Running Head: NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND

ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND

ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

Bachelor Degree Project in Cognitive Neuroscience

Basic level 15 ECTS
Spring term 2018

Maria Constance Berg Junker

Supervisor: Petri Kajonius

Examiner: Stefan Berglund
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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

Abstract

In the field of neuroscience, being in love and feeling romantically attached to a

partner is described as a dynamic process. Romantic love may be viewed as a

motivational system, changing throughout time and place, fluctuating on the interest

and motivation of the individual. Early memories and attachment towards a caregiver,

lay the foundation for later attachment behavior, also known as attachment styles. In

this thesis, an exploratory approach is present. The thesis aims to introduce and

describe the neural correlates of romantic love and romantic attachment. Brain regions

concerned with reward, emotion and thought processing, such as the reward circuitry

network of the brain and the limbic system, are being investigated. So are other brain

areas involved in romantic love and romantic attachment. Research findings suggest

that brain areas responsible for affection, emotional control, learning, memory and

social judgment are all involved in the complex processes of being in love and feeling

romantically attached. These findings are represented by the involvement of the frontal

lobe, cerebral cortex, limbic system, orbitofrontal cortex, and hippocampus, anterior

cingulate cortex (ACC), ventral tegmental area (VTA), caudate tail, including the reward

pathways of the brain. Distribution and regulation of neurotransmitters such as;

vasopressin, oxytocin, dopamine, corticosterone and serotonin are all present in the

state of romantic attachment and romantic love. Overlapping evidence confirms the

involvement of the reward circuitry network, together with the limbic system as crucial

in the formation and maintenance of a romantic relationship.

Keywords: Attachment, the attachment theory, the limbic system, the reward

circuitry network, romantic love

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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

Table of Contents

NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC

ATTACHMENT ................................................................................................................... 1

Abstract .................................................................................................................... 2

Introduction ............................................................................................................. 6

The present study.................................................................................................. 8

Theoretical background ......................................................................................... 10

Romantic love and attachment ........................................................................... 10

Theories on romantic love. .............................................................................. 11

Romantic insecurity and loneliness. .............................................................. 12

Research on romantic love. ............................................................................ 13

The attachment theory........................................................................................ 14

Research on attachment. .................................................................................17

Attachment styles. .......................................................................................... 19

Coping strategies and attachment styles. ....................................................... 22

Neurological research ............................................................................................ 24

Romantic love, romantic attachment and the brain .......................................... 24

The frontal lobe. .............................................................................................. 26

The cerebral cortex. ........................................................................................ 27

The limbic system. .......................................................................................... 28

The amygdala. ................................................................................................. 28

The hippocampus............................................................................................ 30

The hypothalamus. ......................................................................................... 31

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The orbitofrontal cortex (OFC)....................................................................... 31

The insula. ....................................................................................................... 34

The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). .............................................................. 34

The ventral tegmental area (VTA). ................................................................. 35

The caudate tail. .............................................................................................. 36

Romantic love, attachment and the neurotransmitters. .................................... 36

Vasopressin. .................................................................................................... 36

Oxytocin. ......................................................................................................... 37

Dopamine. ....................................................................................................... 40

Corticosterone. ................................................................................................ 41

Serotonin. ........................................................................................................ 41

Discussion .............................................................................................................. 42

Further research and limitations........................................................................ 47

Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 50

Appendix A ............................................................................................................. 64

Sternberg’s (1997) triangular theory of love scale (TLS) ................................... 64

Intimacy .......................................................................................................... 64

Passion ............................................................................................................ 64

Commitment ................................................................................................... 65

Appendix B ............................................................................................................. 66

Relationship scales questionnaire (RSQ) ........................................................... 66

Appendix C ............................................................................................................. 68

The four-category model of adult attachment ................................................... 68

Appendix D ............................................................................................................. 69

Attachment styles ............................................................................................... 69

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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

❖ Secure attachment style: ........................................................................ 69

❖ Insecure/avoidant attachment style: ..................................................... 69

❖ Ambivalent/anxious attachment style ................................................... 69

❖ Disorganized/disoriented attachment style: ......................................... 69

Appendix E ............................................................................................................. 70

Brain areas involved in romantic love and romantic attachment ..................... 70

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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

Introduction

“Brain activity is considered the physical correlate of mental activity. Accordingly,

a change of the state of mind implies a change in the state of the brain and vice versa”

(Friedrich, Wood, Scherer, & Neuper, 2014, p. 1). What are the neural correlates making

us experience love and attachment towards our partner?

A person in love can experience being in a wonderland of thoughts and emotions

about and towards their significant other, or in pain or despair of lost love. When it

comes to romantic love, obsession and addiction are common experiences. Romantic

love can often result in the absence of self-control, loss of reasoning, and a constant

longing for the other individual. The abnormal behavior of people reporting being

intensely in love is linked to the same behavior present in addicted behavior, also

observed in individuals suffering from drug addiction (De Boer, Van Buel, & Ter Horst,

2012). This abnormal behavior is explained as a consequence of elevated or suppressed

levels of the brains chemistry, differentiating the process of being in love from not being

in love (Fischer H. , 2006a).

Behavior resulting from feelings and actions of caring, adoration, emotion,

motivation, enamoredness, worship, amorousness, loyalty and sexual attraction are all

found in the circumstance of being intensively in love. Although romantic love in

scientific literature is often described mostly as feelings, science has moved away from

this assumption (Fischer H. , 2006a). Current research believes that romantic love is not

behavior executed from emotional responses but rather categorized as a motivational

system, changing throughout time and place fluctuating on the interest and motivation
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of the individual. This motivational system involves many emotions as well as thought

processes as the result of the wish or action of pursuing and maintaining a romantic

relationship (Fischer, Aron, & Brown, 2005). It is characterized both as a state common

for everyone in love, with subjective traits making the experience unique for the ones in

love.

From an evolutionary perspective, the goal-directed behavior of mating results in

a reciprocated action, also described as “push-pull mechanism” experienced by the ones

involved. The internal motivation of carrying on one’s genes, combined with the

emotional and thought processing of reciprocating actions with one’s partner, confirms

that we prefer our partner over other possible fitting individuals (Fischer, Aron,

Mashek, Li, & Brown, 2002).

The bond of attachment towards a romantic partner, is not only linked to sexual

drive, which can fluctuate in a relationship (Acevedo, Aron, Fischer, & Brown, 2012).

Romantic love also involves components of intimacy towards the chosen one and the

decision of commitment and investment in the relationship (Sternberg R. J., 1986).

Consequently, it is reasonable to include the bond of attachment being central in

romantic relationships.

The individual learns to develop and maintain close relationships through

interactions with its caretakers. This behavior is suggested to follow the individual

throughout their lives (Bowlby, 1988), influencing learned social behavior towards our

romantic partner (Shaver, Hazan, & Bradshaw, 1988). Romantic attachment, interaction

and behavior are similar to the dynamics found in close relationships with family

members, where the sexual component is naturally missing, as we are not sexually

attracted to our relatives.

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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

When it comes to behavioral science, attachment is often described from Bowlby

and Ainsworth’s (1988) perspective resulting in the attachment theory. Here

attachment styles are suggested to follow the individual in close relationships and

encounters, hence romantic relationships. Today the attachment theory is a grounded,

respected and frequently used scientific theory. The attachment styles include; secure,

anxious-ambivalent, insecure-avoidant and disorganized-disoriented. The last one is a

later contribution from Main and Solomon’s research from 1990. When it comes to the

neurological view on attachment, and the different attachment styles, they are suggested

to be caused by neurological correlates of heightened or lowered activity in brain regions

and the involvement of specific neurotransmitters (Carter, 2017; Cozolino, 2014).

The present study

This thesis aims to introduce and describe the neural correlates of romantic love

and romantic attachment. It is exploratory in the sense that a lot of attention has been

given to the topic – over many years. The discovery of neural correlates is considered

necessary in the understanding of romantic love and romantic attachment.

Consequently, the central question in this thesis will be; which neural correlates are

involved when we experience love and romantic attachment towards a partner?

Being in love and feeling romantically attached to a partner, often demands a lot

of thought and emotional processing, together with being a highly rewarding experience.

Taking this into consideration, I want to investigate the reward, emotion and thought

processing areas of the brain, namely the reward circuitry network and the limbic

system and their involvement when it comes to romantic love and romantic attachment.

When it comes to the different attachment styles, it is also suggested that the differences
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among the attachment styles can be found in neuroscientific findings as heightened or

lowered brain activity, and neurotransmitter release.

The method of approach is to introduce scientific literature of theories on

romantic love and attachment, in combination with an investigation of the neural

correlates. The layout of the thesis starts with a theoretical explanation of romantic love

and attachment. The attachment theory from Bowlby and Ainsworth’s (1969/1982)

perspective is included with the aim of understanding attachment behavior in romantic

relationships. After this an introduction to the neural correlates of romantic love and

attachment is presented. Brain areas such as; the frontal lobe, cerebral cortex, limbic

system (as in the amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, insula) together with the

orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), ventral tegmental area

(VTA) and the caudate tail are presented separately, and sometimes together, when it

comes to the neural correlates of romantic love and attachment.

The reward circuits of the brain, together with the neurotransmitters such as

vasopressin, oxytocin, dopamine, corticosterone and serotonin are presented

separately, and together, when found necessary in relation to romantic love and

attachment. Regarding the different attachment styles and neural correlates, they are

included when distinctive findings in neuroscience are present when considering their

impact on romantic love and attachment in relationships (Bartels & Zeki, 2000; Fischer

et al., 2006; Fischer, et al., 2002; Schore, 2000).

Although romantic love and attachment have previously been defined separately,

it becomes more complex when considering the field of neuroscience. Brain areas,

neurocircuits, hormones and other neurological compounds are often involved in both
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romantic love and attachment, combining the two phenomena (Bartels & Zeki, 2004;

Fischer H., 2006; Fischer H. E., 1998; Fischer et al., 2006; Fischer et al., 2002).

The dramatizing of romantic love at the beginning of a romantic relationship, or

how romantic love is fantasized about is not pursued in this thesis, rather included as an

attempt to explain the different experiences the individual might have of romantic love.

The basis of my interpretation will explore scientific literature and research findings on

romantic adult heterosexual relationships where the couple engages in a romantic,

intimate, sexual, physical and monogamous relationship. Although this, I personally

hope and believe that scientific findings from heterosexual monogamous couples can be

useful regarding people in other couple constellations as well.

I will not investigate the different perspectives on romantic love between the

genders. It is recognized that there can be more differences within genders rather than

between the genders, not to mention cultural differences and within nations. Despite

these limitations, I hope that my conclusions can also be used in a general manner.

Theoretical background

Romantic love and attachment

What happens in the body and the brain when being in love and attached to

another individual? When it comes to the evolutionary and psychosocial aspect of

romantic love, it lays within our nature (Fischer et al., 2005). This to say, that we are

also acting on instinct, to find the right partner to produce our offspring.

From an early age, children pay attention to love and partnership. Through role-

playing and mimicking parental behavior, they show similar non-sexual affection

towards the opposite sex. In puberty, romantic love and attachment are more focused on
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hormone levels as well as cognitive development that has reached higher levels. The

individual then begins exploring their own sexuality together with a wish of

participating in a romantic relationship (Feeney & Noller, 1996). As adults, there is a

commonly shared understanding in western contemporary society that a romantic

partner is preferred, especially when it comes to mating in order to carry on our genes

(Buss, 2015).

We might go through different phases in our lifetime, but the longing for

someone to share our life with, a partner, romantically or as a friend, is common for

many. The wish for someone to love, who loves you back, is a dream for many (Graham,

2011). We have a biological drive to reproduce combined with psychological factors such

as the need for belonging, intimacy, and affection (Gonzaga, Turner, Keltner, Campos, &

Altemus, 2006). The main question for this thesis now becomes central. What neural

correlates are involved when we experience love and romantic attachment towards a

partner?

Theories on romantic love. When it comes to scientific views on romantic

love one of the most grounded in behavioral science is Sternberg’s triangular theory of

love (O'Leary, Acevedo, Aron, Huddy, & Mashek, 2011). Sternberg proposes intimacy,

passion and decision/commitment crucial in a romantic relationship. Sternberg

explains intimacy as the feeling of connectedness, closeness and bondedness that one

experiences in a romantic relationship. Here, attachment might be another word for the

same behavior. Sternberg defines passion as the drive that leads to romance; the mental

and physical attraction towards the other individual, including the sexual drive

(Sternberg R. J., 1986). Lastly, decision/commitment is the component which makes the

relationship long term. In the beginning, commitment might be the pursuing and
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engagement of a romantic relationship, which later develop into a choice of staying

together for long-term purposes (Sternberg R. J., 1986; 1988).

When it comes to romantic love, it seems nearly impossible not to mention love

at first sight. Hatfield and Walster (1981) define this term as infatuation. Here they

propose the active component of being in a state of passionate arousal (Hatfield, 1988),

however components of commitment and intimacy are missing. Although it is a nice

thought to fall in love with someone at first sight, a relationship cannot alone be based

on passion.

When looking at the scientist's different definitions of romantic love and

attachment, it is easy to understand that the universally known concept of romantic love

is portrayed in many ways. When it comes to a romantic relationship, the individual

might be looking for someone who shares qualities of their own in addition to finding a

partner who is stable, trustworthy, caring, lovable, and who equally wants to share in a

relationship. Maybe they share a similar background, lifestyle, morals and ethical

values, or other shared similarities (Fischer et al., 2002).

Romantic insecurity and loneliness. Insecurities with relationship

satisfaction, relationship fulfillment, mutual love interest, and mutual investment such

as home, family, insurance, are additional factors influencing a romantic relationship.

This is why, it can be an emotional and irresistible debate as to whether or not the

individual should commit to their partner and how long the relationship will last.

Ambivalence can also act as a force within the individual, causing them to want to be

closer to their partner, for then at the same time push them away (Hazan & Shaver,

1987).
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Fear and longing for intimacy might be present at the same time. Jealousy,

mistrust, insecurity, and delusions can all be lurking in the background. Romantic

rejection is connected to protest and resignation/despair. When being abandoned the

individual often feels an intense energy, alertness, and extreme motivation to win back

their beloved. Suggested by psychiatrists, this can be linked back to our mammalian

response to winning back any social connection we have (Fischer, 2006b).

Many people believe that their loneliness will be cured when they find a matching

partner. However, loneliness can be felt as much when indulging in a relationship as

when single. Often people feeling lonely are lonely within themselves, something a love

interest cannot cure (Shaver & Hazan, 1984). From Weiss (1973) perspective both

emotional loneliness and social loneliness exist. Emotional loneliness is often found in

dysfunctional relationships, while social loneliness is found in friendships. Often in a

romantic relationship, friendly love and romantic love is present, making both aspects of

loneliness possible.

Emotional loneliness is when you lack close and intimate attachment to others.

People who have recently broken up, are widowed or involved in a relationship where

emotional connection is a missing component might experience this kind of loneliness.

Social loneliness comes from lack of family, friends or a social network. People going

through major life changes often experience this kind of loneliness as well. This is an

intrinsic feeling, depending on the individual’s perception of themselves, how they feel

and their self-esteem and is not dependent on their partner (Weiss, 1973).

Research on romantic love. Research on romantic love comes mainly from

qualitative research such as therapy sessions with individuals and couples. Quantitative

research is based on international online surveys, university data, in addition to lab

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experiments (Graham, 2011). Romantic love questionnaires often investigate

attachment to current partner, previous partner and sometimes a fictitious partner

(Aron & Aron, 1991). The questionnaires can be Rubin’s loving and liking scales (RLLS),

the love attitudes scale (LAS), the passionate love scale (PLS) and the triangular love

scale (TLS) (Graham, 2011). For the questionnaire of the TLS, see Appendix A.

Neurological experiments of romantic love and attachment usually involve lab

experiments of fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) or EEG

(electroencephalography) with the intention of measuring activity and deactivity in

specific areas of the brain. The distribution of neurotransmitter involvement is also used

to measure love and attachment (Acevedo et al., 2012). Often the individuals are asked

to bring pictures of loved ones and friends to the lab and then fill out questionnaires for

the scientists to understand the nature of their relationship (Bartels & Zeki, 2004).

The attachment theory

The creation of a relationship between the caregiver and toddler is the beginning

of socialization that will impact the individual for the rest of their life (Ainsworth &

Wittig, 1969; Ainsworth & Bowlby, 1991; Berger & Luckmann, 1967). During this time,

the interaction with caregivers forms a memory and learning process, establishing the

formation of socialization patterns. According to Berger and Luckmann (1967), the early

memory and learning processes lay the ground for action and reaction patterns. This

again is considered to impact the repeating patterns of behavior for the individual

throughout its lifetime. This again is affecting the child throughout its life, impacting the

chosen direction concerning education, lifestyle and partner preference (Berger &

Luckmann, 1967; Cozolino, 2014).

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When it comes to romantic love, the attachment theory and attachment styles

give us a deeper understanding of couple dynamics. This is an important element in

relationship satisfaction, and contributes to the explanation of how a relationship can be

healthy or unhealthy, depending on their individual and combined attachment styles

(Mikulincer & Shaver, 2016). How the individual behaves is often a repetition of the

previous memories linked to similar events (Berger & Luckmann, 1967; Bowlby, 1988).

However, studies show that memory and learning can be learned, re-learned and

new-learned (Gazzaniga, Ivry, & Mangun, 2009). The neuroscientific way of explaining

this is stimulus, response, and reinforcement, together with the plasticity of the brain

(Gazzaniga et al., 2009). Influenced by the right guidance and conscious awareness, the

individual may change their perception and how they engage in their environment,

hence their attachment style (Belsky, 2002).

The attachment theory was developed in 1950’s and is a result of a cooperation

between John Bowlby (1907-1991) and Mary Slater Ainsworth (1913- 1999). Based on

Bowlby’s psychoanalytic thinking, ethology, developmental psychology, information

processing, the control systems theory as well as Ainsworth’s studies in Uganda

(Ainsworth M. D., 1979) it is frequently used in the behavioral sciences. The original

theories of attachment names three forms of attachment: secure, insecure-avoidant

attachment and ambivalent-resistant attachment (Ainsworth M. D., 1979). These

attachment styles are also known as secure, avoidant attachment style or avoidant-

dismissive and anxious-ambivalent, ambivalent-preoccupied or just anxious

attachment. In this thesis the names insecure-avoidant, anxious-ambivalent and secure

attachment will be used.

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Presented by Bowlby (1969/1982) the Internal Working Model (IWM) is

suggested to work automatically (Verschueren, Marcoen, & Schoefs, 1996) and is the

response to the environmental influence of the individual's attachment style. The IWM

functions as a pre-programmed way of responding, based on the individual’s earliest

memories and learning from interactions with caregivers. Verschueren et al. (1996),

describe the IWM as being the inner representation of the child itself. It is dominated by

unconscious interpretations that are a challenge to be aware of, understand and even

change.

Mikulincer and Shaver (2003; 2007) suggest attachment as being compromised

as a model called the attachment behavioral system (ABS). According to Bowlby’s

(1969/1982) IWM model, the attachment system gets activated by threats where the

individual subconsciously notices the responsiveness and availability of a situation that

provides a secure attachment situation (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2003). The ABS provides

an automatic response pattern over time, structuring the behavioral and reaction

patterns of the individual's attachment style in later romantic and maternal

relationships (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2003).

Studies show that when an individual knows and feels they will master the

situation, based on implicit or explicit motivation, consciously or subconsciously, they

share a secure attachment style. However, if the person constantly feels the need to

hyperactivate or deactivate the situation, they have an anxious or avoidant reaction

pattern. This is an example that illustrates attachment styles (Main & Solomon, 1990;

Mikulincer & Shaver, 2003). Attachment influences the rational functioning and

intrapsychic development of the individual. This includes the dynamics occurring in

romantic relationships (Allen & Land, 1999).

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Research on attachment. Originated from Ainsworth's research, the strange

situation test (SST) is most commonly used when measuring child attachment in

laboratory settings (Ainsworth & Wittig, 1969). Adult attachment is also possible to

measure in laboratory settings through couple interaction. Usually, single and couple’s

attachment style, can be investigated in forms of people discussing matters they already

know they disagree on (Youngmee, 2006). When it comes to adult attachment

measurements, including adult romantic attachment measurements, there are by now

many represented in the field of science. Although the attachment theory is presented as

the individual sharing one attachment style, it is not that simple. Today, scholars

include the possibility that the individual might have different traits of the different

attachment styles, formed into one unique attachment style of the individual.

Hazan and Shaver’s (1987) three-category measure of adult attachment is one of

the first measurements on adult attachment in romantic relationships. This

measurement contains one question for each of the three attachment styles; secure,

anxious-ambivalent and insecure-avoidant, from a liking scale from one to seven, with

strongly disagree to agree strongly. Later Bartholomew and Horowitz’s (1991) made a

relationship questionnaire (RQ) where the questions were similar Hazan and Shaver’s

(1987) measure, adding the fourth attachment style disorganized-disoriented

attachment, but also changed and worded the questions differently.

The relationship scale questionnaire (RSQ) (Griffin & Bartholomew, 1994) was

inspired from the previously mentioned measurement tools, together with Collins and

Read’s (1990) adult attachment scale (AAS). In the RSQ participants rate each

statement on a five-point liking scale, that fits their characteristic attachment style the

best when it comes to their feelings, thoughts, reaction patterns and behavior in
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romantic relationships. This questionnaire can be found in Appendix B, as an example

of one of the adult romantic attachment measurements.

Here the scientists use the names preoccupied attachment for anxious-

ambivalent attachment, dismissive for insecure-avoidant attachment, and fearful for

disorganized-dismissive attachment. Five statements concern secure and dismissive

attachment patterns, and four statements for fearful and preoccupied attachment styles.

The four-category model of attachment is from Griffin and Bartholomew’s (1994)

survey, may serve as an indicator when calculating the results from the questionnaire.

Here the individual can see their own composite attachment ratings on a self/avoidance

and other-model/avoidance attachment scale of dimensions as explained in Ognibene &

Collins (1998) and later Mikulincer & Shaver (2016). This model can be found in

Appendix C1.

This scale includes the individuals own self-image of dependence (positive or

negative) and image of others and avoidance (positive or negative). A securely attached

individual will have both a positive view of self and others, as well as being comfortable

with intimacy and autonomy. Someone who has an anxious-ambivalent attachment

style has a high negative dependence, and positive avoidance resulting in a negative

effect (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991) for the individual.

Insecure-ambivalent attachment style shares a high negative avoidance and high

negative dependence resulting in fear of attachment. The last attachment style,

disoriented-dismissive attachment shares a high negative avoidance, together with a low

positive dependence, resulting in being counter-dependent and having troubles in

interactions and relationships with others (Feeney & Noller, 1996; Sternberg & Weis,

2006).
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When it comes to Hazan, Mikulincer and Shaver with colleagues, the commonly

used adult romantic attachment questionnaire today is the experiences in close

relationships (ECR) which was first published by Brennan, Clark and Shaver in 1998.

This measure has 36 items and is quite similar to the RSQ in wording and style.

Attachment styles. Ainsworth proposes 70% of all infants share secure

attachment. Here they have low anxiety and low avoidance patterns. Insecure

attachment styles such as insecure – avoidant and anxious-ambivalent attachment

represent the remaining 30 % with each style representing 15 %. The insecure-avoidant

attachment style has a high avoidance and low anxiety pattern, the anxious-ambivalent

attachment has high anxiety and low avoidance pattern (Cozolino, 2014).

Van IJzendoorn’s (1995) meta-analysis study on attachment showed a

distribution of; 15% as disorganized, while 55% secure, 8% ambivalent and 23%

avoidant. Compared to the 1988 study when he together with Kroonenberg found

attachment patterns to be 65% secure, 14% ambivalent and 20% avoidant (van

IJzendoorn & Kroonenberg, 1988). This shows that the estimated percentages of

Ainsworth’s attachment styles are still quite precise. These statistics may also be a

contributing factor in understanding the attachment style diversity in society, hence

being applicable in therapy settings (Cozolino, 2014). When it comes to characteristics

of attachment styles, parenting attachment style and resulting adult attachment style,

this can be found explained in Appendix D.

Ainsworth believes insecure-avoidant attached individuals have had a caregiver

rejecting them, being insensitive to their needs. This results in trust and dependence

issues (Ainsworth M. D., 1979). People with insecure-avoidant attachment style are
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independent both emotionally and physically. When put under pressure, they choose to

handle things themselves, and are not available to help, or receive help from others.

People with a secure attachment style are easy to calm down since their caregiver

has been sensitive and trustworthy in meeting their needs. According to Bowlby, a

securely attached individual will most likely be the one who is responsive, emotionally

and physically available and helpful towards others (Bowlby, 1980).

The anxious-ambivalent attached individual will have conflicting feelings and

behavior, as a result of ambivalent caring from their earliest primary caregivers. They

will vary with clingy and attention seeking behavior and then push the caregiver away

when they eventually get a response to their needs (Ainsworth & Wittig, 1969). Since the

child does not develop any physical or emotional response of security from the

attachment figure, they will have difficulties with trusting people later in life and may

repeat this behavior (Ainsworth M. D., 1979).

Main and Solomon (1990) added an additional attachment style to the original

attachment theory, called disorganized-disoriented attachment. This attachment

behavior has previously been included in the descriptions of the two insecure

attachment styles (Ainsworth M. D., 1979; Main & Solomon, 1990). This attachment

style is a form of avoidant attachment, acting from fearful responses motivated by the

“conscious fear of anticipated rejection of others” (Bartholomew & Shaver, 1998, p. 27).

The disorganized-disoriented attachment is often a result of the parent not being

an appropriate attachment figure mentally, emotionally or physically (Main, 1990). As a

result, the individual will have trust and attachment issues, and disorganized

attachment as an infant is also believed to be a precursor to later repetitive troubled

behavior throughout life (Karlen, 1996; Shemmings & Shemmings, 2011).

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Mental disorders are often linked to maltreatment, inappropriate social relating

and maladaptive behavior, all covered in the disorganized-disoriented attachment style.

A relatively new attachment disorder concerning children, called reactive attachment

disorder (RAD) is included in the DSM-5 (Cumyn, 2016). This attachment is a more

extreme version of the insecure attachment styles, concerning severely inappropriate

social behavior in children before five years of age. An individual with the latter

disorder, has often suffered severe trauma such as neglect, maladaptive behaviors in

caregivers where the caring needs have not been met (Cumyn, 2016).

An individual with an anxious-ambivalent attachment style will need constant

confirmation in the relationship, whereas the person who has an insecure-avoidant

attachment style would react in the opposite manner (Hazan & Shaver, 1987).

Attachment deals with many aspects including; intimacy, fear of intimacy, loss, and

jealousy, including the ups and downs an individual might experience in a romantic

relationship (Hazan & Shaver, 1987).

Someone who is anxious needs a lot of confirmation, affection, and compliments,

knowing that they are wanted and needed in the relationship, and often is dependent on

their partner. The fear of someone leaving and abandoning them might impact their

behavior and consequent relationships, wavering between wanting to be close and

distant at the same time (Bowlby, 1973). An insecure-avoidant attached individual may

be reluctant to be close, and claim freedom and independence, suppressing the

importance of the relationship or their partner. A disorganized-disoriented attached

individual may be dependent on their partner, while causing a lot of turbulence in the

relationship due to inner instability.

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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

A person who is driven by emotions and fears, is often overreacting rather than

rationalizing the situation (Cozolino, 2014). Anger and avoidant patterns in behavior

are predictable. This is a result of the individual struggling with mental and sometimes

physical stability, reliability and security (Shemmings & Shemmings, 2011), also

affecting romantic relationships.

Coping strategies and attachment styles. Dysfunctional coping strategies

have been found more in people with insecure attachment styles. People with an

insecure-avoidant attachment style have better strategies for ignoring unpleasant

thoughts. These participants showed no decrease in blood flow, nor deactivations in

concerned prefrontal regions, when participating in lab experiments (Mikulincer &

Shaver, 2003). These findings indicate that insecure-avoidant individuals cannot

deactivate certain brain regions, as the other two attachment styles, impacting their

patterns of behavior (Mikulincer, Birnbaum, Woddis, & Nachmias, 2000).

Anxiously attached individuals have a more negative coping strategy as compared

to secure and insecure-avoidant individuals (Davis, Shaver, & Vernon, 2003). People

with insecure-avoidant and disorganized-disoriented attachment may also use alcohol

and other drugs, in an attempt to lower the negative internal processes. Anxious-

ambivalent attachment is also linked to alcohol and drug abuse when cooping with

rejection and abandonment (Davis et al., 2003).

When it comes to the different attachment styles mindfulness-based stress

reduction (MBSR) meditation has shown lower stress levels and might be a healthy

contributor with the aim of handling one's attachment style better. In a study on MBSR

and attachment styles, the insecure attachment styles had higher stress levels prior to

participation with MBSR techniques than securely attached individuals. In post-

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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

participation, the insecure group, had lower stress levels than pre-participation as

compared to the secure group (Cordon, Brown, & Gibson, 2009).

Therapy, such as psychotherapy, cognitive behavioral therapy, single and couples

counseling have all shown different effects on romantic love, and attachment styles. The

most significant effect is found in the insecure attachment styles, revealing that self-

awareness of behavior and reaction patterns, may help the individual change their

attachment style, and attachment towards their partner or potential partner (Cozolino,

2014). The touch of a healing hand can fix a broken soul, or implied when it comes to

attachment styles; by being around a person with a secure attachment, this can make

the insecurely attached individual feel more secure about themselves and others.

The use of medication to influence insecure attachment styles is a frequently

debated among scientists. The solution of treating attachment styles seems to be

complicated. Over 70 % of people, using serotonin-enhancing antidepressants (SSRI),

report having a decline in sexual arousal, desire, and orgasm. This is often accompanied

by feeling estranged from their chosen partner (Fischer H. , 2006b). A drug designed to

lower the negative emotions and thoughts, might decrease positive emotions as well,

resulting in the individual feeling detached from their partner.

The ethical and moral issue here is that an attachment style is in itself not

necessarily linked to mental illnesses. When it comes to romantic love and attachment

behavior, it would be questionable if medication is the right way to go (Haggerty,

Hilsenroth, & Vala-Stewart, 2008; Hegtvedt, 2014). Medication can however be found

necessary in certain circumstances.

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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

Neurological research

Romantic love, romantic attachment and the brain

Which are the neural correlates involved when we experience love and

attachment towards a partner? The emotion-motivation systems in the mammalian

brain involve cohabiting, breeding and parenting. This is in turn, motivated by lust,

attraction, and attachment (Fischer H. E., 1998). In both sexes the attraction system is

characterized by focus of attention and increased energy on a specific mating partner.

The human attraction system is often called romantic love, companionate love or

passionate love. In this thesis, romantic love is used as the common term for this

attraction system.

Signs such as heightened energy, sleeplessness, obsessive following and loss of

appetite are normal. Both sexes share an increased focus of attention, affiliated gestures,

increased empathy for the other, and intense motivation to develop a relationship with

the potential partner (Fischer et al., 2006). Nature and nurture also play an important

role in the individuals choice of mate (Buss, 2015).

Specific neurochemicals influence pair bonding formation and may influence the

individuals capacity of acting in a monogamous manner or not. The involvement of the

libido, reacting from female estrogen and male androgen hormones, is functioning as a

motor for mating. Studies on pair bonding formation are often on mammals, more

specific microtine-rodents (voles) (Curtis & Wang, 2003).

Romantic love is not only linked to different hormones and neurotransmitters

involvement, but also different behavior strategies happening at different stages of the

reproduction phase. When it comes to homo sapiens, the primary sex drive has evolved
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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

from motivating the individual to seek sexual union with any possible mate (Fischer et

al., 2002). The constellation of neural circuits, and neurotransmitter involvement

associated with attraction and romantic attachment, motivates the individual to

selectively choose between possible fitting individuals. This enhances the individual’s

motivation and capacity in finding a suitable mate, investing energy and mating time

(Fischer et al., 2002).

Proposed by Fischer’ in 1998, the three emotion-motivation systems act as single

units, and together, when it comes to romantic love and romantic attachment towards a

partner. The independence of the three motivational-emotional systems can be found in

humans, as people reporting being in love with someone they have not shared sexual

behavior with, people reporting they may have sexual relations with someone they are

not in love with, and people reporting being in love with someone they have no sexual

desire to be with. This explains that lust, attraction and attachment, can act as a single

unit and together, when it comes to romantic love and romantic attachment in homo

sapiens (Fischer et al., 2002). Although the three emotion-motivation systems in this

thesis often are found acting together in symphony, as the people in the reference

literature often are reporting being in love with their partner, sexual desire towards their

partner, and feeling romantically attached, it is important to be aware of the complexity

of the mating system.

Sexual behavior enhances dopamine, serotonin, and vasopressin production, in

addition to lowering the levels of corticosterone for both sexes. Women reports being

more attached to their partner after sexual activity than before, especially if they

orgasm, explained by oxytocin and serotonin release. The enhanced vasopressin release
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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

in men, can be a possible explanation of why they feel more close and connected to their

significant other after sexual behavior (Fischer et al., 2002).

Brain development is defining the human life (Gazzaniga, 2005). By the time the

infant is aged 7 to 15 months old, the myelin system is formed (Kinney, Brody, Kloman,

& Gilles, 1988). By the age of 15 months, the cerebral cortex is matured (Schore, 2005).

This is why, social experiences from infancy, are essential for the development of the

nervous system, due to the fact that they develop as reaction and reflexes (Ainsworth M.

D., 1979). Bowlby (1988) suggests that attachment behaviors can be linked to

threatening conditions such as fear, separation or insecurity experienced in childhood.

Neuropsychiatrists argue that “the social construction of the human brain”

(Schore, 2005, p. 205) influences the individual's interaction with their environment,

hence forming and maintaining attachment (Schore, 2005). Explained as “the self-

organization of the developing brain occurs in the context of a relationship with another

self, another brain” (Schore, 1996, p. 60). Schore (2005) claims the emotional

processing of attachment is linked to Bowlby’s (1969/1982) model of instinctive

behavior, explained as a controlled biological activity in the brain. For an overview of

the different brain areas involved in romantic love and attachment, see Appendix E2

(Zeki, 2007).

In this thesis, as mentioned in the present study section, the neural correlates of

romantic love and romantic attachment will be investigated, introduced and described.

Following is a short introduction to the involved brain areas and their involvement in

romantic love and romantic attachment.

The frontal lobe. Involved in critical judgment, decision making, planning and

higher mental processes (Gazzaniga et al., 2009), and is the largest part of the human
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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

brain. It is located anterior to the central sulcus and dorsal to the Sylvian fissure, and

includes the motor and prefrontal cortex. The frontal lobe serves as a significant factor

in relationship satisfaction (Zeki, 2007).

The cerebral cortex. As the largest region of the cerebrum, consisting of grey

matter, the cerebral cortex is located at the most anterior part of the brain (Kandel,

Schwartz, & Jessel, 2012). The cerebral cortex involves conscious perception, awareness

of sensory stimuli, planning, and execution of movement. Memory, social cognition,

thought, attention and language (Gazzaniga et al., 2009), together with romantic love,

arousal, and attachment (Fischer et al., 2002) are all linked to the involvement of

cerebral cortex.

When deactivations in the frontal lobe, temporal lobe, and precuneus occur,

moderation of critical judgment is involved. This area is also connected to romantic love

and attachment (Zeki, 2007). The forebrain, which consists of “the cerebral cortex, basal

ganglia, and diencephalon” (Gazzaniga et al., 2009, p. 73) is responsible for mentalizing

and social judgment, as well as the dynamics of understanding other people’s emotions

and intentions (Zeki, 2007) called the theory of mind (Gazzaniga et al., 2009). An

increase in positive emotions, the favorizing of a partner, and an intense longing to be

close and intimate with the chosen one, are common for people in love (Xu et al., 2012).

Deactivation of social judgement networks have been explained by Bartels and

Zeki (2004) as “a push-pull mechanism that overcomes social distance by deactivating

networks used for critical social assessment and negative emotions, while it bonds

individuals through the involvement of reward circuitry, explaining the power of love to

motivate and exhilarate” (Bartels & Zeki, 2004, p. 1155). The deactivation helps to
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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

explain why people in love are willing to sometimes sacrifice everything, neglecting the

possible worrying aspects of their beloved.

The limbic system. Consisting of the amygdala, basal ganglia, and papez

circuit (the hypothalamus, anterior thalamus, cingulate gyrus and hippocampus) the

limbic system serves many functions when it comes to romantic love and attachment. It

is located within the cerebrum above the brainstem, and functions as a regulatory

system essential in inhibitory control. Key functions are social cognition, memory,

learning, arousal and fear responses. When it comes to romantic love and attachment,

the entire limbic system is involved (Gazzaniga et al., 2009). Although not included in

the limbic system, but in the paralimbic system (Gazzaniga et al., 2009), the

orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is found crucially connected to the limbic system, and is also

highly involved in romantic love and romantic attachment.

The amygdala. Acting as the alarm center of the brain, controlling our drives,

responses and memories in relation to others (Gazzaniga et al., 2009; Lövblad, Schaller,

& Vargas, 2014). The amygdala plays an important role when it comes to romantic love

and attachment. The activation of the left amygdala enhances positive states when

feeling in love and attached (Lanteaume et al., 2007). Deactivation of the amygdala also

causes positive feelings looking at images of an individual’s partner, when test subjects

reported being intensively in love (Zeki, 2007). The individuals fear responses of their

partner and partner's actions is lower when in love, as compared to the fear response of

friends and strangers. This makes the person in love, less apprehensive when reacting to

their partner's actions, helping us understand why a person can stay in an unhealthy

relationship.
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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

The difference in brain alterations and attachment styles can be related to

differences in the amygdala formation and hippocampal nuclei. Insecure attachment

styles, especially anxious-ambivalent attachment, have an increased amygdala volume

in the brain. This is developed during infancy and continues into adulthood (Moutsiana

et al., 2015). People who have a fear of being abandoned have an enhanced volume of

the amygdala. In particular this is true for the anxious-ambivalent attachment style.

When these volumes are enhanced it suggests that their response center being in alarm

mode. The same individuals commonly share an intrinsic fear of being abandoned, hurt

or rejected by their loved one or a potential partner (Fischer H. , 2006a). Left amygdala

response is associated with negative feedback, found positively correlated with anxious-

ambivalent attachment. It is noted, people with this attachment style often suffer from

anxiety disorders and social phobias (Cozolino, 2014).

People with an insecure-avoidant attachment style, have a decrease in amygdala

activation, when measuring love and attachment. This is with regard to both the left and

right part of the amygdala. This suggests that the individual has a more distant

relationship to rejection and negative feedback (Vrticka, Andersson, Grandjean, Sander,

& Vuilleumier, 2008), than is true for lower right activation. The insecure-avoidant

individuals do not experience the high levels of positive states as do individuals with

activation in the amygdala. Securely attached individuals, on the other hand, have

shown a mirror effect in the amygdala, but no other specific correlates were found for

the secure attachment style (Vrticka et al., 2008).

People with the anxious-ambivalent attachment style are more vulnerable when

it comes to a partner breakup, as compared to the other attachment styles. Increased

amygdala activation in anxious-ambivalent attachment is higher, than it is for securely

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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

attached individuals. Regarding abandonment, insecure-avoidant individuals share a

decrease in the amygdala, as compared to other attachment styles (Collins & Gillath,

2012).

People with anxious-ambivalent attachment often have problems coping with the

breakup and often experience more heightened levels of anxiety and depression. This

can be caused by their inner fear, as a result of higher amygdala activation than for the

other two attachment styles. The breakup experience might also confirm what they

already know about the risk of being in love and feeling attached, namely that they stand

a chance of being abandoned, and then will be alone once again (Fischer H. , 2006a).

The hippocampus. This brain structure is located in each temporal lobe and it

is involved in learning and memory. To be more specific, this area is responsible for

spatial memory in mammals and episodic memory in humans (Gazzaniga et al., 2009).

When it comes to the creation of hippocampal volumes in early infant attachment,

Moutsiana et al. (2015) did not find any results connecting hippocampal volumes to

infant attachments. However, people with a fear of being abandoned by their partner,

have alterations in the hippocampal nuclei.

People with insecure attachment styles have neglected emotional regulation

(Quirin, Gillath, Pruessner, & Eggert, 2010), which can be seen in the hippocampal

nuclei. Hippocampal nuclei volume in adults differs with each attachment styles. A

reduction in cell concentration in the left hippocampus (Quirin et al., 2010), is linked to

insecure attachment styles. Reduced hippocampal cell density is found in people with

post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and anxiety, which are linked to attachment

insecurity. Reduction in cell-concentration in the left part of the hippocampus, is also

found in people with anxious-ambivalent attachment style. Quirin et al. (2010) revealed
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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

insecure-avoidant attachment style to be neurologically demonstrated as a bilateral

reduction in the hippocampal nuclei. Being rejected or abandoned show similar

reactions in the same areas involved in both physical and emotional pain (Sternberg &

Weis, 2006).

The hypothalamus. This is a structure located deep within the brain, and is

responsible for the release of dopamine, together with vasopressin and oxytocin (Fischer

et al., 2002). This structure is highly involved in romantic love and attachment. The

hypothalamus functions as a bridge between the endocrine and nervous system. Erotic

arousal is enhanced by hypothalamus activation (Arnow et al., 2002).

Nucleus accumbens and the hypothalamus become more active when introducing

certain drugs, such as cocaine which is known for inducing a state of euphoria (Breiter &

Rosen, 1999). The same brain areas that are shown to be involved in OCD (obsessive-

compulsive disorder) are also observed as activated for people in love (De Boer et al.,

2012).

The orbitofrontal cortex (OFC). Found crucial in relation to the theory of

mind, also involved in social interaction, memory, learning, and reward the OFC has an

important role in romantic love and attachment. It is a structure dealing with multiple

sensory information systems, such as the primary olfactory cortex, and primary

gustatory cortex, in addition it conveys somatosensory, visual and auditory information

(Gazzaniga et al., 2009). Romantic love and attachment involve all the aforementioned

behaviors. The smell of a loved one, combined with visual, and auditory stimuli is highly

connected to romantic love and attachment, in particular to the aspect of affection and

intimacy (Acevedo et al., 2012).

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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

Deactivation of the medial OFC (mOFC) is discovered in long-term relationship

satisfaction (Acevedo et al., 2012), suggesting that being in love makes the involved less

afraid of one’s partner’s actions, behaviors or responses, as compared friends and

strangers. Higher tolerance to fear of one’s partner is also connected to deactivations of

the mOFC (Xu et al., 2010). The OFC has also been called the frustration-aggression

area by Fischer (2006b). The primary rage system has pathways and neural circuits in

the OFC, controlling anger. Activations are linked to romantic love and rejection

(Panksepp, 1998). People being abandoned, rejected, ignored, or ones that have a fear of

these things have higher activations in this area as compared to others who do not share

these fears (Fischer H. , 2006b).

The rage and reward pathways of the brain are closely connected, suggesting that

romantic love and abandonment can operate in tandem. The individual may experience

the rage and frustration of being abandoned, while still expressing love and attachment

towards partner leaving the relationship. When comparing rage and hate to love, the

same mechanisms as increased focused attention, excessive energy, overthinking are

observed (Fischer H. , 2006b). As long as the individual is occupied by thoughts of their

previous partner, they will experience conflicting emotions and cravings for

reconciliation, or search for explanations as to why they are being abandoned. These

findings suggest that the opposite of romantic love is not to hate but rather indifference

(Fischer H. , 2006b).

Dozier (2002) explains abandonment rage as maladaptive, where heightened

levels of corticosterone are present. The fear of abandonment and its physical

manifestation in the body suppresses the immune system, stress the heart and increases

blood pressure. This reaction is also present when frustration is caused by someone not
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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

responding to our love. Although the distress of rejection or abandonment might be

unpleasant at first, it can have unhealthy implications when prolonged. The afore

mentioned neural processes are found in people who are not satisfied in their

relationships. This implies that feeling pain for a short time when being abandoned is

normal (Downey & Michaelis, 1998).

When it comes to attachment styles and the OFC, experiences of rejection and

abandonment enhances OFC involvement. People with the anxious-ambivalent

attachment style share a need for maintaining a relationship with their ex-partners to

ensure that they are not disliked. The fear of being disliked or unwanted is an element

common for this attachment style. The anxious-ambivalent individual indulges in self-

blame, and self-destructive thoughts, looking at themselves in a more negative light.

Negative thoughts such as a breakup, conflict, or the death of a romantic partner are

related to activation in the anterior temporal pole, an area linked to emotion regulation

and sadness as well as activation of the OFC (Fischer H. , 2006a).

Anxious-ambivalent attached individuals are often more open to reconciliation,

as compared to the other attachment styles. Due to the fact that they have challenges

feeling closure, combined with an intrinsic need to feel loved by their abandoning

partner. These are motivating forces for the individual to seek to reconcile (Collins &

Gillath, 2012). This is called a positive tone during a breakup. People who experience

this mechanism are more likely to take responsibility, and have reservations concerning

the breakup. The anxious-ambivalent individual is also more prone to depression post-

breakup, than the other attachment styles (Collins & Gillath, 2012).

An individual with an insecure-avoidant attachment style often operates in the

opposite manner. This attachment style is more distant and reluctant to feel pain and
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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

anxiety towards the breakup (Schore, 2000). Resentment and anger during a long

period often surface at the end, as mental problems and possibly health issues (Smith,

2013). Both insecure attachment styles experience pain and despair when separating

from a loved one, but they share a different set of emotions and reaction patterns.

The insula. Including several subdivisions (Damasio, 1999), as well as the

perception of visceral sensations. The insula is known to influence the gut feeling of

emotional states. It is an important element contributing to pair bonding formation

(Olausson et al., 2002). The medial insula is also involved when regulating affiliative,

emotional and hormonal responses as the result of skin to skin contact (Bartels & Zeki,

2004). Ven economo neurons (VENs), found both in the ACC and anterior insula, is

responsible for processing complex social information. These neurons are known to

dominate the right hemisphere in the processing of emotional and social information.

Also found to be involved in the phenomena of reward and attachment (Cozolino, 2014).

The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). The ACC is a connection area for the

limbic system and prefrontal cortex (Stevens, Hurley, & Taber, 2011), involved with

romantic love and attachment, associated with affect regulation, emotional and social

processing (Zeki, 2007). Activation in the dorsal ACC in people with anxious-ambivalent

attachment can be connected to physical pain and distress (Gillath, Bunge, Shaver,

Wendelken, & Mikulincer, 2005), showing that the affective-emotion regulative areas of

the brain act differently in people with anxious-ambivalent attachment.

Abnormalities in the ACC is connected to mood disorders, generalized anxiety

disorder (GAD), depression, panic disorder, PTSD and schizophrenia. Autism specter

disorder and high-functioning autism are also included (Cozolino, 2014) in this
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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

typology. People with insecure-avoidant attachment also share abnormalities in the ACC

as compared to secure individuals.

The ventral tegmental area (VTA). This is a structure located in the

midbrain, responsible for sending dopaminergic projections to both the cortical regions

(mesolimbic and mesocortical circuits) and the limbic system (Hanlon, Dowdle, &

Jones, 2016). The VTA is known for regulating the involvement of dopamine, linked to

both romantic love and attachment. The region of A10 dopamine cells alter group

activations in the right medial and posterodorsal body, where the caudate nucleus

functions of sensory signals are inclined to action. Activations of the VTA is associated

with focused attention, pleasure, general arousal and motivation to pursue and gain

rewards (Fisher et al., 2005; Schultz, 2000).

When it comes to the reward system of the brain, in addition to the VTA

involvement, the subcortex and striatum (caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus)

have also been linked to both romantic attachments. The stratum accommodates cells

that are responsive to both drink and reward and is also found present when sexual

arousal in humans and monkeys is detected (Arnow et al., 2002; Bartels & Zeki, 2004).

Monetary reward stimuli (Schultz, 2000), and as well as stimuli associated with cocaine

usage (Breiter & Rosen, 1999) is also reviewed.

Moreover, Gillath et al.’s (2005) study on participants sharing an insecure-

avoidant attachment showed less deactivation in brain areas than securely attached

individuals in the subcallosal cingulate cortex (SCC) and the lateral prefrontal cortex

(LPFC). These areas are often involved in cognition and regulation of emotions, and

emotional withdrawal. The SCC, on the other hand, involves avoidance regulation and

thought processes.
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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

The caudate tail. Brain areas that are associated with romantic feelings, have a

high concentration of the neuro-modulators and dopamine-related to desire, euphoric

states, reward and addiction (Takahashi et al., 2015). The caudate tail is an area rich

with dopamine. People in long-term relationships are shown to have higher dopamine

activation than people who have been in a romantic relationship for a short period of

time. This result indicates that the caudate tails neural activity plays a role in

relationship satisfaction (Bartels & Zeki, 2004). The right medial and posterior-dorsal

body, are areas responsible for the release of dopamine (Fisher et al., 2002), and

together with the medial caudate nucleus which is accountable for enhancing

performance (Fisher et al., 2005) and is highly involved with romantic love and

attachment.

Romantic love, attachment and the neurotransmitters.

Studies on microtine-rodent mammal voles show the difference in the presence

of neurotransmitters such as vasopressin, oxytocin, dopamine, and corticosterone. The

distinctive difference in neurotransmitters may be the reason for why the social pine

and prairie voles are being monogamous compared to the promiscuous non-social

meadow and montane voles (Curtis & Wang, 2003; Fischer et al., 2005; 2006).

Vasopressin. When it comes to vasopressin, this neurotransmitter has a strong

influence on cognition and behavior when released within the brain (Gazzaniga et al.,

2009). The presence of vasopressin can cause the sexual dimorphism observed in rodent

species (Curtis & Wang, 2003). Sexual dimorphism can impact pair bond formation

resulting in stronger attachment in voles. The vasopressin release in the lateral septum

of the brain is found in monogamous male voles when introduced to females. This is an
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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

area activated by recognition of faces as well as sexual dimorphism. In this study, the

centrally released vasopressin binds to the V1a receptor (Young, Nilsen, Waymire,

MacGregor, & Insel, 1999), an action not happening for promiscuous voles. The voles

share nearly the same gene sequence for the receptor but have different promoter

regions.

These findings might explain the difference between monogamy and non-

monogamy involvement (Bamshad, Novak, & De Vries, 1999), especially when it comes

to males. When in love, enhanced levels of vasopressin are found, although males share

higher alteration contra females. Induced vasopressin in males has a positive impact,

while for females too much vasopressin has a negative impact. Scientists suggest these

findings indicate a possible explanation to the problem in human males that have issues

being faithful and attached to their partner and children (Donaldson & Young, 2008).

Oxytocin. When it comes to females, oxytocin has the same impact here as

compared to vasopressin in males. Oxytocin has a significant effect on female voles

whereas too much oxytocin has a negative impact on males (Insel & Shapiro, 1992).

Oxytocin also acts as a component of bonding between the caregiver and offspring.

Enhanced pair bonding and attachment is found when inducing oxytocin in the large

ventricles of the brain, especially in females. When introducing an antagonist specific to

the oxytocin receptor, it barricades for the oxytocin-and mating-induced pair-bonding,

only found effectual in monogamous voles (Curtis & Wang, 2003). The differences

between the social and non-social voles are in the distribution of oxytocin-containing

cells in the oxytocin related brain regions.

Curtis and Wang (2003) question whether the difference in behavior is caused by

the different distribution patterns of oxytocin receptors in the brain, similar to findings
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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

regarding vasopressin. When inducing oxytocin in the brain from reporter genes, both

pair-bonding and maternal behavior in promiscuous voles is found similar to the

monogamous voles. The exception to this assumption is found in the female

promiscuous voles when giving birth. Here the oxytocin receptors grow to be similar in

size to the social voles (Curtis & Wang, 2003). Scientists suggest the reason for voles to

show pair-bonding formations outside maternal care, is because they have copied and

activated maternal behavior towards their partners. These findings are present in both

sexes (Curtis & Wang, 2003; Fischer, Aron, & Brown, 2006).

Although vasopressin and oxytocin have been represented alone, they are

functioning together as in one pathway of the brain (Carter, 2017). The core of

attachment is found in the neurobiological systems regulating fight and flight responses,

and security and stability responses. Oxytocin might be explained as sharing a more

passive role of attachment. Vasopressin, on the other hand, has a more aggressive and

possessive side of attachment and is also linked to jealousy (Carter, 2017).

The formation of oxytocin and vasopressin systems is found affected by early life

experiences. The loss of an attachment figure, early grief, separation, and other traumas

can trigger stress and fear. Resulting in a shutdown behavior in the individual, often

found in insecure attachment styles (Cozolino, 2014), as heightened or lowered

alterations. In healthy individuals, the interaction between oxytocin and vasopressin

regulates the anatomy’s nervous system, especially when exposed to stressful situations.

The different forms of emotion and emotional regulation can be explained under the

influence of neuropeptides. It is important to note, that oxytocin and vasopressin are

linked to metabolic and immune system involvement, physical health and well-being,

combined with the regulation and affiliation of emotional experiences (Amini-Khoei et

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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

al., 2017; Carter, 2017). Although high oxytocin release is often linked to female

experience of romantic love and romantic attachment, it is also found present in men

when looking at pictures of their beloved partners (Scheele et al., 2103).

When it comes to attachment styles, romantic attachment is positively linked to

attachment anxiety and oxytocin. This to “a statistically significant degree (r=0,30,

p=0.04), that is, the higher the oxytocin levels the higher the score on the scale of the

ECR” (Marazziti et al., 2006, p. 1). Here the ECR is the Italian translation of the

American questionnaire Experiences in Close Relationships (ECR). This suggests that

that high oxytocin release can be linked to human anxiety (Marazziti et al., 2006).

There is a positive correlation between a moderate level of stress and pair

bonding in humans. When it comes to romantic relationships, it seems healthy for the

individual to have induced oxytocin to a certain degree. Proposing that the role of

oxytocin, in this case, is to keep anxiety levels under control, so it is not harmful for the

individual (Marazziti et al., 2006). This suggests that the involvement in a romantic

relationship is resulting in stress conditions, that act differently depending on the phase

of the relationship. Very low concentration levels of oxytocin have also shown a negative

effect resulting in pain syndromes, such as abdominal pain and fibromyalgia (Marazziti

et al., 2006).

Oxytocin nasal spray is being used today in studies on females who struggle with

developing and maintaining attachment to their infant, especially when suffering from

postnatal depression (Mah, Van IJzendoorn, Smith, & Bakermans-Kranenburg, 2013).

The use of nasal spray has shown to have a significant impact on human cognition,

social information processing and behavior. As introduced in Guastella and MacLeod’s

(2012) research paper, nasal oxytocin spray enhances the appraisal of effect from the
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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

information of social cues from others and improves the individual's strategic levels of

processing. It is suggested that this might be a solution for women struggling with

attachment towards their romantic partner as well (Guastella & MacLeod, 2012).

Dopamine. Dopamine is strongly linked to interaction and execution of

behavior, especially attachment and social functioning (Curtis & Wang, 2003).

Dopamine release is a part of the reward system in the brain, starting at the substantial

niagra and ventral tegmental area to the striatum, thalamus and the cerebral cortex to

the corpus callosum, through the pons and medulla, and down the spinal cord

(Gazzaniga et al., 2009).

Dopamine release is related to motivating and rewarding activities such as

exercise, sex, specific food consumption, and consummation of certain drugs (Hanlon et

al., 2016), but also mating, pair-bonding, and maintenance of a relationship (Curtis &

Wang, 2003). Dopamine release is found in the nucleus accumbens during mating in

social voles.

Human disorders that can benefit from this drug are related to people struggling

with attachment, such as social phobia and autism, and involuntary movement diseases,

such as Parkinson’s disease (PD) (Takahashi et al., 2015). Introducing the antagonist

apomorphine manually increases pair bonding formation outside mating season.

Apomorphine primarily activates the D2 receptors, but can also affect D1 receptors in

the nucleus accumbens when given at a high dosage. Activation of the D1 receptors has

interestingly shown to decrease pair-bonding formation (Curtis & Wang, 2003).

Apomorphine given at a high dosage is inadequate when it comes to the male

population in regard to romantic love and attachment. Specific disposition of the D2,

and not D1, may induce pair bonding formation outside the breeding season. Blockage
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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

of the D2 receptor, excluding the D1 receptor, prevent from pair bonding when mating

(Curtis & Wang, 2003). The female social voles need a higher dosage of dopamine

agonist release, in order to have the same effect as the males. Inducing the dopamine

antagonist, haloperidol, destroys the process of pair bond formation and results in

promiscuity (Curtis & Wang, 2003).

Corticosterone. Explained as a “steroid-based hormone of 21 carbons with

adrenal corticosteroids synthesized in the adrenal cortex” (Katsu & Iguchi, 2016, p. 527),

corticosterone is a known stress hormone. De Vries and Boyle (1998) found cohabitation

happening significantly faster in females when experiencing adrenalectomy, whereas

males experience sexual dysmorphia. Females often react hostile to males when levels of

corticosterone are manually induced, or with heightened stress levels, whereas males

react in the opposite manner (De Vries & Boyle, 1998). From a neurobiological

perspective, males are driven by the chase of their partner, whereas the females seek

security and commitment.

Serotonin. Acting as a neurotransmitter and hormone, called 5-

hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), serotonin is found in many tissues, the central nervous

system, blood-platelets etc (Gazzaniga et al., 2009). Decreased activity of the

neurotransmitter serotonin transporters is often found in blood-platelets of people

suffering from OCD and obsessive thinking. A study with three groups; people in love,

people with OCD and controls showed the same decreased activity in blood-platelets

and central serotonin transporters for the first two groups compared to controls

(Fischer H. , 2006a).

Blood levels of serotonin also have a differential effect on the two sexes. Men in

love share lower serotonin levels in both plasma and serum serotonin, compared to
 42
NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

women who shared heightened levels in both. In a study detecting serotonin

involvement and romantic love, both sexes reported obsessive thinking of their beloved

up to 65 % of the day. However, in this study women reported a more intense state and

trait of romantic love than men (Langeslang, van der Veen, & Fekkes, 2012).

When it comes to the reward pathways of the brain, people with anxious-

ambivalent attachment might have higher dopamine hence corticosterone release in the

brain, as compared to the secure and insecure-avoidant attachment styles. This to say,

the anxious-ambivalent attached individual get a higher reward for engaging in

romantic love, but they are also exposed to higher levels of stress and possible negative

obsessive thinking.

While secure attachment is the goal, people with the insecure-avoidant

attachment style have lower levels of dopamine and corticosterone release in the brain

(Cozolino, 2014), which results in a reluctance to feel as close to their partner as

compared to the other two attachment styles. These neurological differences help to

explain the different patterns of behavior in people with a specific dominant attachment

style.

Discussion

The present study represents a neurological view investigating the complex

processes of romantic love and romantic attachment. The thesis started with the

question; which neural correlates are involved when we experience love and romantic

attachment towards a partner? As proposed at the beginning of this thesis, I aimed to

introduce and describe the neural correlates of romantic love and romantic attachment.

The thesis approach has been exploratory for the reason that a lot of research have been
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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

given to the topic over the years, altough the neuroscientific side of it is quite new. Since

being in love and feeling romantically attached involves a lot of reward, thought and

emotional processing I found it natural to investigate areas of the brain involved in these

cognitive processes, namely the reward circuitry network and the limbic system,

including other areas that might be involved. The involvement of specific

neurotransmitters might also explain aspects of the individuals experience of being in

love. It was also suggested that the differences among the attachment styles were to be

found in neuroscientific findings as heightened or lowered brain activity, and

neurotransmitter release.

As described in the research findings, romantic love goes deeper, and involves the

regulation of more brain areas, than the brain areas involved for mating purposes only.

This confirms that sex drive is distinctive from romantic love (Fischer et al., 2005),

although there are strong connections to it. This can be seen in the emotion-

motivational system with the three drives such as lust, attraction and attachment. For

what romantic love and romantic attachment are understood as, all these processes are

involved, in a symphony with one and another, and in cooperation with other bodily

systems as well (Fischer H. E., 1998). Most important, romantic love is a primary

motivation system, fundamental for human survival and focused on the specific reward

of mating. Nevertheless, when it comes to romantic love there is something more than

lust, sexual attraction and behavior. It is a deep connection, attachment and a wish of

committing to the chosen partner (Fischer et al., 2002). It is also a choice, an inspiration

and a motivation to continue to be together with the beloved, with investment of time,

energy and effort.

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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

In the theoretical background of romantic love and attachment, following

romantic attachment, the phenomena seems to go hand in hand, as explained in

behavioral science. Despite this, attachment as a central aspect has not always been

included in the definition of romantic love, although interpretations of ways of

attachment may have been included. Sternberg (1997) directs this, mentioning Shaver et

al.’s (1988) perspectives of the attachment theory to be a natural contribution to his own

theory, and that it needs to be revised complimenting the aspect of attachment as well.

When it comes to attachment, scholars agree on the importance of the early years

of infancy (Schore, 2005). The development of the human brain suggests the first years

of life is crucial for later brain functioning, social behavior, and interaction (Belsky,

2002), including attachment formed in romantic relationships (Hazan & Shaver, 1987).

Brain areas involved in learning, memory, emotional regulation, social judgment, and

reward, are all found involved in both romantic love and attachment (Bartels & Zeki,

2000; Buss, 2015; Fischer et al., 2002).

Bowlby and Ainsworth propose that attachment styles formed in the early years

continue to follow into adulthood, influencing social life and close relationships

(Bowlby, 1969/1982; 1973; 1980). Children who have an internal representation of

themselves as being optimistic and confident, might be more secure in their

environments and in close relationships. These individuals are better adjusted and more

competent, than children who share a pessimistic view of themselves and a negative

interpretation (Verschueren et al., 1996). Main and Solomon (1990) propose that it is

possible to improve an individual’s exceeding harmful behavior, if the dynamics of the

environment cooperate in a positive, encouraging manner, together with the individual’s

intrinsic wish to change.

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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

When it comes to romantic love, it seems that scientists agree on the different

aspects of the universal phenomena. Although there are different definitions of romantic

love, they commonly mention intimacy, lust, attraction, bondedness, attachment and

commitment as central aspects (Sternberg & Weis, 2006). When it comes to the

negative aspects of romantic love and attachment this can be experienced as loneliness,

pain, frustration and hatred (Fischer H. , 2006a). Although romantic love has often

been romanticized in the fiction literature, it is important not to forget the possible

challenging and exhausting aspects of romantic love. This being rejection,

abandonment, or other factors that might contribute to a romantic relationship not to

begin, continue or forcing it to end.

When it comes to both attachment and romantic love brain areas linked to

emotional states, memories, thought processes, behavior, and imagination are all

involved, and sometimes they are intertwined as one (Bartels & Zeki, 2004). Concluded

by Fischer (2006b) and Cozolino (2014), childhood, adolescence and later adulthood

play a significant role when it comes to romantic love and attachment behavior.

Important to notice, that there are subjective differences in the capability to fall and

remain in love and attached.

Neurological evidence on romantic love and attachment, address brain areas

responsible for learning, memory, motivation, and reward. Brain areas that are

activated include the cerebral cortex, limbic system; amygdala, OFC, hippocampus,

hypothalamus, ACC, VTA, frontal lobe, the caudate tail and the reward circuitry

network, together with the right medial and posterior-dorsal body (Fischer et al., 2002).

Deactivations of certain brain areas are found crucial in understanding behavior

related to romantic love and attachment (Zeki, 2007), such as the frontal lobe, and parts
 46
NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

of the amygdala (Schore, 2000). Differences in oxytocin, serotonin, dopamine and

corticosterone, together with the reward circuitry network differentiates the subjective

experience of being in love and feeling attached.

Women often share elevated levels of serotonin, oxytocin and dopamine when

being in love and attached to a partner. Males on the other hand shares heightened

levels of vasopressin, corticosterone, and dopamine (Fisher et al., 2005). Serotonin

release is found during intimacy and sexual behavior together with feeling mentally

close to one's partner, in both sexes. When it comes to being in love, men have lower

levels in blood-platelets compared to females. Whereas both share obsessive thinking of

their beloved, which is a result of differing levels of serotonin (Langeslang et al., 2012).

Presented research findings detect the ability to reveal neurological differences in

the brain, such as in the formation of the limbic system, especially the amygdala and

hippocampus. Fear of one’s partner decreases when in love, this found to be true for all

attachment styles. People with an anxious-ambivalent attachment style have a greater

amygdala volume and hippocampus volume, compared to securely attached individuals.

They are also more afraid of being abandoned or rejected than other attachment styles

(Fischer H. , 2006a).

A person with an insecure-avoidant attachment style might have a decreased

amygdala and bilateral reduction in hippocampus volume. They also do not share

deactivations in the prefrontal regions, nor decrease in blood flow (Quirin et al., 2010).

The social judgmental network of the brain is less deactivated here compared to the

other attachment styles. Here these persons might be reluctant to be and feel close, and

are not able to favor their partner as much as the other attachment styles. Stating that
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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

people with a greater neurotransmitter release, have a greater possibility of feeling in

love and attached, than others who do not share the same ability.

Disorganized-disoriented attachment is often included in neuroscience within the

insecure attachment styles. Yet, this attachment style is difficult to categorize and detect

in neuroscience, since people with this attachment style may be suffering from mental

disorders or neurological differences, distinctive from the proposed attachment style

characteristics (Main, 1990).

People tend to repeat behavior which gives a pleasurable outcome, avoiding

painful behavior. Relationship outcomes experienced painful for the individual can be

suggested to influence the individual desire to change their relation to romantic

relationships and attachment behavior. By attending therapy, being aware of one's own

attachment behavior it is possible to change and modify behavior (Sternberg & Weis,

2006). Couples counseling, single therapy, CBT, psychotherapy and even meditation are

believed to be effective strategies in coping with attachment in relation to self and others

(Cozolino, 2014).

Further research and limitations

The reigning theory of attachment, and attachment styles, in behavioral science

is the attachment theory. Since much of behavioral research, including neurological

research, is based on the attachment theory, it is important for science that this theory is

being updated to fit recent scientific findings, theories and believes (Slater, 2007). Since

there is a wide range of measurements of attachment, it is crucial when it comes to

romantic attachment that it measures just that, and not other aspects of attachment

which is not included in the research from the beginning. It is also essential that
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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

measurements are being adapted to the times of change, not relying on merely old

research (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2016; Slater, 2007).

Scholars in the field of romantic love and attachment are often replicating their

own studies, or referring to colleges representing similar findings. This results in a small

group of neuroscientists using and re-using the same findings. Therefore, it would be

disconcerting if the method is later found to be incorrect (Slater, 2007). During the later

years, it has been questioned whether attachment and influence from parents from

childhood consequently have as strong of an impact as the aspect of attachment

assumes.

Most of the surveys involving romantic love and attachment are based on

students who are in college or mature adults who have been married for a long period of

time. When it comes to the different attachment styles, there is also a lack of self-reports

on the subject (Slater, 2007). Questionnaires can be criticized to be biased, because data

is often based on subjective opinions of those involved. Lack of participants and

concentrated groups of participants such as students at the universities makes the

presented data narrow in a lack of diversity (Gazzaniga, 2005). However, with the

internet and constant presence of smart devices, it is easier for the public to be engaged

in surveys online, enlarging the group of possible participants.

Lab experiments have often researched attachment in children on caregiver-

infant attachment, not including father attachment, or attachment between other

caregivers and infant. With regards to neuroscience, it is limited what EEG measures

and fMRI measures can show on the physical impact of romantic love and attachment

(Damasio, 1999). Mental processes occurring at the testing point can result in
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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

conflicting results (Gazzaniga, 2005), further questioning if romantic love and

attachment has been successfully measured or not.

There is a lack of research today on people’s attachment styles as children

following into adulthood. A solution to this might be to investigate people’s attachment

styles from an early age following adulthood, and see if the results can be related to each

other. Including this, it would be interesting to see the individual’s ability to change

after utilizing proposed assessments, such as therapy, meditation or in some cases the

use of medication, in order to identify the effects of change in the individual.

Prescription of drugs known to enhance neurotransmitter releases in the brain,

such as dopamine, serotonin, vasopressin, and oxytocin have been a topic of medical

science for years. However, inducing drugs or stimulants, to understand the neural

correlates of romantic love and attachment would be inappropriate.

In “the ethical brain”, Gazzaniga (2005) explains the complex and controversial

aspects of cognitive neuroscience. There are advantages in genetics, brain training, and

drug development we need to be aware of when measuring the human brain. The law

serves as a guideline for the domain that is a person’s private life and what is not

(Gazzaniga, 2005), making the investigation on romantic love and attachment limited in

neuroscience, since this type of study is on such an intimate and subjective level

(Damasio, 1999).

When it comes neuroscience there are fundamental questions that need to be

answered in regard to embracing pair bonding and attachment. There is still little

knowledge regarding the cellular levels in the brain involved in both phenomena. One

thing is that the neural correlates are discovered; another aspect is the individual’s
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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

subjective, conscious and unconscious, experience and interpretation of romantic love

and attachment.

Conclusion

“Brain activity is considered the physical correlate of mental activity. Accordingly,

a change of the state of mind implies a change in the state of the brain and vice versa”

(Friedrich et al., 2014, p. 1).

Mental processes are based on the individual's own interpretation and

interactions of their environment. The mental processes are forming the action and

reaction pattern of the individual (Gazzaniga et al., 2009). Participants who are anxious-

ambivalent may have higher activations in related brain areas, compared to secure and

insecure-avoidant attachment individuals. Participants with insecure-avoidant

attachment often have suppressed levels in brain alterations (Gillath et al., 2005).

People can, however, change their attachment styles with conscious awareness,

hence making their child attachment different from the one they have later in life

(Cozolino, 2014). It is important to understand, that opposed to the individual's own

attachment style, there is often a specific couple-dynamics attachment style (Gillath et

al., 2005). Gazzaniga (2005) addresses questions such as ethics and morals, the law and

the bias of focusing on specific brain activity and areas conflicting with research

findings.

As proposed in the beginning of this thesis, I aimed to introduce and describe the

neural correlates of romantic love and romantic attachment, as an exploratory

approach. The complicated aspects of romantic love and the bond of attachment
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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

towards a romantic partner as well as the discovery of neural correlates are considered

necessary in the unit understanding of romantic love and attachment.

As described earlier, being in love and feeling romantically attached to a partner,

often demands a lot of thought and emotional processing, together with being a highly

rewarding experience. Taking this into consideration, I wanted to investigate the

reward, emotion and thought processing areas of the brain, namely the reward circuitry

network and the limbic system, together with other brain areas that might be involved

when it comes to romantic love and romantic attachment. When it comes to the

different attachment styles, it was also suggested that the differences among the

attachment styles could be found in neuroscientific findings as heightened or lowered

brain activity, and neurotransmitter release.

Proposed neurological research findings, derived from scholars in the field of

romantic love and romantic attachment, confirms the involvement of the reward

circuitry network and the limbic system as crucial, with contributing regions involved in

learning, memory, social behavior and interaction. Neuroscientific findings confirming

behavior scientific theories are essential, especially when it comes to an understanding

of what happens in our body and brain when being in love and feeling romantically

attached. Also, in addition to the basic neural correlates appearing, there are certain

neural correlates confirming that there are some differences when it comes to

attachment styles and romantic attachment, especially in the activation or de-activation

of specific brain areas and neurotransmitter release.

The human’s ability to alter memory, and the processes of learning, re-learning

and new-learning give us the possibility to alter the effect the brain has on our actions

and decisions, hence in romantic relationships and our attachment styles. The plasticity
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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

of the human brain shows that we also have the capability and ability to impact and

change our social behavior concerning our intrinsic and extrinsic impression of

ourselves and others and in the relationship with self and others (Cozolino, 2014).

Even though secure attachment is the most favorable, there are still highly

functioning people who share the insecure attachment styles. In a diverse world, it is

beneficial to have people with different characteristics and methods of coping (Cozolino,

2014). Although attachment styles are still being used in the science of romantic love

and as relationship preference, prediction, and satisfaction, it is challenging to simplify

such complex phenomena such as romantic love and attachment (Acevedo et al., 2012).

A person might have a combination of attachment styles, fluctuating within the

dynamics of different interactions as proposed in the new psychology of love (Sternberg

& Weis, 2006). People, who have their individual attachment style as secure attachment,

do not always need their partner to share the same attachment type. There are well-

functioning people sharing other attachment styles and experiencing flourishing and

healthy relationships.

It would be interesting to know, the changes in neural correlates apparent in

people consciously changing their attachment style. As explained in Cozolino (2014) it is

possible for people with insecure attachment styles to change towards a more secure

attachment style. It is known that people with insecure attachment styles might struggle

with mental disorders, and medication might be a possible addition to handling one's

own attachment style and reaction pattern in a romantic relationship.

As Fischer (2006b) states, fMRI studies can tell us what happens in the brain

when falling in love, continue to be in love and feeling attached to our partner. Despite

this, neuroscience still remains to explore and explain the elmental question of why we
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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

fall in love with some people and not others. Nature and nurture play a significant role.

Biological factors such as smell, voice, movements, or having an opposite immune

system than ourselves might enhance the possibility of finding the opposite sex

attractive. Possible factors can be that the other person reminds us of our caretakers

hopefully in a positive way. However, many people choose partners sharing the same

destructive pattern as caretakers.

When looking at factors other than mentioned above, there are many reasons

more for falling in love and feeling attached to someone, making science leaving many

questions unanswered (Fischer H. , 2006b). Regarding romantic love and romantic

attachment, I assume science will continue to prope deeper into consciousness studies,

and investigate why people favor a possible mating partner over other equally fit mating

partners.
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NEURAL CORRELATES OF ROMANTIC LOVE AND ROMANTIC ATTACHMENT

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Appendix A

Sternberg’s (1997) triangular theory of love scale (TLS)

Sternberg’s triangular theory of love scale is commonly used when measuring romantic
love. Answers are scored on a 9-point Likert scale from “Not at all,” to “Moderately,” to
“Extremely.” The participants is advised to fill in the blank spaces with the name of one
person they care or love for deeply.

Intimacy
1. I am actively supportive of _____’s well-being.
2. I have a warm relationship with _____.
3. I am able to count on _____ in times of need.
4. _____ is able to count on me in times of need.
5. I am willing to share myself and my possessions with _____.
6. I receive considerable emotional support from _____.
7. I give considerable emotional support to _____.
8. I communicate well with _____.
9. I value _____ greatly in my life.
10. I feel close to _____.
11. I have a comfortable relationship with _____.
12. I feel that I really understand _____.
13. I feel that _____ really understands me.
14. I feel that I can really trust _____.
15. I share deeply personal information about myself with _____.

Passion
16. Just seeing _____ excites me.
17. I find myself thinking about _____ frequently during the day.
18. My relationship with _____ is very romantic.
19. I find _____ to be very personally attractive.
20. I idealize _____.
21. I cannot imagine another person making me as happy as _____ does.
22. I would rather be with _____ than with anyone else.
23. There is nothing more important to me than my relationship with _____.
24. I especially like physical contact with _____.
25. There is something almost “magical” about my relationship with _____.
26. I adore _____.
27. I cannot imagine life without _____.
28. My relationship with _____ is passionate.
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29. When I see romantic movies or read romantic books I think of _____.
30. I fantasize about _____.

Commitment
31. I know that I care about _____.
32. I am committed to maintaining my relationship with _____.
33. Because of my commitment to _____, I would not let other people come between
us.
34. I have confidence in the stability of my relationship with _____.
35. I could not let anything get in the way of my commitment to _____.
36. I expect my love for _____ to last for the rest of my life.
37. I will always have a strong responsibility for _____.
38. I view my commitment to _____ as a solid one.
39. I cannot imagine ending my relationship with _____.
40. I am certain of my love for _____.
41. I view my relationship with _____ as permanent.
42. I view my relationship with _____ as a good decision.
43. I feel a sense of responsibility toward _____.
44. I plan to continue in my relationship with _____.
45. Even when _____ is hard to deal with, I remain committed to our relationship.

If the participant has high scores on all the three components this would indicate

consummate love. However, the nature of a relationship may change over time, not

saying that low scores on the three proposed scales represents a weak romantic

relationship.

Note: The questions are from “The Triangular Love Scale” from The Triangle of Love: Intimacy, Passion,
Commitment, by R. Sternberg.
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Appendix B

Relationship scales questionnaire (RSQ)

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The questionnaire originates from Griffin & Bartholomew’s (1994) original study,

and is a commonly used questionnaire when measuring adult romantic

relationship and adult romantic attachment.

Note. [Table] Found in “Self-report attachment measures” by Bartholomews Research Lab, n.d.,

Simon Fraser University: Department of Psychology Members. Copyright (2018) by “Simon

Fraser University”. Retrieved July 27, 2018, from

http://members.psyc.sfu.ca/labs/kim_bartholomew/attachment/self. Reprinted with permission

from K. Bartholomew.
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Appendix C

The four-category model of adult attachment

Figure 1. Model of adult attachment found in Bartholomew & Horowitz (1991).

Here the terminology of the anxious-ambivalent attachment is called

preoccupied, insecure-avoidant attachment is called dismissing and fearful is the

known disorganized-disoriented attachment style.

Note. [Table] Found in “Attachment styles among young adults: A test of a four-category model,”

by K. Bartholomew & L. M. Horowitz, 1991, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2, pp.

229. Copyright (1991) by “The American Psychological Association”. Retrieved June 12, 2018,

from http://psycnet.apa.org/buy/1991-33075-001. Reprinted with permission from the authors.

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Appendix D
Attachment styles

The different attachment styles, parental behavior style resulting in adult

attachment characteristics of the individual (Cozolino, 2014) proposed by

Ainsworth and Bowlby (1991):

❖ Secure attachment style: The parent has been aligned with the child, and

in tune with the child’s emotions and needs. This results in adult

characteristics as being able to create meaningful relationships later in life.

The person will be emphatic and able to set boundaries for itself.

❖ Insecure/avoidant attachment style: The parent has been unavailable

and/or rejecting in their behavior. This results in adult characteristics as

avoidant of emotional connection and closeness. The person may behave

critical, intolerant, disconnected or rigid in their personal relationships.

❖ Ambivalent/anxious attachment style: The parent has been inconsistent

and intrusive in their communication with the child. This results in adult

characteristics of the individual as being insecure and anxious, and may

behave as controlling, unpredictable, blaming, erratic and sometimes

charming in personal relationships.

❖ Disorganized/disoriented attachment style: The parent has been

ignorant/negligent of the child’s needs and parenting behavior might have

been frightening or traumatizing for the child. This results in adult

characteristics as being chaotic and insensitive, explosive and sometimes

abusive. The person is often untrusting while they at the same time craves

security, comfort and intimacy.

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Appendix E

Brain areas involved in romantic love and romantic attachment

Figure 2. This figure shows some of the brain areas involved in romantic love and

romantic attachment. Some structures cannot be seen from this angle.

Note. [Figure] Found in the “The neurobiology of love “ by S. Zeki, 2007, Federation of European

Biochemical Societies Letters, 581, 2575-2579. Reprinted with permission from the author.