping pressure. Water and small molecule are squeezed out the
capillaries into the interior of the capsule and form the glomerular filtrate. The latter contain all
compound of the plasma except blood cells and proteins. he filtrate passes down the tubule into the
proximal convoluted tubule.
Page 74 of 132
The reabsorption
Reabsorption takes place in the proximal and distal convoluted tubule and the loop of Henle. The
glomerulus filtrate contains certain substances contain which are important to the body like such as
glucose, amino-acids, vitamins, fatty acids, water, Na+, Cl-, etc…
These essential substances are re-absorbed in the proximal and convoluted tubule and return back in
the blood stream.
Figure 10.4: urine formation

Secretion
Excessive salts, excessive water, urea, and inactive hormone form urine. It passes down the
collecting tubule, pelvis and through the ureter to the bladder where it is stored temporarily. The
sphincter muscles relaxes and urinary bladder contracts. The urine is then discharged from the
body through the urethra.
Function of excretion
 To remove waste products from the body as soon as they are formed, before they can reach toxic and
harmful levels.
 Removal of waste products that result from chemical reactions, which indirectly promotes continuous
breakdown of foods absorbed, and continued body reactions.
 Sweating, which is part of excretion by the skin, helps in regulation of body temperatures on a hot day.
The functions of the various tubules involved in the process are:
Page 75 of 132
 Glomerulus filters the blood

 Proximal convoluted tubules reabsorb ions, water, and nutrients, removes toxins, and maintains the
pH of the filtrate.
 Descending loop of Henle allows water to pass from the filtrate into the interstitial fluid through
aquaporins.
 Ascending loop of Henle reabsorbs sodium and chloride ions from the filtrate into the interstitial
fluid.
 Distal tubule reabsorbs and secretes selective ions and maintains the pH of the blood.
 Collecting duct, solutes, and water is reabsorbed from the filtrate by the collecting duct.
10.5 Factors that affect urine production

The volume, colour, odour of urine and frequency of urination is affected by many factors. They include:
1. Amount of fluids taken
Large intake of fluids lowers the osmotic pressure of blood. This leads to reduced reabsorption of water in
the kidney tubules resulting in the production of large amounts of dilute urine.
2. Amount of salt taken
Intake of a salty meal raises the osmotic pressure of blood. This leads to increased reabsorption of water in
the kidney tubules resulting in the production of coloured, little and smelly urine.
3. Weather
In hot and dry weather conditions, the body tends to lose a lot of water through sweating thereby raising the
osmotic potential of blood. In this case a lot of water is reabsorbed resulting in coloured, little and smelly
urine. During cold weather the frequency of urination increases because sweating is so minimal.
4. Physical activity
During an exercise like running, jumping and playing, we sweat a lot. The kidney reabsorbs more water
resulting in little, coloured and smelly urine.
5. Diseases
Certain diseases that affect the secretion of hormones that control reabsorption of water in the kidney tubules
can either lead to production of large or small amounts of urine. An example is diabetes insipidus.
10.6 Practices that maintain healthy urinary system

(i) Drinking a lot of water, at least 10 glasses of water a day to flush out toxins in the body.
(ii) Exercising regularly to keep fit. Maintain a healthy weight according to your age to avoid putting excess
strain on all bodily systems.
(iii) Avoid taking too many drugs especially pain killers. Stick to prescriptive drugs from a qualified medical
officer.
(iv) Visit a doctor (urologist) regularly to check the health of the urinary system.
(v) Eat healthy by avoiding junk food. Eat more fresh fruits and green vegetables. Choose foods low in
sodium, sugar and fats but high in fiber content.
(vi) Avoid smoking and alcohol intake.
Page 76 of 132

i. The ........... removes excess sugar by converting it into glycogen for future use. (liver/kidney)
ii. The urine passes through the .............. into urinary bladder. (nephron/ureters)
iii. A dark outer region of a mammalian kidney is called the ......................(medulla/cortex).
iv. Each nephron consists of a cup-shaped .................... capsules. (Bowman’s/glomerulus)
v. The longer the loop, the ............. will be the concentration of urine. (lower/higher)
vi. Producing large amounts of urine helps to flush the urinary system, washing out .................
.(virus/bacteria)
2. Tick the correct option.
i. The functional unit of kidney in human beings is called
a. Medulla c. Nephron
b. Urinary bladder d. Nephridia
ii. The function of glomerulus in kidney is
a. Reabsorption of salt c. Reabsorption of water
b. Blood filtration d. All the above
iii. The human kidney is made up of millions of
a. Neurons c. Nephrons
b. Bowman’s capsule d. None of the above
iv. The excretory system in human beings consists of
a. Kidneys c. Ureters
b. Urinary bladder d. All of these
3. State the excretory organs in the human body and the substances that are excreted.
4. What do you understand by deamination?
5. Which is the largest organ in the body?
6. Give two factors affecting concentration of urine.
7. Describe the process of ultrafiltration in the glomerulus.
8. Outline the practices that ensure the good health of the urinary system.
9. Observe the effect of following factors on the volume and concentration of urine. Record your
observation in the given table.
Factor Effect on urine volume Effect on urine
concentration
When you drink less volume
of water
When it is lower atmospheric
temperature
When you do not do exercise
Page 77 of 132
UNIT 11: JOINTS AND MOVEMENT

11.1 Introduction
Support and locomotion in animals and human beings is made possible by the skeleton, a firm structure
which is typically made of bone and supports the soft tissues of the body and protects the internal organs.
Support and locomotion is impotant in animals for their survival. In addition to their supportive functions,
skeletons also offer surfaces for attachment. The skeletons of animals act like levers, translating muscle
contraction and relaxation into movement. This helps animals to move from one place to anoter in search of
food, mates, shelter and escape from predators.
11.2 Joints
A joint is a point where a bone meets another bone or bones. Muscles pull on bones to make joints move.
Therefore, without joints, movement would not be possible. Most ofjoints only allow slight movements
while other joints allow no movement at all.
Types of joints
There are two types of joints:
(a) Movable joints- allow some degree of movement. There are two categories;
• Those which allow slight mobility.
• Those which are freely movable.
(b) Immovable joints-permit very little or no mobility.
a. Fixed or immovable joints
These are joints that do not allow any movement, for example, joints in the cranium commonly known as
sutures. These joints are not smooth but rather have interlocking fingerlike processes that increase stability.
Figure 11.1: the skull
b. Movable joints
These are joints that allow movement of body parts to take place. Some movable joints allow only a
small degree of movement while others allow a wide range of movement.
Page 78 of 132
Movable joints include:

1. Gliding joints
Gliding joints consist of two opposing flat

surfaces that allow slight amount of gliding
motion. They occur between the vertebrae.
They have no fluid between them but instead
have a larger cartilage between them known
as intervertebral disc which reduces friction
during movement. They are also found in the
wrist and ankle.
Figure 11.2: Gliding joint
2. Synovial joints
These joints are classified depending on the shape of the adjoining articular surface. They include:
vii. Saddle joints
i. Saddle joints comprises of two

saddle-shaped articulating
surfaces that are oriented at right
angles to each other. Example is
the joint of the thumb.
Figure 11.3: Saddle joint
viii. Hinge joints
Hinge joints are joints that allow back and forth movement as the only type of movement. Examples are
joints at the elbow, knee and fingers.
Page 79 of 132
Figure 11.4: Hinge joint of the knee

ix. Pivot joints
Pivot joints consist of a cylindrical like bony process of

one bone that rotates within a ring partially composed
of bone and cartilage. Pivot joint occurs between the
skull and the atlas vertebra. It permits the up and down,
side to side movements of the head.
Figure 11.5: pivot joint
x. Ball and socket joints These types of joints allow the

greatest flexibility of movement
of all joints. It consists of a ball-
shaped head end of one bone
that fits into the cavity (socket)
of an adjacent bone. This type
of joint allows wide range of
movement in almost any
direction.
Figure 11.6: ball and socked joint at the hip
Page 80 of 132
Figure 11.7: location of joints

Structure of a synovial joint
Figure 11.8: structure of a synovial joint
Page 81 of 132
Functions of the structures in a synovial joint

Structure Functions
Bones Forms a base on which the cartilage, ligaments, tendons and ligaments are held at
a joint.
Articular cartilage  Provides a smooth articular ssurface.
 Strong to absorb compression forces and bears the weight of the body.
 Absorbs any shock.
Capsule/capsular  Fibrous tissue that surrounds the joint and holds the bones forming the
ligament joint together.
 It is loose to allow movement and strong to protect the joint from injury.
Synovial membrane  Covers the parts of the bones within the joint not covered by the capsular
ligamens.
 Secretes synovial fluid which is a lubricant.
Ligament An extra capsular structure that bends (joins) with the capsule to join a bone to a
bone. It allows stability of the joint and allows the bones to bend at a joint.
Synovial fluid  Thick sticky fluid secreted by the synovial membranes acting as a lubricant
and shock absorber.
 Reduce friction between the bones forming the joint.
 Have phagocytes that remove microbes or pathogens and cellular debrais
from the joint.
 Maintains joint stability.
 Prevents the bones from being separated.
 Small sacs of synovial fluid float in the synovial fluid preventing friction
between the bones and ligaments or tendon or skin.
Tendon  Joins a muscle to a bone to provide stability and stretch across the joint.
 When muscles contact, the muscle shortens pulling one bone towards the
other and the support held by the collagenous tendons.
Nerves  Allow involuntary actions in the muscles that make the bones.
 Supplies ligaments and the synovial membrane with nourishment.
 Removes destroyed microbes and debris from the synovial fluid.
11.3 Acion of antagonistic muscles in the movement of a hinge joint

Movement is brought about by coordinated contraction and relaxation opposing set of muscles referred to as
antagonistic muscles. The
contraction of the muscles moves the bones at a jiont depending on where they articulate. there are two types
of muscles:
 Flexor muscles which when contracted cause bending of flexion.
 Extensor muscles which when contracted cause lengthening/straightening of extension.
Lowering and raising of the arm
a. Raising the the lower arm at the hinge joint
Page 82 of 132
Flexion needs contraction of the biceps muscle. The

biceps is joined to the scapula (site of origin) where
the bone does not move to the radius. At the
sametime the triceps muscle relaxes. The triceps are
connected to the scapula and the humerus to the ulna.
These opposing contraction and relaxation result to
the arm being raised. Biceps contract as the triceps
relax bringing about flexion or bending of the arm.
Figure 11.9: flexion

b. Lowering the arm at the hinge joint
When the triceps contract and the biceps relax,

extension of the arm takes place. The contracted a
pull the ulna at the elbow joint and at the sametime
the biceps are relaxed allowing the arm to bend
downwards causing straightening or extension.
Figure 11.10: extension

11.4 Practices that promote healthy joints and bones
1. Having regular exercises to maintain strong bones.
2. Avoid activities that increase the risk of joint and bone injuries.
3. Having proper diet containing vitamin D and minerals such as zinc, manganese, copper and calcium,
which strengthen the bones.
4. Sufficient sleep of at least eight hours to allow the body to repair broken tissues.
5. Avoid smoking and excessive intake of alcohol. Nicotine and alcohol lead to weak bones by depleting
the calcium content in the bones.
6. Drinking enough water every day. This maintains body hydration that keeps the body and bones healthy.
7. Reducing excessive intake of salt and carbonated drinks since they reduce the content of calcium.

1. Fill in the blanks
i. ................... is essential feature of all living beings. (movement/muscle)
ii. Bones are held together in correct position by .............. .(cartilage/ligaments)
iii. ............ joints allow free movement in various directions. (movable/immovable)
iv. The ............. is normally composed of bones which are separated by sutures. (skull/leg)
Page 83 of 132
v. ............... are elastic bands of fibres which connect two bones together. (ligaments/cartilages)
vi. .............. joint allows one part of the body to rotate over another. (ball and socket/pivot)
vii. The ............... and the triceps are antagonistic muscles. (biceps/forceps)
2. Which type of joints found in the elbow?
3. What is ligament?
4. What do you understand by antagonistic muscles? Give an example.
5. Complete the table below;
Type of joint Examples
Fixed joint
Sliding joint
Synovial joint
6. Name the substance that prevents friction in a joint.

7. Give the functions of the following parts of a joint.
Part Function
Articular cartilage
Capsular cartilage
Synovial membrane
Synovial fluid
8. The diagram below shows a typical synovial joint. Study the diagram and answer the questions that
follow.
a. Name the parts labelled A, B and C

b. Give the function of part D.
c. What name is given to the fluid found in the part labelled B. Give two functions of this fluid.
9. What do you understand by flexion and extension of a muscle?
10. Explain briefly how one is able to raise his or her arm when lifting and object.
11. Name the practices that promote health bones and joints.
Page 84 of 132
UNIT 12: INFECTIOUS DISEASES

12.1 Introduction
Infectious diseases are also known as communicable diseases. They are diseases that are transmitted from
one person to another. These diseases are usually caused by harmful micro-organisms such as viruses, fungi,
protozoa and bacteria.
Terminology in studies of diseases

Pathogen: any disease-causing microorganism. Bacteria, protozoa and viruses that cause disease are called
pathogens. Pathogens are also known as germs.
Transmissible disease: diseases capable of spreading from one person to another, for example, common cold.
Host: an organism that harbours a disease-causing micro-organism, for example, water snails are hosts to
schistosomes that causes bilharzia.
Vector: a living organism that can transmit infectious diseases between human beings or from animals to
human beings. Female anopheles mosquito is a vector to the plasmodium parasite of malaria.
Carrier: a person who has been infected but develops no signs or symptoms. This person is capable of
transmitting the disease to other people.
Signs: visible expressions brought about by a disease, for example, red spots on the body, vomiting...
Symptoms: physical or mental feature that is regarded as indicating a condition of disease, particularly such
a feature that is felt by the patient, for example, nausea, dizziness and headache.
Epidemiology: study of all factors that contribute to the appearance of a particular disease.
12.2 Transmission of infectious diseases

Infectious diseases are capable of spreading from one person to another either directly or
indirectly.
1. Diseases that are transmitted through the air are referred to as air-borne diseases. Examples:
Tuberculosis and common cold.
2. Some diseases are transmitted through the consumption of contaminated water and food. They are
referred to as waterborne or foodborne diseases respectively. Examples are cholera and typhoid fever.
3. Through blood transfusion or contact with contaminated blood. Examples: HIV and AIDS and malaria.
4. Physical contact with an infected person can transmit a disease. These infectious diseases are termed
as contagious. They include ringworms, scabies and Ebola.
5. Communicable diseases are also spread by vectors. They are therefore known as vector-borne
diseases, for example, sleeping sickness is spread by tsetse flies, malaria is spread by female anopheles
mosquito. Yellow fever on the other hand is spread by black fly and some species of mosquitoes.
6. Some infections can also spread through unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person. These
diseases are known as sexual transmitted infections (STIs), for example, HIV and AIDS.
7. Germs can also spread from a mother to her unborn child, usually through blood or other body fluids.
They can also pass through contact with skin or mucous membranes during delivery.
12.3 Defense against infection

Immunity is the ability of the body to resist disease infection. This means a person can be exposed to factors
that can cause a disease, yet they do not become sick. The body’s defense mechanism protects an organism
from infections.
If pathogens do not encounter resistance from the body’s defense mechanism, almost all diseases would be
fatal. Organisms must find a way of defending themselves against harmful micro-organisms like viruses,
bacteria and fungi.
Page 85 of 132
The body has many ways of defending itself from invasion by harmful microorganisms. In most cases the
body’s defense mechanism prevents this from happening. Some of these defense mechanisms are made in a
way to block pathogens from entering into the body. Other mechanisms eliminate pathogens that are already
in the body. There are also defence mechanisms that attack micro-organisms when they persist inside the
body. The ability of the body to prevent itself from diseases using its lines of defense is called resistance.
Body defence mechanisms can either be first line or second line.
( a) Body’s first line of defence

This line of defence prevents harmful micro-organisms from entering the body. It is the external defence
system of the body. It includes both physical and chemical defence lines. The body does this using various
barriers that prevent microorganisms from entering the body.
Figure 12.1: The body's first line of defence mechanisms

Example of the body defence mechanism include:
(i) The skin creates a physical barrier that protects the cells inside the body against the entrance of
pathogens. Certain chemical secretions produced by the skin helps to stop the growth of bacteria and
fungi.
(ii) The nose and passages leading to the lungs are lined with cells that produce sticky fluid called
mucus that traps invading microbes and dust. Tiny hairs called cilia lines the trachea. They can move
Page 86 of 132
back and forth in a wave-like motion. Cilia trap microbes and dust particles and prevent them from
entering the lungs. These particles then combine with mucus and are either coughed, sneezed out or
swallowed and then passed out of the body in faeces.
(iv)The stomach produces hydrochloric acid which destroys many of the microbes that enter the body in
food and drinks we take.
(v) Tears contain a powerful enzyme that can digest and breakdown harmless substances. Therefore,
harmful microorganisms cannot enter the body through the opening of the eye.
(vi) Clotting of blood occurs when an open cut or wound exposes blood to air. Such a cut causes a break
in the skin exposing the body to harmful micro-organisms. When a clot forms, it seals the opening
and enables the wound to heal.
(b) Body’s second line of defence

When pathogens are able to get past the first line of defence, for example, through a cut in the skin, a disease
develops. This prompts the second line of defence to become active. This happens through a sequence of
steps called the immune response. The body has a range of defence mechanisms that operate to destroy
pathogens. These responses only react to the presence of any pathogen or foreign material.
White blood cells known as phagocytes are adapted to fight the disease causing micro-organisms in the
following ways:
(i) They move by amoeboid action. They send out cell extensions called pseudopodia which allow them to
surround invading microbes and engulf them.
(ii) Phagocytes release digestive enzymes which break down the trapped microbes before they can do any harm.
This process is called phagocytosis.
(iii) They also have the ability to change their shape. This enables them fit in the narrow capillaries hence reach
the pathogens
Figure 12.2: Phagocytosis in white blood cells
(c) Immunity (third line of defence)
Immunity is the ability of an organism to resist a particular infection or toxin by the action of specific
antibodies or some white blood cells. An antibody is a protein produced by the body’s immune system
when it detects harmful substances, called antigens. Examples of antigens include micro-organisms
such as bacteria, fungi, parasites, viruses, and chemicals. Each type of antibody is unique and defends
the body against one specific type of antigen.
Antibodies detect and neutralises the antigen by binding to it. This signals the production of other cells
of the immune system to get rid of the invading microbes before it spreads or attacks the body.
Page 87 of 132
12.4 Symptoms, prevention, control and treatment of common infectious diseases

a) Malaria
Malaria is a protozoan disease caused by a parasite called Plasmodium. The parasites are spread through the
bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes, which are the malaria vectors.
Signs and symptoms of malaria
i. High fever
ii. Periodic chills that may be accompanied with sweating.
iii. Headache.
iv. Pain in the joints.
v. General body weakness.
vi. Lack of appetite and nausea that may be accompanied by
vomiting.
Figure 12.3: female Anopheles mosquito biting

The following are some of the ways mosquitos can be controlled.
(i) Clearing bushes around homes.
(ii) Draining marshes, pools and stagnant water around homes. This destroys breeding places for mosquitos.
(iii) Spraying light used oil on stagnant water that cannot be drained. Oil sprayed on stagnant water kills
mosquito larvae by suffocating them.
(iv) Spraying the inside walls of our houses with insecticides.
(v) Closing doors and windows during the evening time to prevent mosquitoes from entering. Windows
can also be screened with window proof wire mesh.
(vi) Sleeping under a treated mosquito net. Removing old tins, broken pots, plastic bags and other things
that can hold water from the compound. This prevents mosquitoes from breeding.
(vii) Patients can be isolated during the infection period to prevent transmission to others.
(viii) Fish-eating mosquitoes can be introduced into ponds and pools to feed on mosquito larvae and pupae.
(ix) Preventative medicines can be taken regularly but upon prescription from a qualified medical doctor.
b) Cholera
Cholera is an acute diarrhoeal infection caused by ingestion of food or water contaminated with the
bacterium Vibrio cholerae.
Signs and symptoms of cholera

i. Severe watery diarrhoea (rice water stool)
and vomiting.
ii. General body weakness.
iii. Low blood pressure.
iv. The patient loses weight rapidly.
v. The patient develops wrinkled skin and
sunken eyes because of dehydration.
Figure 12.4: Vibrio cholerae bacteria
Page 88 of 132
Control and treatment of cholera

(i) Drinking water should be treated or boiled and stored properly.
(ii) Proper disposal of human wastes.
(iii) Washing hands before and after eating and after visiting the toilet.
(iv) Covering cooked food to avoid contamination by house flies.
(v) Vaccination during epidemics or when one is visiting an infested area.
Cholera is treated using antibiotics. Prevention of dehydration also helps in the cure.
c) Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by bacteria called Mycobacterium tuberculosis that most often affects the lungs.
TB is spread from person to person through the air. When a person with pulmonary TB coughs, sneezes or
spits, they spread germs into the air. If a healthy person nearby inhales these germs they can become infected.
Signs and symptoms of pulmonary TB
i. Cough with sputum and blood at times
ii. Chest pains
iii. General weakness
iv. Weight loss
v. Fever
vi. Night sweats
Figure 12.5: Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Prevention and treatment of tuberculosis

(i) Isolate patients to prevent transmission of the disease to other people.
(ii) Immunise children with tuberculosis vaccine known as BCG (Bacillus Calmette Guerin).
(iii) Avoiding overcrowded places. Opening windows in overcrowded rooms to allow free circulation of
air.
(iv) Drinking boiled milk. Some types of tuberculosis is transmitted from bovine.
(v) Once infected, tuberculosis is treated with antibiotics. Standard anti-TB drugs have been used for some
time, and resistance to the medicines is widespread.
d) Salmonellosis
This is an infection caused by Salmonella bacteria. The elderly, infants, and those with impaired immune
systems are more likely to develop severe form of illness. Salmonella infection usually results from
ingestion of the bacteria from contaminated food or water. Eggs, milk, meat or poultry are particularly high
risk foods. Fruit and vegetables may also be contaminated, especially if manure has been used as fertiliser.
People may become infected if they transfer animal faeces containing Salmonella bacteria from their hands
to their mouths, for example, eating after touching animals and failing to wash hands.
Page 89 of 132
Signs and symptoms of salmonellosis

i. diarrhoea
ii. chills with fever
iii. nausea with or without vomiting
iv. headache
v. blood in the stool
vi. abdominal cramps.
Figure 12.6: Salmonera bacteria

Prevention and treatment of salmonellosis
(i) People with salmonella infection should not be allowed to handle food or take care of children.
(ii) Food should be well cooked.
(iii) Do not purchase dirty or cracked eggs.
(iv) Boil milk thoroughly before drinking.
(v)Always wash your hands with soap and clean water.
(vi) Wash fruits (including melons) and vegetables before eating.
(vii) Swimming pools should be disinfected regularly.
(viii) Recovery from Salmonella infection usually occurs within a week and antibiotic treatment is
not normally required.
e) Typhoid
Typhoid fever is caused by a bacterium called Salmonella typhi, which only lives in human.
The bacteria is spread by eating food or drinking water contaminated with faeces or urine of patients
and carriers. Typhoid is common in areas where hygiene standards are poor and water is likely to be
contaminated with sewage waste.
Signs and symptoms of typhoid

i. Sustained high fever
ii. Continuous headache
iii. Malaise (feeling of being unwell)
iv. Decreased appetite
v. Enlarged spleen which may cause abdominal
discomfort
vi. Dry cough in the early stage of the illness
vii. A flat rose-coloured rash which may be visible on the
trunk
Figure 12.7: Salmonella typhi viii. Constipation or diarrhoea – constipation occurs more
often than diarrhoea in adults
ix. Illness varies from mild with lowgrade fever, to severe
with multiple complications
Prevention and treatment of typhoid

(i) Isolation of the patients to avoid spread of the disease by contact and sterilising clothes used by
patients.
Page 90 of 132
(ii) Food handlers in institutions, like hospitals, schools and restaurants should go for regular
medical checkups and treatment if found infected.
(iii) Proper disposal of faeces in toilet and in pit latrines.
(iv) Water treatment and purification to kill the bacteria.
(v)Boiling drinking water and cooking of food properly to kill the bacteria.
(vi) Practice good hygienic methods like washing hands properly after visiting the toilet.
(vii) Washing fruits and vegetables with clean water before eating.
(viii) Vaccinations in the case of outbreaks of the disease in epidemics.
(vii) Seek proper treatment from qualified medical doctor in case of an infection.
Antibiotic treatment helps reduce the time a person is infectious.
f) HIV and AIDS
The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) attacks the immune system. This weakens a person’s defence
mechanism against infections and some types of cancer.
Figure 12.7: Structure of HIV
HIV and AIDS is transmitted from one person to another through various ways including:
(i) By birth, from an infected mother to her unborn baby.
(ii) By having unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person.
(iii) (iii) By transfusion of infected blood.
(iv) By sharing of unsterilised surgical and skin piercing instruments with infected people.
Symptoms of HIV and AIDS
The symptoms depend on the stage of infection. People living with HIV and AIDS tend to be most infectious
in the first few months. The first few weeks after initial infection, individuals may experience no symptoms
or an influenza-like illness including fever, headache, rash or sore throat.
As the infection progresses, the immune system weakens. An individual can develop other signs and
symptoms, such as swollen lymph nodes, weight loss, fever, diarrhoea and cough. Without treatment, they
could also develop severe illnesses such as tuberculosis, meningitis (disease caused by bacteria and viruses
and its symptoms include fever, headache, nausea, blured vision and confusion) and cancers such as
lymphomas and Kaposi’s sarcoma (cancer that manifests itself as small, dark, raised bruise-like patches on
the skin, inside the mouth and the nose), among others.
Page 91 of 132
Prevention and control

The most effective way to prevent the spread of AIDS is through health and sex education. Everyone has to
be enlightened on the risks of acquiring the virus through careless lifestyles.
Patients of HIV and AIDS should take anti-retroviral drugs (ARVs) which prolong their life span. To
prevent AIDS one also needs to avoid the ways through which it is transmitted. The following are the ways
through which a person can prevent himself or herself from contracting the disease.
i. Abstaining from sex till marriage.
ii. ii. Being faithful to one partner.
iii. Using condoms during sex.
iv. Mothers should give birth in hospitals and go for regular medical checkup.
v. Blood should be screened before transfusion.
vi. Avoid sharing piercing and cutting instruments like razorblades and safety pins.
g) Ebola
The Ebola virus causes an acute, serious illness which usually leads to death if untreated. Ebola virus is
introduced into the human body through contact with body fluids of infected animals such as chimpanzees,
gorillas, fruit bats, monkeys... found ill or dead in the forest.
Ebola then spreads through human to human transmission via direct contact (through broken skin or mucous
membranes) with the blood, secretions, organs or other bodily fluids of infected people and with surfaces and
materials such as bedding and clothing contaminated with these fluids.
Figure 12.8: Ebola virus
Symptoms of Ebola virus disease

(i) First symptoms are the sudden onset of fever, fatigue (feeling of being tired), muscle pain, headache
and sore throat (pain or irritation of the throat).
(ii)This is followed by vomiting, diarrhoea, rash (small, red spots on the skin), symptoms of impaired
kidney and liver function.
(iii) Internal and external bleeding with blood oozing from the gums, ears and eyes.
Prevention of Ebola
(i) Avoid direct contact with wild animals like bats and chimpanzees.
(ii) Avoid direct contact with people showing signs of Ebola virus.
(iii) Use gloves and other protective clothing when handling Ebola patients.
(iv) Wash your hands regularly with soap and water.
(v) Couples who have just recovered from the virus should abstain from sexual intercourse or use condoms.
(vi) Burial of the dead patients should be done by health workers.
Page 92 of 132

a. .................. is the ability to resist infection by an invading pathogen. (immunity/antibody)
b. Antibiotics are effective against .................. .(viruses/bacteria)
c. Oral rehydration fluid is recommended in ................... .(tuberculosis/cholera)
d. Malaria spreads by the bite of ................. Anopheles mosquitoes. (male/female)
e. ............... infectiction is common bacterial disease. (salmonella/ebola)
i. Which of the following is an example of first line of defence?
a. Skin b. Tears c. Stomach acid d. All of these,
ii. Tuberculosis is
a. Bacterial disease b. Viral disease c. Fungal disease d. Protozoan disease.
iii. The part of the body of human being that is usually affected by tuberculosis is the
a. Heart b. Lungs c. Liver d. Intestine
3. Match the following correctly
i. Direct contact a. Can be transferred from an infected person to a healthy person.
ii. Typhoid b. Physical contact between an infected person and another who is
susceptible to infection.
iii. Pathogens c. Waterborne and food-borne disease caused by bacteria.
iv. Transmissible diseases d. Disease-causing organisms like bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa
4. AIDS is a fatal disease. Why?

5. (a) What is Ebola?
(b) How does Ebola virus spread?
(c) What are the ways to avoid contamination?
6. If there is an outbreak of cholera in your village, suggest preventive measures can you give to people.
7. Infectious diseases are deadly and sometimes fatal. They not only affect physically, mentally but also
economically. Discuss.
Page 93 of 132
UNIT 13: IMMUNITY AND VACCINATION

13.1 Introduction
When pathogens find their way into the body, they can cause diseases. However, the body has its own
mechanisms of dealing with such foreign materials. The Ability of the body to defend itself against foreign
bodies and disease-causing microorganisms is known as immunity. The system that is responsible for
defending the body against diseases is known as the immune system.
13.2 Antibodies and antigens
An antibody (also known as an immunoglobulin) is a large Y-shaped protein produced mainly by plasma
cells that is used by the immune system to identify and neutralise pathogens such as bacteria and viruses.
The antibody recognises a unique molecule of the harmful agent, called an antigen. The antibody then binds
to this antigen. Antibodies are specific to their antigens.
Figure 13.1: Antibodies
Depending on the mode of action of antibodies, they are classified as follows:

12. Antitoxins: they neutralise the toxins produced by microorganisms.
13. Lysins: they attach themselves on the pathogens causing them to desintegrate and die, a process known
as lysis.
14. Opsonins: they attach themselves to the pathogens making it easier for the phagocytes to engulf them.
15. Agglutinins: they bind themselves to the pathogens causing them to clump together a process known as
agglutination this leads to the death of microorganisms.
Antigen
Antigen is any substance that is capable of stimulating an immune response, specifically activating the body
to produce antibodies.
There are two main divisions of antigens: foreign antigens and self-antigens.
• Foreign antigens come from outside the body. All pathogens (viruses, bacteria and protozoa, and certain
proteins in foods) are examples of foreign antigens.
• Self-antigens come from within the body. Normally, the body is able to distinguish self from non-self.
However, in individuals with autoimmune disorders, normal body substances provoke an immune
response, leading to the generation of auto-antibodies.
Page 94 of 132
Antigen–antibody reaction
An antigen and antibody reaction works like a lock and key mechanism. Antibodies themselves do not
destroy antigens. They inactivate and tag antigens for destruction by phagocytes.
All antibodies form an antigen-antibody (immune) complex When they combine with antigens.
Figure 13.2: Formation of an antigen-antibody complex

Each antigen stimulates the production of a specific antibody. All antibodies are Y-shaped. They however,
differ at the antigen binding site. Each antibody has a site complementary to a certain antigen. This means
that each antibody can only bind to a specific antigen.
In response to the antigen, the antibody wraps its two sites like a ‘lock’ around the ‘key’ of the antigen sites
to destroy it. An antibody's mode of action varies with different types of antigens. With its two-armed Y-
shaped structure, the antibody can attack two antigens at the same time with each arm.
Defensive mechanisms used by antibodies are neutralisation, agglutination, precipitation and plasma
complement system.
i) Neutralisation – antibodies bind to and block specific sites on antigens; viruses and bacteria. This
prevents antigens from binding to sites called receptors on tissue cells. They are later destroyed by
phagocytes, for instance, if the antigen is a toxin produced by pathogenic bacteria that cause an infection
like diphtheria or tetanus, the binding process of the antibody will neutalise the antigen's toxin.
ii) Agglutination – antibodies bind the same determinant on more than one antigen. An example is when
an antibody surrounds a virus, such as one that causes influenza, it prevents it from entering other body
cells.
iii) Precipitation – soluble molecules are cross-linked into large insoluble complex. After which they fall
out of solution, and are phagocytised.
iv) Plasma complement system- The antibodies coat infectious bacteria and then white blood cells will
complete the job by engulfing the bacteria, destroying them, and then removing them from the body.
Page 95 of 132
Figure 13.3: Defensive mechanisms used by antibodies
13.3 Immune response

Immune response refers to the process by which the body recognises and defends itself against bacteria, viruses
and substances that appear foreign and harmful. The immune system is a collection of cells, tissues and
molecules that protect the body from numerous pathogens and toxins in our environment.
This defense against microbes has been divided into two general types of reactions:
• Reactions of innate immunity
• Reactions of adaptive immunity.
a) Innate immunity
Innate immunity also called nonspecific immunity is the body defense system that one is born with. It
protects against all antigens Innate immunity involves barriers that keep harmful materials from entering
your body. It consists of cells and proteins that are always present and ready to fight microbes at the site of
infection.
The main components of the innate immune system are:
v. Physical epithelial barriers
vi. Phagocytic leukocytes
vii. Dendritic cells
viii. A special type of white blood cells called a natural killer (NK) cell
ix. Circulating plasma proteins
Page 96 of 132
Innate immunity includes the components of the body’s first line of defence. These are enzymes in tears and
skin oils, mucus, skin and acid in the stomach. If an antigen gets past these barriers, it is attacked and destroyed
by other parts of the immune system.
b) Adaptive immunity
Adaptive immune system also known as acquired immunity is immunity that develops after exposure to
various antigens. The immune system builds a defense against that specific antigen. Components of the
adaptive immune system are normally silent; however, when activated, these components “adapt” to the
presence of infectious agents by creating mechanisms for neutralising or eliminating the microbes.
The immune system includes certain types of white blood cells, for example, lymphocytes. There are B and
T type lymphocytes.
• B lymphocytes are cells that produce antibodies. Antibodies attach to a specific antigen and present it
to other immune cells for destruction.
• T lymphocytes are cells that attack antigens directly and help control the immune response.
During growth and development of white blood cells, they always learn to differentiate between individuals
own body tissues and foreign substances. Once B cells and T cells are formed, a few of those cells will multiply
and provide "memory" for the immune system. This allows the immune system to respond faster and more
efficiently the next time an individual is exposed to the same antigen. In many cases it will prevent you from
getting sick, for example, a person who has had measles or has been immunised against measles is immune
from getting it again.
Active immunity
This is the immunity that results from the production of antibodies by the immune system in response to the
presence of an antigen. Active immunity is either natural or artificial.
• Naturally acquired active immunity occurs when a person is exposed to a live pathogen. The individual
develops the disease, and becomes immune as a result of the primary immune response.
• Artificially acquired active immunity can be induced by a vaccine, a substance that contains alternated
form of the antigen. A vaccine stimulates a primary response against the antigen without causing
symptoms of the disease.
Passive immunity
This is a short-term immunity that results from the introduction of antibodies from another person or animal.
Passive immunity is either artificial or natural.
 Artificially acquired passive immunity is a short-term immunisation. It is achieved by the injection
of antibodies that are not produced by the recipient's cells.
• Naturally acquired passive immunity occurs during pregnancy, in which certain antibodies are
passed from the maternal body into the foetal bloodstream.
Page 97 of 132
Figure 13.4: types of immunity
 Boosting your immunity

Every part of your body, including your immune system, functions better when protected from harmful
foods, harmful habits and encouraged by healthy living strategies such as these:
 Do not smoke.
 Eat diet high in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, and low in saturated fat.
 Exercise regularly.
 Maintain a healthy weight.
 Control your blood pressure.
 If you drink alcohol, drink in moderation (on for people with age above 18 years).
 Get adequate sleep.
 Avoid infections by washing your hands frequently and cooking meats thoroughly.
13.4 Importance of breastfeeding infants

Infants have passive immunity because they are born with antibodies that are transferred through the
placenta from their mothers. These antibodies lasts for a few weeks after birth. They also get some
antibodies from the mother’s breast milk. Colostrum is the milk produced by new mothers that is very rich
Page 98 of 132
in nutrients and antibodies. These antiodies protect against bacterial infections, until the newborn can
synthesise its own antibodies. Maternal antibodies protect against some diseases more than other artificial
antibodies. Maternal passive immunity offers immediate protection which lasts four to six months after birth.
For this reason, breastfeeding a baby for at least one thousand days after birth is very important.
13.5 Immunisation and autoimmunity
Immunisation (vaccination) is the process whereby a person is made immune or resistant to an infectious
disease, typically by the administration of a vaccine. Small amounts of an antigen, such as dead viruses, are
given to activate immune system "memory". Memory allows your body to react quickly and efficiently to
future exposure. Such small doses of antigens are referred to as vaccines (a vaccine is a substance used to
stimulate the production of antibodies and provide immunity against one or several diseases, prepared from
the causative agent of a disease, its products, or a synthetic substitute, treated to act as an antigen without
inducing the disease).
Figure 13.5: a child being vaccinated
Autoimmunity is a condition whereby the immune system attacks and kills own cell. The immune system
normally guards against germs like bacteria and viruses. When the immune system cells start to mistakenly
attack and destroy the body’s healthy tissue just as if it were a foreign invader, like bacterim or virus, is called
autoimmune response. An autoimmune disease is a condition in which your immune system mistakenly
attacks your body.
Complications from altered immune responses include:
i. Allergy or hypersensitivity
ii. Autoimmune disorders
iii. Immunodeficiency disorders
iv. Serum sickness
v. Transplant rejection
Type 1 diabetes
Type 1 diabetes was initially known as juvenile diabetes or insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. It is a chronic
condition in which the pancreas produces little or no insulin. Insulin is a hormone needed to enable sugar
(glucose) to enter cells to produce energy.
Causes
The exact cause of type 1 diabetes is unknown. Usually, the body's own immune system which normally
fights harmful bacteria and viruses mistakenly destroys the insulin-producing cells (beta cells in islets of
Page 99 of 132
Langerhans) in the pancreas. Other possible causes include: genetics and exposure to viruses and other
environmental factors.
Type 1 diabetes signs and symptoms can appear relatively suddenly and may include:
 Increased thirst
 Frequent urination
 Bed-wetting in children who previously didn't wet the bed during the night
 Extreme hunger
 Unintended weight loss
 Irritability and other mood changes
 Fatigue and weakness
 Blurred vision

1. Mention “True” or “False”.
i. Antigens are present on the surface of the pathogens.
ii. Phagocytes are cells that protect the body by ingesting harmful foreign particles, bacteria, and
dead or dying cells.
iii. Acquired immunity is inherited by the organisms from the parents.
iv. Active immunisation may also be due to injection of antiserum.
v. Vaccines help prevent infectious.
2. Define the following terms.
a. Pathogen
b. Antibody
c. Active immunity
d. Memory cells
3. Which one of the following is not a classification of the antibodies:
a. Antitoxins
b. Antigen
c. Lysins
d. Agglutins
4. Match the following correctly.
Class of antibody Function
Antitoxins To prevent infection through administration of an antigenic material.
Pathogens They neutralise the toxins produced by microorganisms.
Opsonins They attach themselves to pathogens making it easier for phagocytes to
engulf them.
5. What is vaccination?
6. a. List two types of immune systems.
b.Discuss each type of immune system you have mentioned in (a) above.
7. Explain the different ways in which you can boost your immunity.
8. Describe the importance of breastfeeding.
Page 100 of 132

UNITY 14: SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR AND SEXUAL RESPONSE
14.1 Introduction
Sexual behaviour refers to the way in which people experience and express their sexuality. Sexuality refers
to a person’s sexual orientation or preference and the capacity of having sexual feelings. Sexual response
refers to the physical and emotional changes that occur as a person becomes sexually aroused and
participates in sexually stimulating activities.
14.2 Male and female sexual response
The human sexual response is a series of changes that take place in the body in response to sexual
stimulation. These changes take a different form in men and women. Sexual response occurs when there is
sexual stimulation (any stimulus whether physical or mental that leads to sexual arousal) such as through
touch, looking, smelling or thoughts.
Sexual responses in male
• There is an erection: the penis becomes large and hard.
• There is an increase in the size of the testes.
• The nipples may become hard.
• The heart beat is faster and breathing rate increases.
• The muscles contract.
Female sexual responses
• There is a nice and warm feeling all over the body.
• The hart beat and breathing rate increases.
• The pupils become bigger.
• The breasts become larger and nipples get hard.
• The vagina becomes lubricated.
• The clitoris sweels slightly and hardens.
• The muscles in the vagina contract.
These changes take a different form in men and women. The stages are in four phases as below.
i. Excitement phase
ii. Plateau phase
iii. Orgasmic phase
iv. Resolution phase
1. Excitement phase
Excitement is the initial stage of stimulation that gets the body ready for sex. The stimulation may be due to
kissing, seeing an attractive person or soft touches. This stage is accompanied by a rise in heart rate,
breathing rate and blood pressure. The phase can last for a few minutes to several hours.
2. Plateau phase
This is a phase that prepares both man and woman for orgasm. It is characterised by increased heartbeat,
muscle tension and blood pressure.
Page 101 of 132

3. Orgasmic phase
The orgasm is the climax (peak) of the sexual pleasure which occurs during sexual activity and which
In males may include ejaculation and in females vaginal contractions. It is the shortest of the phases and
generally lasts only a few seconds. General characteristics of this phase include: Blood pressure, heart rate
and breathing which are at their highest rates, accompanied by a rapid intake of oxygen. This phase is
accompanied with sexual pleasure and satisfaction with release of sexual tension.
4. Resolution phase
During resolution, the body slowly returns to its normal level of functioning. This phase is marked by a general
sense of well-being, enhanced intimacy and, often, fatigue.
Puberty in boys and girls

Puberty is a period during which adolescents reach sexual maturity and become capable of reproduction.
Numerous changes take place both in males and females at this stage. Puberty comes as a result of hormones
that originate from the gonads: testicles in men and ovaries in females.
The greatest challenge is increase in sexual desire in both females and males. These challenges include
unwanted pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases. Normally there is no big physical difference
between males and females before puberty apart from the sexual organs.
Puberty in boys
Puberty in males takes place between the ages of 11 and 13 on average. When a boy reaches puberty at an
early stage, he may have benefits. The benefits include popularity with his fellow peers because of being tall
and therefore a leader. Late onset of puberty can lead to low self-esteem in males and such may also face
problems of anxiety and fear. Sexual desire is at its peak. Boys start dating girls at this stage. This is a critical
time where boys need guidance and counseling because most of them face problems; associated with increased
body activity and sexual desire. The problems faced at this stage include:
• Abuse of drugs and alcohol
• Lack of respect for authority
• Fighting among peer groups
• Parental hatred
• Poor hygiene and general body cleanliness.
Puberty in girls
On average, girls begin puberty at an early age of about 10-11years. Puberty in girls occurs fast as compared
to boys. Menstruation in girls is a characteristic that shows the onset of puberty. This is brought about by the
growth and development of the ovaries.
Early onset of puberty in girls is detrimental, causing low self-esteem and stress. This is due to breast
enlargement and a lot of fat deposition on the body that causes different body shapes between the girl and her
peers. Early onset is caused by a number of factors which include diet and environmental exposure.
Puberty in girls is more challenging to parents. Girls tend to become more private and sensitive emotionally.
Parents should therefore be more careful. Social behaviours of girls also tend to change. Girls become more
attracted to males than females. The main challenge that girls face during puberty is unwanted pregnancies.
Other challenges include rejection from peers, clothes to wear and physical appearance.
Page 102 of 132

Figure 14.1: Peer pressure may lead to bad behaviours

14.3 People and sexual relationships
Different people might use different ways of showing love and affection. By expressing love we bring joy to
ourselves with knowledge that love is not a one even affair but an ongoing free flowing experience that ends
up enriching lives. The following are different ways in which couples can show love and affection without
getting involved in sexual activity:
a. Express gratitude: this should be done by telling someone that you appreciate their presence in your
life.
b. Give a listening ear to your loved one.
c. Send flowers with only a few words appreciating your friend.
d. Offer acts of kindness.
e. Treat each other with love and respect.
f. Be honest to each other.
g. Make time to be together for events that bring pleasure to both of you.
h. Be forgiving. When you make mistakes ask for forgiveness from each other because it helps in
healing.
i. Respect each other’s emotional, physical and sexual limits.
Sexual problems and disappointment
Sexual problems (or sexual dysfunction) are the problems that prevent people from attaining satisfaction
from sexual activities. They usually lead to disappointment between sexual partners.
The following are examples of sexual problems and disappointment:
In males
a) Premature ejaculation: This is when a male partener ejaculates before or immediately after
penetration. Some of the causes may be lack of physical attraction to partener, traumatic experience and
use of certain drugs such as antidepressants.
b) Impotence: This is the inability to produce or maintain an erection. Impotence occurs as a result of
fear, anxiety, disease such as diabetes and drug abuse.
c) Inflammation: Blockage of the urethra occurs as a result of an infection or due to swelling of the
prostrate gland.
In females
a) Vaginal discharges: This is any abnormal discharge from the vagina. It can be a white discharge with
irritating smell especially after sexual intercourse.
Page 103 of 132

b) Functional disorders: This is the inability of a woman to experience sexual pleasure and satisfaction. This
results from emotional problems, feeling of guilt and trauma.
c) Difficulties getting aroused: this is one of the major problems experienced by women. Some women do not
get aroused easily during sexual stimulation. This may be caused by stress, anxiety or sex trauma.
Sexuality, age and culture
Sexual behaviours are based on the morals and values of the particular society. These norms help to govern
the sexual behaviours of individuals in a society. These norms are passed across people in a society by
family members, teachers in schools, religious leaders, peers and the media.
The following sexual behaviours are unacceptable in the rwandan culture:
i) Incest: This is the act of having sex with a close relative.
ii) Homosexuality: This is where people of the same sex are engaged in a sexual relationship.
iii)Masturbation: The act of selfstimulation that leads to sexual satisfaction.
iv) Anal sexual intercourse: This is a type of sexual activity in which the penis is inserted into the anus.
v) Rape: The act of forcing some one into sexual intercourse without consent.
vi) Adultery: Having sex outside wedlock.
vii) Fornication: Engaging in sex before marriage.
viii) Sex slavery: The act of taking advantage of vulnerable individuals in a forced commercial sex.
ix) Prostitution: Engaging in sexual relationships for financial gains.
Ageing is process of growing old. The ageing process does not reduce the need or desire for sex. For many
older adults, the concept of sexuality includes practices such as kissing, hugging and fondling. Such activity
may replace actual intercourse and becomes increasingly important for those who no longer desire or are in
capable of sexual intercourse.
Ageing in men
In an ageing male, the most common sexual dysfunction is erectile dysfunction. This can be due to hormonal
changes as part of normal ageing or due to underlying conditions such as diseases. Testosterone hormones
which increase sexual urge in men decline with age.
Ageing in women
The most common sexual dysfunction in women, is lack of desire and arousal. This is due to decrease in
hormones, which begins at menopause and continue as women age. This decrease in hormones may also
produce reduced muscles, loss of bone mass and declining energy. Sexually, it may result in vaginal dryness,
decreased libido, and decreased ability to achieve orgasm.
14.4 Violation of sexual human rights

Sexual rights are basic human rights. But, they are denied daily to people through violence, abuse and
coercion (act of using pressure, alcohol or drugs, or force to have sexual contact with someone against his or
her will), and through criminalisation and descrimination. Sexual harassment is any form of unwanted,
unwelcome or uninvited sexual behaviour, which is or might be offensive, humiliating, intimidating or
embarrassing.
The following are sexual human rights:
Page 104 of 132

1. Every person who occupies accommodation has a right to freedom from harassment because of sex,
sexual orientation, gender identity or gender expression by the landlord or agent of the landlord or by
an occupant of the same building.
2. Every person who is an employee has a right to freedom from harassment in the work place because
of sex, sexual orientation, gender identity or gender expression by his or her employer or agent of the
employer or by another employee.
3. Every person has a right to be free from a sexual solicitation or advance made by a person in a
position to confer, grant or deny a benefit or advancement.
Ways in which human sexual rights are violated
1. Rape: penetration of the vagina or anus with the penis, other body part or foreign object without
consent (willingnes). It also includes forced oral sex.
2. Human trafficking for sexual exploitation: this is where people are kidnapped and sold to other
people for sexual exploitation. Sex trafficking or slavely is the exploitation of women and children,
within national or across international borders, for the purposes of forced sex work. Commercial
sexual exploitation includes pornography, prostitution and sex trafficking of women and girls, and is
characterized by the exploitation of a human being in exchange for goods or money.
3. Marriage /de facto rape: de facto refers to something that exist in fact, although perhaps not
intended, legal or accepted. Marriage rape occurs when one intimate partner pressures or forces the
other partner into having sex. This is rape, even though the person is a spouse or regular sexual
partner.
4. Child sexual assault: is any act of a sexual nature towards a child by someone older than the child or
in a position of power.
5. Incest: is sexual assault by a family member. This may be a parent, sibling, step-parent, uncle or any
other family member. Incest is a taboo in rwandan culture.

a. During sexual excitement, muscle tention............................. (increases/decreases)
b. Sexual excitement is the ................... phase of sexual response. (first/second)
c. An average age of boys to attein puberty is .......................... (12/20)
d. Female’s body lubricates when she becomes ....................... (frustrated/excited)
e. ............... is the act of pressurizing someone to have sex without his/her will.
(coercion/trafficking)
2. What are the changes experienced by a girl during puberty?
3. Identify male and female sexual responses.
4. Explain how couples can show love and affection to one another without engaging in sexual
activities.
5. Discuss how age and culture influence the sexuality of an individual.
6. What do you understand by human trafficking?
Page 105 of 132

UNIT 15: PREGNANCY PREVENTION

15.1 Intoduction
There are many options available for preventing pregnancy, each with its own set of advantages and
disadvantages. Couples who are sexually active and do not want to get pregnant, can explore the range of
contraceptive choices available.
Contraceptives
Contraceptives are the things that are used to prevent occurrence of pregnancies.
Common myths about contraceptives
i. Birth control pills make women gain weight and can cause cancer.
ii. The birth control pill has to be taken at the same time every day.
iii. Mothers who breast feed do not need to be on birth control pill.
iv. Being on the pill for a long time makes it harder to get pregnant later.
v. Newer forms of birth control methods are not as safe as the older ones.
Vi. Intra uterine device (IUD) should be used by women who already have children.
vii. It is unhealthy to use birth control to skip your period.
viii. A girl cannot get pregnant when she has sex for the first time.
15.2 Natural contraceptives methods

Natural contraceptive methods are methods that do not involve the use of human made techniques or
medecines to prevent unwanted pregnancy.
Types of natural contraception
a) Abstinence
Sexual abstinence is the avoidance of vaginal intercourse.
Advantages of abstinence
a) Minimal risk of misuse.
b) Prevents transmission of STIs including HIV and AIDS.
c) No physical side effects.
d) No need to visit a health care provider.
e) No cost involved .
There are no disadvantages of abstinence so long as a couple is able to maintain a fulfilling relationship
without the need for penetrative sex.
b) actation Amenorrhea Method ( LAM )
LAM is used by a mother who has just given birth and is exclusively breastfeeding. This method is highly
effective for the first six months after childbirth. The mother has to breastfeed the baby at least every four
hours during the day and every six hours through the night. She also has to be aware of her menstrual period.
After six months fertility may return at any time.
c) Temperature method
Temperature method is also known as the basal body temperature method. It is a type of natural family
planning where a woman measures her basal body temperature: temperature when fully at rest especially after
waking up. It is believed that ovulation may cause a slight increase in basal body temperature. Elevated waking
temperature for three days in a row is considered confirmation of the post-ovulatory less fertile phase.
Page 106 of 132

d) Calendar method
Calendar-based methods are various methods of estimating a woman's likelihood of fertility, based on a
record of the length of previous menstrual cycles. Calendar based contraceptive methods prevent
pregnancy by monitoring the fertile periods during the menstrual cycle. To use this method a woman
monitors the length of her menstrual cycle for a period of six months to establish how many days her cycle
usually lasts for.
Figure 15.1: a period calendar

Cycle beads are color-coded strings of beads that represents the days of a woman's menstruation cycle. Cycle
beads are most effective for women with menstrual cycles that are regularly between 26 and 32 days long.
Page 107 of 132

Figure 15.2: how to use a cycle bead

e) The Billings ovulation method
This is a natural method of fertility management. It enables a woman to recognise her body's natural signal
of fertility through production of cervical mucus. The cervix produces different types of mucus in
response to changing hormone levels. Once a woman is familiar with these changes they are able to
identify their patterns of fertility and infertility in their cycle.
Figure 15.3: the Billings method planning calendar

Page 108 of 132
Advantages
It allows a woman to understand her fertile and infertile days and helps to safeguard the woman’s
reproductive health.
Disadvantages
It is not an effective method since the body system can fail.
Advantages of natural contraception
a) Effective method of birth control.
b) Have no negative health side effects.
c) An alternative for women who cannot or do not want to use hormonal methods.
d) Promotes positive body awareness.
e) Consistent with many religious beliefs and lifestyles.
f) Alerts women to reproductive health and fertility concerns.
g) Fosters communication between partners and encourages male involvement.
Disadvantages of natural contraception
a) Provides no protection from sexually transmitted infections.
b) Often difficult to find trained instructors.
c) Requires time to learn (usually 3 to 6 cycles).
d) Requires discipline and commitment to chart fertility signs and follow the rules to avoid pregnancy.
e) Times of abstinence from intercourse may be a challenge for some couples
15.3 Artificial birth control
Artificial birth control is any product, procedure or practice that uses artificial means to prevent pregnancy.
Barrier methods such as condoms and diaphragms, hormonal methods such as the pill and, and surgical
sterilisation procedures such as vasectomy or hysterectomy are all artificial birth control methods. Most
types of artificial contraceptives work by:
• Preventing an egg from being released every month (hormones).
• Preventing sperms from reaching the egg (barrier and some IUD methods).
• Blocking the reproductive function in men or women (sterilisation).
• Preventing a fertilised egg from implanting in the uterus (hormones).
Barrier methods
a) The male condom
This is a thin rubber sheath worn by a man over an erect penis. It collects semen at its tip so that they are
not released into the vagina. Condoms are usually made of latex. It is the most used contraceptive.
Page 109 of 132

Figure 15.4: how to use a male condom

Advantages
(i) It is easy to use.
(ii)Affordable
(iii) It offers the protection against sexually transmitted infections.
(iv) It can be bought over the counter without prescription from a doctor.
Disadvantages
(i) A new condom is required every time one engages in sex.
(ii) If used improperly it can bust, this could lead to unwanted pregnancy or transmission of STIs.
b) The female condom

This is a loose rubber fitting with two flexible plastic rings on either ends. It is inserted into the vagina
before sexual intercourse. It offers 95% effective protection against pregnancy, as well as some protection
against STIs. Female condoms are generally more expensive than the male ones but they are less likely to
burst. They can be inserted up to eight hours before sex.
Page 110 of 132

Figure 15.5: how to use a female condom
c) Spermicide
Spermicide is a birth control method that contains
chemicals that stop sperms from fertilising the ova.
Spermicides are available in different forms, including
creams, film, foams and gels. Spermicide can be used
alone, or it can be used with other birth control methods
such as diaphragm, to make them more effective.
Spermicide does not always offer the best protection
against pregnancy. It has very few associated side-
effects, but it does not protect against STIs.
Figure 15.6: spermicide

d) The diaphragm
This is a rubber cap inserted into the vagina to cover the cervix. It prevents sperms from entering the uterus.
Diaphragm should be used together with spermicides which kill the sperms. It is inserted at least six hours
before sex and it needs to be removed after 24 hours for cleaning. Depending on the material and type of the
diaphragm, it can be reused many times.
The diaphragm does not protect against STIs and a doctor is needed to direct on how it should be used.
Page 111 of 132

Figure 15.7: how to use the diaphragm

Hormonal based contraceptives
This is the use of a mixture of artificial hormones resembling oestrogen and progesterone. They are
administered in three ways:
• Orally (oral contraceptives)
• Through injections
• Administration of implants
a) The Pill
It is the most popular form of female
contraception. It is taken orally in form of
a tablet, every day at almost the same
time. The contraceptive pill will prevent
pregnancy 95%.
It comes close to providing 99%
protection if one pill is taken every day as
prescribed. The pill does not provide any
protection against STIs and a doctor's
prescription is required to buy it.
Figure: Microgynon, a contraceptive pill

b) Contraceptive Injections
This is an injection that contains artificial progesterone (progestin). One shot of hormones lasts in the body
for 8 to 12 weeks (3 months) and has the same effect as the pill.
Page 112 of 132

Injections are about 99% effective. It fails if the

user forgets to renew the contraceptive shot in
time. However, once the shot is given, it cannot
be reversed. One becomes effectively infertile
for the next three months. Just like the pill,
contraceptive injections do not protect against
STIs.
Figure 15.8: contraceptive injection

c) The contraceptive implant
The implant offers long term protection. It lasts for about three years on average. The contraceptive implant
contains progestin (progesterone), the same hormone as the contraceptive pill. The hormone is released into
the body at a steady, slow pace for three years, producing the same effects as the pill.
The implant is inserted in the arm by
a doctor and must be removed after
three years. Since the risk of human
mistake is ruled out, the implant has a
much higher effectiveness rate than
the pill around 99.99%. The implant
does not protect against STIs.
Figure 15.9: implant

d) The vaginal ring
The vaginal contraceptive ring is a small, transparent plastic ring that is inserted in the vagina and kept for
three weeks. It is removed during monthly periods and replaced with a new one after that.
The ring contains the same hormones as the contraceptive pill (progesterone and oestrogen), therefore
providing the same kind of effective protection. A doctor's prescription is required and just like other hormonal
contraception, the vaginal ring does not protect from STIs.
Figure 15.9: the vaginal ring

Page 113 of 132
e) The contraceptive patch
The contraceptive patch is exactly the same

thing as the contraceptive pill but in the form of
a patch. It provides the same effective
protection against pregnancy. It does not
protect from STIs. There is however a risk of
skin irritation, and a (rare) chance that the patch
accidentally comes off.
Fiure 15.10: a contraceptive patch on the skin
f) Emergency contraception
Emergency contraception assists to stop pregnancy in

cases of eventualities such as rape or unprotected sex.
This method is for one-off occasions and is not
recommended for daily use. After 72 hours (3 days) the
effectiveness drops to below 50%.
Figure 15.11: emergency contraceptive

Non – hormonal based contraception methods
a) The Intrauterine Device (IUD)
An intrauterine device (IUD or coil) is a small

contraceptive device, often 'T'shaped. It often
contains either copper or hormones. It is inserted
into the uterus. It offers long-acting reversible
contraception. Therefore it is the most effective
type of reversible birth control. It is kept inside
the vagina for up to five or ten years.
Figure 15.12: IUD inserted into the uterus
Page 114 of 132

The effectiveness rate for IUDs is above 99%. However, it provides no protection against STIs. It requires a
doctor to properly insert it and to make periodic follow ups.
b) Permanent contraception methods

Sterilisation
Sterilisation is a procedure that closes or blocks fallopian tubes in women and sperm duct in men. This
prevents movement of the ova and sperm respectively. Sterilisation is an option available to both men and
women.
i) Vasectomy
This involves tying off and cutting the tubes that carry sperms; the vas deferens. It provides no protection
against STIs and the effects are permanent. In very rare cases (less than 1%), the tubes can grow back, making
pregnancy a risk.
Figure
15.13: Vasectomy
ii) Tubal ligation

Tubal ligation is a surgical procedure for female sterilization in which the fallopian tubes are
permanently blocked or removed.
• Surgical sterilisation: This involves cutting and tying the fallopian tubes so that they cannot link the
ovaries with the uterus any more. The effects are permanent.
Page 115 of 132

Figure 15.14: Tubal ligation (Surgical sterilisation)
• Non-surgical sterilisation: This involves placing a coil in each fallopian tube through the vagina and
uterus. Scars appear and eventually block each tube completely. The scars may take up to 3 months to
completely block the tubes, so you need to use another method of contraception in the meantime.
Figure 15.15: Tubal ligation (non-surgical sterilisation)
Both options also offer more than 99% of protection against pregnancy. In rare cases the blocked tubes can
grow back and reconnect. However the method offers no protection against STIs.
15.5 Abortion
Abortion is the deliberate process of prematurely terminating a pregnancy usually before the embryo or foetus
is capable of independent life. Depending on the number of weeks it has, a pregnancy can be terminated either
by taking medication or through a surgical procedure.
The following are some of the reasons why a woman might decide to have an abortion:
• Personal circumstances including risk to the wellbeing of existing children.
• Health risk to the mother.
• A high chance that the baby will have a serious abnormality either genetic or physical.
15.6 Menopause
This is a term used to describe that state when a woman stops having monthly periods and is no longer able
to get pregnant naturally. Monthly periods become less frequent over a few months or years before they stop
altogether. In some women they stop abruptly.
Page 116 of 132

Most women will experience menopausal symptoms. Some of these can be quite severe and have a significant
impact on a woman’s everyday activities. Common symptoms include:
a. Hot flushes
b. Night sweats
c. Vaginal dryness and discomfort during sex
d. Difficulty in sleeping
e. Low mood or anxiety
f. Reduced sex drive (libido).
g. Problems with memory and concentration
Menopausal symptoms can begin months or even years before the periods stop. They can last around four
years after the last period, although some women experience them for much longer.
15.7 Family planning

Family planning is the practice of controlling the number of children one has and the intervals between their
births, particularly by means of contraception or voluntary sterilization.
Benefits of child spacing

”child spacing” is a term that is often used as part of family planning. It means figuring out when you want
to have your first baby, and then knowing how long you should wait to have your next.
These are the benefits of child spacing:
Benefits for a mother are that she:
 Is able to breastfeed longer (this reduces the risk of breast and ovarian cancer)
 Is at a lower risk of dying from complications during pregnancy and childbirth
 Gets more time to take care of the baby
 Gets more time to be physically, emotionally, and financially prepared for her next pregnancy
 Is at a lesser risk of miscarriage, stillbirth (when a woman gives birth to a dead infant), preterm delivery
and low birth weight baby
 Has more time for herself, her children, husband, and can participate in educational, economic and
social activities
Benefits for children are that they:
 Are more likely to be born strong and healthy
 Get more attention and care from their parents
 May be breastfed for a longer period of time, which allows them to reap the benefits of breastfeeding,
including:
— better nutrition
— protection from childhood diseases
— attention from the mother
Benefits for the father are that he:
 May feel an increased sense of satisfaction from safeguarding the health and well-being of his wife and
children
 Has more time between births, allowing him time to plan finances before the next child
 Has more time for his wife which will contribute to a better relationship
Benefits for the entire family are that:
 The needs of every family member are met. Everyone in the family is provided with food, clothing,
housing, and education.
Benefits for family finances are that:
Family planning contributes to financial security because a smaller, well-spaced family:
 Helps families spend less money and build up savings over time
Page 117 of 132
 Makes education for the children more affordable, and better educated children can then take better
care of their parents later in life
 Reduces maternal and child illnesses, allowing money that would otherwise be used on their
treatments to be used for constructive purposes. Morevoer, if the mother is healthy, she can participate
in economic activites

1. Fill in the blanks
a. ................ methods of birth control use hormones to regulate or stop ovulation and prevent
gregnancy. (hormonal/barrier).
b. ................ indicate fertile and non-fertile days of a cycle. (Billing methods/cycle beards)
c. Peak is the ............... day of the slippery sensation at vulva. (first/last)
d. Producing milk is called ................... (lactating/amenorrhoea)
e. Oral contraceptive pill is taken ............... to keep the ovaries from releasing an egg. (weekly/daily)
f. ................... hormone works by stopping the release of an egg by the ovary.
(pituitary/progesterone).
g. IUD is an example of ............... based contraceptive methods. (non-hormonal/hormonal).
2. Tick a correct answer

I. Spermicide is an example of
a. Barrier method c. Hormonal method
b. Permanent method d. Non-hormonal method
II. This is an example of natural contraceptive method.
a. Calendar c. Lactation amenorrhoea
b. Billing d. All of these
III. These kill the sperm before before they are able to swim into the uterus.
a. Spermicides c. Male condoms
b. Female condoms d. None of these
IV. In this contaceptive method, the fallopian tubes are cut, sealed or blocked.
a. Vasectomy c. Both (a) and (b)
b. Tubal ligation d. All of these
V. An abortion which occurs spontaneously is also known as
a. Menstruation c. Menopause
b. Miscariage d. spontaneous
3. Name the various forms of natural contraceptive methods.
4. (a) What is a diaphragm?
(b) State the advantages and disadvantages of using the diaphragm
5. List importance of contraceptive methods.
6. What do you think is the best method of contraception? Why?
7. (a) What is menopause?
(b) Outline the common symptoms of menopause.
8. Discuss the side effects of using IUDs.
9. There has been a significant growth in population of the people in your local area. Campaigns are being
carried out on ways of preventing unwanted pregnancies. Using the knowledge gained, highligh the main
points you will use to sensitise people on pregnancy prevention methods they should use when they are
making their sexual and reproductive decisions.
Page 118 of 132

UNIT 16: REDUCING RISK OF STIs AND HIV

16.1 Transmission of STIs
Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are transmitted by infected persons to health, syphily persons during
unprotected sexual intercourse. Examples of these diseases are chlamdia, gonorrhoealis and, HIV and AIDS.
1 . Chlamydia
Chlamydia is caused by the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis. The disease is spread by oral, vaginal or anal
sex, and also through touch, for example, touching the eyes with a contaminated hand, may lead to
conjunctivitis. Chlamydia can also be passed to the infant during birth.
Signs and symptoms of chlamydia
In males
• Pain when passing out urine.
• White discharge from the penis.
• The testicles may be painful or swollen.
• Swelling of skin around the anus.
In females
• Painful and frequent urination.
• Smelly yellowish and abnormal vaginal discharge.
• Pain in the lower abdomen.
• Swollen skin in the vagina or around the anus.
Treatment
Chlamydia is easily treated using antibiotics.
2. Gonorrhoea (imitezi)
Gonorrhoea is caused by a bacterium called Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Gonorrhoea is transmitted through
sexual contact with the penis, vagina, mouth or anus of an infected partner. Gonorrhoea can also be spread
from mother to baby during childbirth.
Signs and symptoms of gonorrhoea
Some men with gonorrhea may have no symptoms at all. However, men who do have symptoms may have:
• A burning sensation when urinating.
• A white, yellow, or green discharge from the penis.
• Painful or swollen testicles (although this is less common).
Most women with gonorrhea do not have any symptoms. Even when a woman has symptoms, they are often
mild and can be mistaken for a bladder or vaginal infection. Women with gonorrhea are at risk of developing
serious complications from the infection, even if they do not have any symptoms. Symptoms in women can
include:
• Painful or burning sensation when urinating.
• Increased vaginal discharge.
• Vaginal bleeding between periods.
Treatment
Gonorrhea can be treated using antibiotics like penicillin.
Page 119 of 132

3. Syphilis (mburugu)
Syphilis is caused by a bacteria called Treponema pallidum. It is transmitted from person to person by direct
contact with a syphilitic sore, known as a chancre. Chancres occur mainly on the external genitals, vagina,
anus or in the rectum. Chancres also can occur on the lips and in the mouth. Transmission of syphilis occurs
during vaginal, anal or oral sex.
The bacterial infection progresses through several stages.
• In the primary stage, small hard painless sores develop at the site of infection usually the penis and
the vagina.
• The disease enters secondary stage several weeks later characterised by rashes on the skin and mild
fever. These symptoms subside after a few weeks followed by a latent asymptomatic period.
• In the tertiary stage, lesions develop and cause extensive tissue damage that may lead to paralysis,
insanity, blindness and eventually death.
• Treatment
• Antibiotics like penicillin, erythromycin or tetracycline are used to treat syphilis although some
strains can be resistant to certain antibiotics.
16.2 Transmission of HIV (Human immunodeficiency virus) infection
HIV is the virus that causes AIDS (Acquired immune deficiency syndrome). It is mainly transmitted
through:
a. Having unprotected sex (meaning sex without a condom) with someone who has HIV, particularly
unprotected vaginal sex and anal sex.
b. Sharing injecting equipment like needles, syringes or other equipment with someone who has HIV.
c. Infected mother-to-baby during pregnancy, childbirth and breastfeeding
d. Contaminated blood transfusions and organ/tissue transplants (this risk is extremely small because
most countries test blood products for HIV first.)
e. Being bitten by a person with HIV. There is no risk of transmission if the skin is not broken.
f. Deep, open-mouth kissing if both partners have sores or bleeding gums.
g. Contact between broken skin, wounds or mucous membranes and HIV-infected blood or
bloodcontaminated body fluids.
h. Eating food that has been pre-chewed by an HIV-infected person. The only known cases are among
infants.
16.3 Ways of reducing STIs and HIV infection

The following are ways of reducing STIs and HIV infection:
a) Abstinence is the only sure way to prevent STIs.
b) Being faithful to one trusted partner.
c) Using condoms every time when engaging in sexual intercourse. Condoms are not 100% effective at
preventing disease or pregnancy. However, they are extremely effective if used properly.
d. Reduce the number of sexual partners.
e. Avoi d s h ar i ng t owe l s or underclothing.
f. Get a vaccination for hepatitis B.
g. Get tested for HIV.
h. Avoiding alcohol consumption and abuse of drugs. Individuals who are drunk or on drugs often fail
to have safe sex.
Page 120 of 132

16.4 Treatment of STIs and HIV

Treatment of STIs and HIV is based on their causative agents.
1. Bacterial STIs can be cured using antibiotics if treatment begins early enough. Antibiotics, often in a
single dose, can cure many sexually transmitted bacterial and parasitic infections, including gonorrhoea,
syphilis, chlamydia and trichomonasis. Treatment of gonorrhoea and chlamydia is always done at the same
time because the two infections often appear together.
2. Viral STIs cannot be cured, but the symptoms can be managed with medications. For instance there is
a vaccine against hepatitis B, but it will not help if you already have the disease.
HIV cannot be cured but can be managed. A person may choose to visit a voluntary counselling and testing
(VCT) centre to undergo HIV and AIDS counselling. After conselling he or she can make an informed
decision about whether to be tested for HIV or not.
At the VCT centre pre-test and posttest counselling is offered to assist people to learn more about their
status. Counselling involves getting information and learning how to live positively with the virus. This
means learning to accept the fact that one is HIV-infected, seeking emotional support, eating a healthy diet,
learning how to control the amount of stress in our life, making sure there is no re-infection and planning for
the future.
Antiretroviral therapy (ART) is the use of HIV medicines to treat HIV infection. People on ART take a
combination of HIV and AIDS drugs every day. People infected with HIV and AIDS should start ART as
soon as possible. ART cannot cure HIV and AIDS, but helps people infected to live longer and healthier lives.
ART also reduces the risk of HIV and AIDS transmission.
Potential risks of ART include unwanted side effects from HIV and AIDS drug interactions. This includes not
taking drugs every day as required. It could lead to drug resistance and treatment failure.

i. ............. is a serious infection of the genital tract in men and women. (Gonorrhea/Tuberculosis)
ii. Syphilis ................ the risk of HIV infection. (increases/decreases)
iii. HIV virus ............. the specific blood cells. (maintains/destroys)
iv. ............... is the only 100% effective method of preventing sexually transmitted infections (STIs).
(Abstinence/Condoms)
v. ............ is important about sex. (Awareness/Blindness)
vi. Use of ................. and drugs impair rational decision-making. (juice/alcohol)
vii. ART also prevents onward transmission of .............. (HIV/Syphilis)
2. Write symptoms of Chlamydia.
3. How does Syphilis spread?
4. State why abstinence is the most effective protection against HIV and other STIs.
5. Can HIV be transmitted through an insect bite? Why?
6. Explain the importance of voluntary counselling and testing centres.
7. Explain how one can reduce transmission of STIs and HIV.
Page 121 of 132

Glossary
Abiotic - physical factors in the environment that affect living organisms. They include; wind, humidity,
sunlight, soil and atmospheric pressure among others.
Abortion - deliberate physical or chemical termination of human pregnancy.
Aboral - relating to or denoting the side or end that is furthest from the mouth, especially in animals that
lack clear upper and lower sides, such as echinoderms.
Abstinence - act of restraining oneself from doing something; for example, restraining oneself from having
sex.
Active transport - movement of particles against a concentration gradient.
Active site- a region on an enzyme that binds to a protein or other substance during a reaction.
Aerencyma tissue - A spongy tissue with large intercellular air spaces that is found in aquatic plants. It
provides buoyancy and allows the circulation of gases.
Aerosol - a substance enclosed under pressure and able to be released as a fine spray.
Agglutination - the clumping together in suspension of antigen-bearing cells, micro-organisms or particles
in the presence of specific antibodies.
Amenorrhea - absence of menstruation for at least three months
Appendage - a structure that attaches to another part of the body.
Antagonistic muscles - a muscle that opposes the action of another, for example, the biceps and triceps.
Antibody - proteins found in plasma that are responsible for mediation of immunity in body fluids.
Antibiotic - a drug derived from bacteria or fungus and is used to treat bacterial infections.
Anti-retroviral (ARV) - drugs to maximally suppress the HIV virus and stop the progression of HIV
disease.
Antigen - any substance that stimulates response of a specific immune system.
Articulate - meet at a point to form a joint.
Arthritis – a condition that causes pain and inflammation in a joint.
Autoimmune - a condition arising from an abnormal immune response to a normal body part.
Biotic - activities of living organisms that affect an ecosystem.
Bilateral symmetry - symmetrical arrangement of an organism or part of an organism along a central axis.
Bilirubin - a yellow pigment produced from the breakdown of heme in the worn out red blood cell.
Biodiversity - variety and variability of life forms on earth.
Biome - large ecological areas on the earth's surface, with fauna and flora (animals and plants) adapting to
their environment.
Biuret test- a test that uses a reagent (a solution of copper sulfate (CuSO4) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH))
used to determine the presence of peptide bonds in protein.
Bowman’s capsule - the filtration unit of the glomerulus and has tiny slits in which filtrate may pass
through into the nephron.
Bone – a rigid body tissue consisting of cells compressed into hard intercellular material.
Capillarity - the ability of a narrow tube to draw a liquid upwards against the force of gravity.
Carrier protein - a protein that transports specific substance across the cell membrane.
Cartilage - tough elastic tissue.
Catalyst - a substance that causes a chemical reaction to occur but is not itself involved in the reaction.
Cephalothorax – a term referring to the fused head and thorax occurring in many arthropods, particularly
crustaceans and arachnids.
Chaetae - bristles made of chitin that are found on bodies of annelids.
Cholesterol - a fatty substance made in the body and found in certain foods. Some cholesterol are harmful
others are useful to the body.
Carapace - hard structure made of chitin that covers the dorsal part of an animal and protects internal
organs. CD4 cell - white blood cells that play an important role in the immune system.
Page 122 of 132

Cheliserae - a pair of appendages modified to form poison glands or mouthparts.

Chitin - a tough, semitransparent substance that is the main component of the exoskeletons of arthropods.
Concentration gradient - the gradual difference in concentration of a dissolved substance in a solution
between a region of high density and one of lower density.
Contraceptives - a device or drug that prevents pregnancy.
Cortex - the outermost (or superficial) layer of an organ.
Crustaceans - animals that usually have a hard covering, or exoskeleton, and two pairs of antennas, for
example, crabs and lobsters.
Denature - change the original or natural structure.
Destarch - process of eliminating starch from leaves by allowing the plant to use up the starch previously
synthesized.
Deamination - the removal of an amino group from an amino acid or other compound.
Detrivours - an organism (as an earthworm or a fungus) that feeds on dead and decomposing organic
matter.
Detoxification - the metabolic process by which toxins are changed into less toxic or more readily
excretable substances.
Diffusion - the movement of molecules from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration.
DCPIP – (Dichlorophenolindophenol) a reagent used to measure the amount of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) in
fruits and plant material.
Edaphic - Relating to soil, especially as it affects living organisms.
Endocytosis - the transport of solid matter or liquid into a cell by means of a vacuole or vesicle.
Endoskeleton - internal support structure made of bone or cartilage.
Enzyme – substrate complex- i n t e r m e d i a t e f o r m e d w h e n a substrate molecule interacts with the
active site of an enzyme.
Epidermis - protective outermost portion of the skin.
Epidemiology - the study of how often diseases occur in different groups of people and why.
Exoskeleton - external support structure that protects the internal organs.
Exocytosis - is a process by which a cell transports secretory products through the cytoplasm to the plasma
membrane.
Eukaryotic – containing nucleus bound by a nuclear membrane.
Exhalation - the act of breathing out air.
Flaccid - soft, flabby and weak.
Food testing - a process used to check that a food is safe and that it does not contain harmful contaminants.
Flexion - the action of bending, especially the bending of a limb or joint.
Glomerula filtrate - the renal fluid in the blood filtered across the capillaries of the glomerulus.
Haemocoel - a body cavity (as in arthropods or some molluscs) that contains blood or hemolymph and
functions as part of the circulatory system.
Halophytes - A plant that can tolerate a high concentration of salt in the soil.
Homeotherm - an organism that maintains its body temperature at a constant level, usually above that of the
environment, by its metabolic activity.
Host - an organism that harbours a parasitic.
Hydrophytes – aquatic plants.
Hypotonic - solution that has a lower osmotic pressure than another solution.
Hypertonic – a solution where the concentration of solutes is greater outside the cell than inside it.
Immunisation - the process whereby a person is made immune or resistant to an infectious disease,
typically by the administration of a vaccine.
Immune response - any reaction by the immune system.
Inhalation - the action of breathing in.
Insulin - a hormone made by the pancreas that allows the body to regulate glucose.
Isotonic - two solutions having the same osmotic pressure across a semipermeable membrane. J
Page 123 of 132

Joint - A point of articulation between two or more bones.

Key and lock mechanism -the hypothesis that helps explain some of the ways that enzymes work.
Lateral line - a visible line along the side of a fish consisting of a series of sense organs that detect pressure
and vibration.
Lesion - injured or diseased structure or part of tissue or organ.
Lignin - an organic substance in plants binding the cells, fibres and vessels which forms wood.
Ligament - a short, flexible, fibrous connective tissue that connects two bones or cartilages or holds together
a joint.
Menopause – a period when a woman stops having periods and is no longer able to get pregnant naturally.
Mesophyte - a plant growing under conditions of well-balanced moisture supply.
Metabolism - all chemical reactions involved in maintaining the living state of the cells and the organism.
Moulting - periodic shedding of the cuticle in arthropods or the outer skin in reptiles.
Millon’s test – a chemical test that detect the presence of proteins in a food sample.
Multicellular - an organism that is made up of many cells.
Muscle - a tissue composed of cells or fibers, the contraction of which produces movement in the body.
Nephrone - the basic structural and functional unit of the kidney.
Notochord - a flexible rod-like structure that exists in bodies of vertebrates at some point in their lives.
Non-reducing sugars –sugars such as sucrose that cannot be oxidized.
Oral - relating to the mouth.
Omnivorous - an animal that eats food from both plants and animals.
Osmosis - the movement of water from a less concentrated solution to a more concentrated solution through
a partially permeable membrane.
Osteoporosis - condition that weakens bones, making them fragile and more likely to break.
Passive - allowing what happens, without active response or resistance.
Pathogen - a parasite that causes disease.
Pedipals segmented appendages attached to the cephalothorax of arachnids.
Pinocytosis the ingestion of liquid into a cell by the budding of small vesicles from the cell membrane.
Pith the soft, spongy tissue in the centre of the stems of most flowering plants, gymnosperms and ferns.
Potometer - a device used for measuring the rate of water uptake of a leafy plant shoot.
Phagocytosis - the process by which a cell engulfs material.
Plastids – are organelles that are the main site of photosynthesis in eukaryotic cells.
Pseudopodia - temporary or semipermanent extension of the cytoplasm, used in locomotion and feeding in
some protozoa.
Pooter - a device used to pick up small invertebrates without harming them.
Poikilotherm - an organism that cannot regulate its body temperature.
Plasmolysis - the contraction of the protoplasm of cells within plants due to the loss of water through
osmosis.
Phloem - part of a vascular bundle that conducts sugars and other metabolic products downward from the
leaves.
Receptor - a protein molecule that receives chemical signals from outside a cell.
Reducing sugars - any sugar such as glucose which is capable of being oxidised.
Respiratory surfaces - a special area that is developed in order to satisfy the requirements for gaseous
exchange in larger organisms.
Septa - walls that divide internal body cavities or chambers.
Sessile – an organism, fixed in one place (immobile).
Selective reabsorption - The absorption of some of the components of the glomerular filtrate back into the
blood as the filtrate flows through the nephrons of the kidney.
Sexual response - is the arousal of sexual desire, during or in anticipation of sexual activity.
Sexuality - the whole way a person goes about expressing himself or herself as a sexual being.
Source – the sites in a plant where net fixation of carbon dioxide occurs.
Page 124 of 132

Sign - evidence of disease as seen by the examining physician.

Sink-the sites in a plant where assimilates are stored or used.
Spermicide – This comprise of creams, gels, foams and other suppositories that prevent sperm from
moving.
Substrate - the substance on which an enzyme acts.
Sutures - a seam like immovable junction between two bones, such as those of the skull.
Synovial - a lubricating fluid secreted by certain membranes, for example, in joints.
Symptoms - evidence of disease perceived by the patient.
Tentacles - a slender, flexible limb or appendage in an animal.
Tendon - A band of tough, fibrous, inelastic tissue that connects a muscle to a bone.
Transpirational pull - a mechanism by which trees draw water through their roots.
Translocation - the movement of materials from leaves to other tissues throughout the plant.
Tracheid - a type of water-conducting cell in the xylem that lacks perforations in the cell wall.
Turgor pressure - the pressure of water against the inside wall of a plant cell.
Ultrafiltration – a process in the kidney in which urea, salt, water and glucose are taken out of the blood.
Urologist - a physician who specialises in diseases of the urinary tract and the male reproductive system.
Vaccine - preparation of weakened form of a pathogen such as killed microbe, altered microbes or derivative
form of pathogens.
Vasectomy - a permanent method of birth control where sperm ducts are cut and the ends are sealed to
prevent sperm from entering the ejaculate.
Vascular bundles - Xylem and phloem tissues.
Vector – an organism that transmits a disease or parasite from one animal or plant to another.
Verigated – having different colours.
Ventilation - the movement of air between the environment and the lungs via inhalation and exhalation.
Vessel element - An elongated, waterconducting cell in xylem.
Wall pressure - pressure exerted by the flow of water through a semipermeable membrane separating two
solutions with different concentrations of solute.
Wilting - loss of turgidity and rigidity that occurs when the rate of water loss is greater than the rate of water
uptake.
Xylem – a vessel in plants that transport water from roots to shoot and leaves, it also transports some
nutrients.
Xerophytes – plants that grow in areas with very little water.
Page 125 of 132

References
1. Godfrey Wasswa, Benson Mugarura, Selah Ndiwa (2018). Biology and Health Sciences for Rwanda
Schools Senior Two. Longhorn publishers limited.
2. https://www.avert.org/hiv-transmission-prevention/how-you-get-
hiv?gclid=EAIaIQobChMIjavPvrjb6AIVB0TTCh0w2AgeEAAYASAAEgKdxPD_BwE
3. https://www.fhi360.org/sites/default/files/media/documents/need-family-planning-handouts.pdf
4. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/family-planning-contraception
5. Juliet Mbogori,V.O.K Muranga, James Magodu (2017). Achievers Biology for Rwandan Schools
senior2. East African Educational Publishers Ltd.
6. Michael Roberts (1986); Biology - A Functional Approach (Fourth Edition); Oxford publishers
7. Nyiramuhire Dancilla, Ugirimbabazi Odax, Wat Tyler and Cary Grant (2017). Comprehensive Biology
and Health Science for Rwanda Schools student’s book 2. Laxmi Publications Pvt.Ltd.
8. www.healthline.com
Page 126 of 132


Untitled

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Untitled

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Untitled

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

BIOLOGY SENIOR TWO 2020

BIOLOGY SENIOR TWO 2020

1.2. General characteristics of animals ...................................................................................................... 1

1.3. Phylum chordata ....................................................................................................................................... 1

1.4 Phylum Arthropoda ..................................................................................................................................... 5

1.5 Other Phyla belonging to Kingdom Animalia .................................................................................... 9

1.6 Need for classification of animals .........................................................................................................10

1.7 End of unit assessment .............................................................................................................................11

UNIT 2: INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL BIOLOGY ...................................................................13

2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................13

2.2 Common terms used in the study of Ecology ..................................................................................13

2.3 Energy flow in ecosystems ......................................................................................................................15

2.4 How energy flows in an Ecosystem .....................................................................................................18

2.5 Calculating energy transfer between trophic levels ......................................................................18

2.6 Ecological pyramids....................................................................................................................................19

2.7 End of unit assessment .............................................................................................................................21

UNIT 3: PASSIVE MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES ACROSS A CELL MEMBRANE .......................23

3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................23

3.2 Diffusion of gases and solutes .................................................................................................................23

3.3 Role of osmosis in plants and animal cells ........................................................................................26

3.4 End of unit assessment .............................................................................................................................28

UNIT 4: ACTIVE TRANSPORT ...........................................................................................................................30

4.2 Importance of active transport .............................................................................................................30

4.3 Factors affecting active transport ........................................................................................................30

4.4 Process of active transport .....................................................................................................................31

4.5 Differences between active and passive transport .........................................................................33

4.6 End of unit assessment .............................................................................................................................33

UNIT 5: IDENTIFICATION OF FOOD COMPONENTS................................................................................35

5.2 Testing for starch and other sugars ....................................................................................................35

5.3 Testing for proteins – Biuret test ....................................................................................................37

5.4 Testing for lipids – Ethanol emulsion test ........................................................................................38

5.5 Testing for vitamin C ................................................................................................................................39

5.6 Food preservation .......................................................................................................................................40

5.7 End of unit assessment .............................................................................................................................40

UNIT 6: ENZYMES .................................................................................................................................................41

6.1. What are enzymes? ...................................................................................................................................41

6.2 Characteristics of enzymes ......................................................................................................................41

6.3 Types of enzymes.....................................................................................................................................41

6.4 Factors affecting enzyme activity .....................................................................................................41

6.5 Mode of action of enzymes......................................................................................................................43

6.6 Importance of enzymes in living organisms ..................................................................................43

6.7 End of unit assessment .............................................................................................................................43

7.3 Limiting factors of photosynthesis ....................................................................................................45

7.4 Adaptations of the leaf for photosynthesis .......................................................................................46

7.5 Importance of photosynthesis.............................................................................................................47

7.6 Mineral requirements in plants .............................................................................................................47

7.7 Uses and dangers of nitrogen and other fertilizers .......................................................................48

7.8 End of unit assessment .............................................................................................................................49

UNIT 8: TRANSPORT OF WATER, MINERAL AND ORGANIC FOODS IN PLANTS ........51

8.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................51

8.2 Transport system in plants .....................................................................................................................51

8.3 Distribution of vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) ......................................................................52

8.4 Water and minerals uptake ....................................................................................................................53

8.5 Source and sink of food products. ........................................................................................................55

8.6 Transpiration ................................................................................................................................................55

8.7 Wilting in plants ..........................................................................................................................................56

8.8 Adaptations of plants to different environmental conditions...................................................57

8.9 Translocation of organic food ................................................................................................................59

8.10 End of unit assessment ..........................................................................................................................59