Biology Textbook Answers Chapter 1 To 4
Biology Textbook Answers Chapter 1 To 4
Biology Textbook Answers Chapter 1 To 4
2. Why are the classification systems changing every now and then?
Soln. From very early days till now biologists use several characters for classification
system. These are morphology, anatomy, cytology, physiology, ontogeny, phylogeny,
reproduction, biochemistry, etc. But day by day biologists are learning something
new about organisms from their fossil records and using” advanced study
techniques such as molecular phylogeny, etc. So their point of view about
classification keeps changing. Thus the system of classification is modified every
now and then.
3. What different criteria would you choose to classify people that you meet often?
Soln. The various criteria that may be chosen to classify people whom we meet
often include behaviour, geographical location, morphology, family members,
relatives, friends etc.
5. Given below is the scientific name of mango. Identify the correctly written name.
Mangifera Indica Mangifera indica
Soln. The correctly written scientific name of mango is Mangifera indica.
8. Try to collect all the currently accepted meanings for the word ‘species’. Discuss with
your teacher the meaning of species in case of higher plants and animals on one hand, and
bacteria on the other hand.
Slon. Species occupies a key position in classification. It is the lowest taxonomic category. It
is a natural population of individuals or group of populations which resemble one another in
all essential morphological and reproductive characters so that they are able to interbreed
freely and produce fertile offsprings. Each species is also called genetically distinct and
reproductively isolated natural population. Mayr (1964) has defined species as “a group of
actually or potentially interbreeding populations that are reproductively isolated from other
such groups”.
In higher plants and animals the term ‘species’ refers to a group of individuals that are able
to interbreed freely and produce fertile offsprings. But, in case of bacteria interbreeding
cannot serve as the best criteria for delimiting species because bacteria usually reproduce
asexually. Conjugation, transformation and transduction, which are termed as sexual
reproduction methods in bacteria, also do not correspond to true interbreeding. Thus, for
bacteria many other characters such as molecular homology, biochemical, physiological,
ecological and morphological characters are taken into consideration while classifying
them.
Similarly, the family Solanaceae contains a number of genera like Solanum, Datura, Petunia
and Nicotiana. They are distinguishable from the genera of the related family
Convolvulaceae (Convolvulus, Ipomoea).
(iv) Order – The category includes one or more related families. E.g., the plant Family
Solanaceae is placed in the Order Polemoniales alongwith four other related families
(Convolvulaceae, Boraginaceae, Hydrophyllaceae and Polemoniaceae). Similarly, the animal
families Felidae and Canidae are included under the Order Carnivora alongwith Hyaenidae
(hyaenas) and Ursidae (bears).
(v) Genus – It is a group or assemblage of related species which resemble one another in
certain correlated characters. Correlated characters are those similar or common features
which are used in delimitation of a taxon above the rank of species. All the species of genus
are presumed to have evolved from a common ancestor. A genus may have a single living
species e.g., Genus Homo. Its species is Homo sapiens – the living or modem man. The
Genus Felis has many species, e.g., F. domestica – common cat, F. chaus (jungle cat) etc.
4.Find out what do the terms ‘algal bloom’ and ‘red tides’ signify.
Soln.The rapid increase in populations of algae and other phytoplanktons, in
particular cyanobacteria, in water bodies rich in organic matter is called algal bloom.
The density of the organisms may be such that it may prevent light from passing to
lower depths in the water body. Algal blooms are caused by an increase in levels of
nitrate, a mineral ion essential for algal and bacterial growth.
The source of increased nitrate may be from agricultural fertilizers, which are
leached – into water systems from the land, or sewage effluent.
Red tides are caused by a sudden, often toxic proliferation of marine phytoplankton,
notably dinoflagellates, that colour the sea red, brown, or yellowish due to the high
concentration of the photosynthetic accessory pigments. Some dinoflagellates, such
as Gonyaulax, produce potent toxins, which may kill fish and invertebrates outright or
accumulate in the food chain, posing a hazard to humans eating shellfish and other
seafood. These phytoplanktonic blooms may be related to nutrient-rich inputs from
the land, or upwelling oceanic waters, and are initiated by the activation of cyst-like
forms lying on the sea bed.
9.Organise a discussion in your class on the topic – ‘Are viruses living or non-living’?
Soln. Viruses are regarded as intermediate between non-living entities and living
organisms. It is very difficult to ascertain whether they are living or non-living. Some .
characters of viruses suggest their non-living nature whereas many other characters
suggest their living nature.
They resemble non-living objects in –
(i) Lacking protoplast.
(ii)Ability to get crystallised.
(iii)Inability to live independent of living cell.
(iv)High specific gravity which is found
.only in non-living objects.
(v)Absence of respiration.
(vi)Absence of energy storing system.
(vii)Absence of growth and division. Instead different parts are synthesized separately.
Viruses resemble living beings in –
(i)Being formed of organic macromolecules which occur only in living beings.
(ii)Presence of genetic material.
(iii)Ability to multiply or reproduce although only inside living cell.
(iv)Occurrence of mutations.
(v) Occurrence of enzyme transcriptase in most viruses.
(vi)Some viruses like Pox virus contains vitamins like riboflavin and biotin.
(vii)Infectivity and host specificity.
(viii)Viruses are ‘killed’ by autoclaving and ultraviolet rays.
(ix)They breed true to their type. Even variations are inheritable.
(x) They take over biosynthetic machinery of the host cell and produce chemicals required
for their multiplication.
(xi)Viruses are responsible for a number of infectious’ diseases like common cold, epidemic
influenza, chicken pox.
11.Give a brief account of viruses with respect to their structure and nature of
genetic material. Also name four common viral diseases.
Soln. Virus (L. poisonous fluid) is a group of ultramicroscopic, non-cellular, highly
infectious agents that multiply only intracellularly- inside the living host cells without
involving growth and division. Outside the host cells, they are inert particles. They are
nucleoproteins having one or more nucleic acid molecule, either DNA or RNA,
encased in a protective coat of protein or lipoprotein. A virus consist of two parts –
nucleoid (genome) and capsid. An envelope and few enzymes are present in some
cases,
(i) Nucleoid : The nucleic acid present in the virus is called nucleoid and it represents
viral chromosome. It is made up of a single molecule of nucleic acid. It may be linear
or circular and nucleic acid can be DNA or RNA. It is the infective part of virus which
utilizes the metabolic machinery of the host cell for synthesis and assembly of viral
components.
(ii)Capsid : It is a protein covering around genetic material. Capsid have protein
subunits called capsomeres. Capsid protects nucleoid from damage from physical
and chemical agents. ,
(iii)Envelope : It is the outer loose covering present in certain viruses like animal
viruses (e.g., HIV) but rarely present in plant and bacterial viruses and made of
protein of viral origin and, lipid and carbohydrate of host. Outgrowths called spikes
may be present. Envelope proteins have subunits called peplomers. A virus without
envelope is naked virus.
(iv)Enzymes : Rarely, lysozymes are found in bacteriophages. Reverse transcriptase
enzyme (catalyses RNA to DNA synthesis) is found in some RNA viruses like HIV.
Some common viral diseases are – influenza, polio, measles, chickenpox, hepatitis,
AIDS, bird flu, SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) etc.
2.When and where does reduction division take place in the life cycle of a liverwort,
a moss, a fern, a gymnosperm and an angiosperm?
soln.All of these plants show life cycle with one gametophytic (n) generation and one
sporophytic (2n) generation. Reduction division or meiosis that produces haploid (n)
cells from diploid cells (2n) is necessary in their life cycles to restore gametophyte
generation after sporophytic generation. It occurs in different body structures
according to the basic body design of these groups. Reduction division in a liverwort
and moss takes place at the end of the sporophytic generation, where haploid spores
are formed by reduction division of spore mother cell inside capsule. Spores
germinate to produce dominant gametophytic generation. Reduction division in fern
takes place at the end of the dominant sporophytic generation inside the
sporangium from spore mother cell by reduction division. Spores may be of one type
(homospory) or of two types (heterospory).
Reduction division in gymnosperms takes place at the end of dominant sporophytic
generation. Megaspore and microspores are produced by the reduction division of
diploid megaspore mother cell and diploid microspore mother cell respectively,
inside megasporangium and microsporangium. Reduction division in angiosperms
takes place at the end of dominant sporophytic generation. The haploid pollen grain
or microspore and the haploid egg cell are produced by the reduction division of
diploid (microspore) mother cell and diploid megaspore mother cell respectively.
Microsporic division occurs inside anther and megasporic division occurs inside
gynoecium (ovary).
3.Name three groups of plants that bear archegonia. Briefly describe the life cycle
of any one of them.
soln. The three groups of plants that bear archegonia are bryophytes, pteridophytes
and gymnosperms.
Life cycle of a bryophyte is as follows : The main plant body of bryophyte is
gametophytic (n), which is independent and may be thallose (no differentiation in
root, stem, leaves) e.g., Riccia, or may be foliose (having leafy axis) e.g., Funaria. The
dominant phase in the life cycle of Funaria is the gametophyte, which occurs in two
stages, the protonema stage and the erect, leafy gametophytic plant.
The leafy gametophyte consists of an upright, slender axis (stem-like) that bears
spirally arranged leaves and is attached to the substratum by multicellular, branched
rhizoids. Vegetative reproduction takes place
by fragmentation; by the buds formed in secondary protonema etc. The sex organs,
antheridia and archegonia are produced in dusters at the apices of the leafy shoots.
Antheridia produces antherozoids and archegonia produces egg. Antherozoid (male
gamete) and egg (female gamete) fuses and form zygote.Zygote develops into a
sporophyte; which is differentiated into foot, seta and capsule and spores are
produced in the capsule.
Spores on reaching a suitable substratum germinate to produce a filamentous
juvenile stage, .called the primary protonema, which later produces secondary
protonema that forms erect leafy plants.
6.Both gymnosperms and angiosperms bear seeds, then why are they classified
separately?
soln.’Gymnosperms and angiosperms both bear seeds but they are classified
separately because gymnosperms are a group of plants in which the ovules are
freely exposed on open megasporophylls, whereas in angiosperms the seeds or
ovules are enclosed within ovary which later forms the fruit.
(v) Sporophyll : It is a type of leaf bearing sporangia. In ferns, the sporophylls are the
normal foliage leaves, but in other plants the sporophylls are modified and arise in
specialised structure such as the strobili of club-moss, gymnosperms and the flower
of angiosperms. In most plants sporophylls are of two types – microsporophylls and
megasporophylls.
(vi)Isogamy: It is a type of sexual reproduction where fusion takes place between
two identical gametes. The gametes are similar in size and structure and they show
equal motility during sexual reproduction, e.g., Spirogyra (algae).
(iv) The differences between syngamy and triple fusion are as follows :
10.How would you distinguish monocots from dicots?
Soln. Differences between monocots and dicots are as follows :
CHAPTER 4 ANIMAL KINGDOM
1.What are the difficulties that you would face in classification of animals, if
common fundamental features are not taken into account?
soln. The common fundamental features used for classifying animals include body
symmetry, arrangement of cells, nature of coelom, level of organisation. Animal
classification would be very confusing if fundamental features are not considered.
(i)Animals having different levels of organisation would have been placed in same
group. E.g., Sponges and Cnidarians having cellular and tissue level of organisation
respectively.
(ii)Animals showing varied types of germinal layers would have been placed
together, as diploblastic cnidarians and triploblastic platyhelminthes.
(iii)Animals having different body symmetry would have been placed together, as
coelenterates with radial symmetry and platyhelminthes with bilateral symmetry.
(iv)There would have been no classification of animals based on with or without
body cavity..
(v)Placing of oviparous and viviparous animals together.
2.If you are given a specimen, what are the steps that you would follow to classify
it?
soln. Various steps considered to classify a specimen are:
(i)Mode of nutrition – It can be autotrophic, holozoic, saprophytic or parasitic.
(ii)Complexity of body structure – Whether the specimen is unicellular or
multicellular.
(iii)Presence or absence of membrane bound organelles.
(iv)Body symmetry, i.e., the plane by which organism can be divided into two equal
halves.
(v)Presence or absence of coelom, it can be acoelomates, pseudocoelomates,
eucoelo- mates.
(vi)Phylogenetic relationship.
3.How useful is the study of the nature of body cavity and coelom in the
classification of animals?
soln. Organisms can be classified according to presence or absence of the coelom.
The body cavity, which is lined by mesoderm is called coelom. Animals possessing
coelom are called coelomates, e.g., annelids, molluscs, arthropods, echinoderms,
hemichordates and chordates. In some animals, the body cavity is not lined by
mesoderm, instead, the mesoderm is present as scattered pouches in between the
ectoderm and endoderm. Such a body cavity is called pseudocoelom and the
animals possessing them are called pseudocoelomates, e.g., aschelminthes. In
pseudocoelomates, body cavity is derived from blastocoel of the embryo. The
animals in which the body cavity is absent are called acoelomates, e.g.,
platyhelminthes.
6.What are the peculiar features that you find in parasitic platyhelminthes?
soln.Following are the peculiar features of parasitic platyhelminthes:
(i) The thick tegument (body covering) resistant to the host’s digestive enzymes and
anti-toxins.
(ii)Adhesive organs like suckers in flukes and the hooks and suckers in tapeworms
for a firm grip on or in the host’s body.
(iii)Loss of locomotory organs.
(iv)Digestive organs are absent in tapeworms because digested and semidigested
food of the host is directly absorbed’ through the body surface.
(v) Reproductive system is best developed in parasitic flatworms.
(vi)Parasitic flatworms, such as liver fluke and tapeworms perform anaerobic
respiration.
(vii)They possess a considerable osmotic adaptability, as they can successfully live
in different media.
7.What are the reasons that you can think of for the arthropods to constitute the
largest group of the animal kingdom?
soln. Arthropods are most successful animals and constitute the largest group of
the animal kingdom. They have conquered land, sea and air and make up over three
fourth of currently known living and fossil organisms. They range in distribution from
deep sea to mountain peaks. Thick, tough, non-living chitinous cuticle forms the
exoskeleton which protects the organism from predators, help to withstand
temperature upto 100°C or more and prevents water loss. They have ability to
reproduce very fast and less time is needed for young ones to hatch from their eggs.
Due to metamorphosis, there is less competition among larval and adult forms for
food. Cockroaches can even survive nuclear radiations and poisoned earth. All these
factors made arthropods the largest phylum among animals.
8.Water vascular system is the characteristic of which group among the following ?
(a) Porifera
(b) Ctenophora
(c) Echinodermata
(d) Chordata
soln. (c) Echinodermata
9.”All vertebrates are chordates but all chordates are not vertebrates”. Justify the
statement.
soln. Chordates are the animals that possess notochord (a stiff, supporting rod like
structure present on the dorsal side) at some stage of their lives. Phylum Chordata is
divided into three Subphyla: Urochordata or tunicata, Cephalochordata and
Vertebrata. Subphyla Urochordata and Cephalochordata are often referred to as
protochordates and are exclusively marine. In urochordata, notochord is present only
in tail of larva and disappears in adults, while in cephalochordata, it extends from
head to tail region and persists throughout the life.
The members of Subphylum Vertebrata a possess notochord during the embryonic
period and is replaced by a cartilaginous or bony vertebral column in the adult. Thus
all vertebrates are chordates but all chordates are not vertebrates.
10.How important is the presence of air bladder in
Pisces?
soln. Bony fishes have a sac-like outgrowth, the swim bladder also called air bladder,
that arises as an outgrowth from the dorsal wall of oesophagus. It is hydrostatic in
function. It regulates buoyancy and helps them to swim up and down, thus
preventing them from sinking. In some species air bladder also helps in respiration.
It also serves as resonating chamber to produce or receive sound.
12. Could the number of eggs or young ones produced by an oviparous and
viviparous mother be equal? Why?
soln. No, the number of eggs or young ones produced by an oviparous and
viviparous mother respectively cannot be equal. Oviparous mother lays large number
of eggs, as the eggs are laid outside the body, so they are not protected from
predators and harsh environmental conditions, and therefore destroyed. However in
viviparous mother, eggs are not laid outside, but the embryos develop inside the
mother and thus are protected from the outside harsh environment, thus, the number
of eggs produced are less. Therefore, the number of eggs or young ones produced
by an oviparous and viviparous mother respectively cannot be equal.
15. Prepare a list of some animals that are found parasitic on human beings.
soln.List of some animals that are found parasitic on human beings :