PROGRAM MODELS

• A model is a formal system consisting of objects and composition

rules.
• In hardware software co-design, models are used for capturing and
describing the system characteristics.
• Most often designers switch between a variety of models from the
requirements specification to the implementation aspect of the
system design.
DATA FLOW GRAPH (DFG) MODELS
• The DFG model translates the data processing requirements into a data flow
graph.
• Operation on the data(process) is represented using a block (circle) and dataflow
is represented using arrows.
• Embedded applications which are computational intensive and data driven are
modelled using DFG
Control Data Flow Graph (CDFG) model
• The CDFG model is used for modelling applications involving conditional program
execution.
• The CDFG models contain both data operations and
control operations.
• The control node is represented by a ‘Diamond’ block
which is the decision making element in a
normal flow chart based design.
State Machine Model
• The state machine model is used for modelling reactive or event-driven
embedded systems whose processing behaviour are dependent on state
transitions.
• It describes the system behaviour with ‘States’, ‘Events’, ‘Actions’ and
‘Transitions’.
• State is a representation of a current situation
• An event is an input to the state
• The event acts as stimuli for state transition
• Transition is the movement from one state to another
• Action is an activity to be performed by the state machine.
FSM model for seat belt warning system
Real Time Operating System
(RTOS)
Features of a Real Time operating system
• Clock and Timer support
• Clock and timer services with adequate resolution are the most important
issues in a RTOS
• Real Time priority levels
• RTOS must support static priority levels.
• Fast task preemption
• Time duration for which a higher priority task waits before it is allowed to
execute is quantitatively expressed as task preemption time
• Predictable and fast interrupt latency
• Interrupt latency is the occurrence of the interrupt and running of the
corresponding subroutine
• Interrupt latency must be less than a few micro seconds
Unix
• UNIX was originally developed for mainframe computers.
• However, Unix and its variants have now permeated to desktop and
even handheld computers.
Dynamic priority levels
• The scheduler arranges tasks in multilevel queues.
• At every preemption point, the scheduler scans the multilevel queue from the
top(highest priority) and selects the tasks at the head of the first non empty
queue.
• Each task is allowed to run for a fixed time
(Unix normally uses 1 second time slice)
Non preemptive kernel
• In Unix, a process running in kernel mode cannot be pre-empted by
other processes.
Unix based Real Time Operating System
• Different approaches undertaken to make Unix suitable for real time
applications
• Extensions to the traditional unix kernel
• Additional capabilities such as real time timer support, a real
time task scheduler were implemented.
• Host target approach
• Real time application development is done on a host machine.
• The host system is a Unix or Windows based system supporting the
program development environment, including compilers, editors, library,
cross-compilers, debuggers etc.
• The host is connected to the target using a serial port or TCP/IP
(Transmission control protocol/internet protocol) connection.
• The real time program is developed on the host.
• It is then cross-compiled to generate code for the target
processor.
• Subsequently, the executable module is downloaded to the
target board.
• Tasks are executed on the target board and the execution is
controlled at the host side using a cross-debugger.
• Once the program works successfully, it is fused on a ROM or
flash memory and becomes ready to be deployed in
applications.
• Example PSOS (portable software on silicon)
Preemption point approach

• To improve the performance of non-preemptive kernels

preemption points are introduced in system routines.
• At preemption points, the kernel can safely be preempted to make
way for any waiting higher priority real time tasks to run without
corrupting any kernel data structures.
• This approach is suitable for use in many categories of hard real
time applications.
• Involves only minor changes to be made in the kernel code.
• Example: Windows CE
Self Host systems
• A real-time application is developed on the same system on
which the real-time application would finally run.
• The operating system modules that are not essential during
task execution are excluded during deployment.
• The real time application is developed on the full fledged
operating system.
• Once the application runs satisfactorily on the host, it is
fused on a ROM or flash memory on the target board along
with a possibly stripped down version of the operating
system.
• Most of the self-host operating systems are based on micro-kernel
architecture.
• The add-on modules can be easily excluded, whenever these are not
required.
• In a micro-kernel architecture, only the core functionalities such as
interrupt handling and process management are implemented as
kernel routines.
• All other functionalities such as memory management, file
management, device management etc are implemented as add on
modules which operate in user mode.
Windows as a Real Time Operating System
• Microsoft developed DOS (Disk operating system) in the early Eighties.
• DOS was a very simple operating system that was single tasking
• DOS evolved to the Windows series operating systems in the late Eighties
(graphical front end)
• The Windows code was completely rewritten in 1998 to develop the
Windows NT system. (much more stable than the earlier DOS based
systems)
• Computers based on Windows NT extensively used in homes, offices and
industrial establishments.
• Used in prototype application development
Important features of windows NT
• Windows NT support 32 priority levels.
• Each process belongs to one of the priority classes: idle, normal, high,
real time.
• By default, the priority class at which a user task runs is normal
• Both normal and high priority classes are variable type (priorities of
tasks in this class are recomputed periodically by the OS).
• Processes such as screen saver use priority class idle.
POSIX
• POSIX stands for Portable Operating System Interface.
• POSIX started as an open software initiative, but now has almost
become standard for operating system.
• Open system advocates standard interfaces for similar products; so
that users can easily integrate their application with the products
supplied by any vendor.
• The most important goals of open systems are: interoperability and
portability
• Interoperability means systems from multiple vendors can exchange
information among each other.
• A system is portable if it can be moved from one environment to
another without modifications.
• Open software:
• An open system is a vendor neutral environment, which allows
users to intermix hardware, software and networking solutions
from different vendors.
• Reduces cost of development and time to market a product.
• Helps increase the availability of add-on software packages.
• Enhances ease of programming
• Facilitates easy integration of separately developed modules
• Open software standard can be classified into
• Open source
• Provides portability at the source code level. Example ANSI, POSIX
• To run an application on a new platform would require only compilation and linking.
• Open object
• Provides portability of unlinked object modules across different platforms
• To run an application on a new platform, relinking of the object modules would be
required.
• Open binary
• Provides complete software portability across hardware platforms based on a
common binary language structure.
• Can be portable at the executable code level.
History of POSIX
• Unix was originally developed by AT&T Bell Labs in the early seventies.
• UCB (University of California at Berkeley) was one of the earliest recipients of
Unix source code.
• AT&T later developed Unix and came up with Unix V.
• UCB came up with its own version of Unix and named it as BSD (Berkeley
Software Distribution)
• Many vendors implemented and extended Unix services in different ways: IBM
with its AIX, HP with its HP-UX, Sun with its Solaris, Digital with its Ultrix, SCO with
SCO-Unix
• The important parts of POSIX and the aspects they deal with
• POSIX.1 : system interfaces and system call parameters
• POSIX.2 : shells and utilities
• POSIX.3 : test methods for verifying conformance to POSIX
• POSIX.4 : real-time extensions
Real time POSIX standard
• Main requirements of POSIX-RT are:
• Execution scheduling
• Must provide support for real-time (static) priorities
• Performance requirements on system calls
• Worst case execution times are specified
• Priority levels
• The number of priority levels supported should be at least 32
• Timers
• Periodic and one shot timers should be supported
• Real Time files
• It can preallocate storage for files and should be able to store file blocks on the disk
• Memory locking
• mlockall() to lock all pages of a process
• mlock() to lock a range of pages
• mlockpage() to lock only the current page
• The unlock services are munlockall(), munlock() and munlockpage()
• Multithreading support
• POSIX-RT mandates threading support by an operating system
PSOS
• PSOS is available from Wind River Systems, a large player in the RTOS arena
• Used in several commercial embedded products
• An example application of PSOS is in the base stations of cell phone systems
• The host computer is typically a desktop.
• The target board contains the embedded processor, ROM, RAM etc.
• The host computer runs the editor, cross compiler, source-level
debugger and library routines.
• PSOS+ and other optional modules such as PNA+, PHILE and PROBE
are installed on a ROM on the target board.
• PNA+ is the network manager and it provides efficient downloading
and debugging communication between the target and the host.
• PROBE+ is the target debugger and XRAY+ is the source-level
debugger.
• Important features
• PSOS supports 32 priority levels which can be assigned to tasks.
• In the minimal configuration, the footprint of the target operating system is
only 12KBytes.
• For sharing critical resources among real-time tasks, it supports priority
inheritance and priority ceiling protocols.
• Supports segmented memory management as it is intended to be used in
small and moderate sized embedded applications.
VRTX
• VRTX is a POSIX-RT compliant operating system from Mentor Graphics
• VRTX has been certified by the US FAA (Federal Aviation Agency) for use in
mission and life critical applications such as avionics.
• Available in 2 multitasking kernels: VRTXsa and VRTXmc
• VRTXsa
• Used for large and medium sized applications
• Supports Virtual memory
• Has a POSIX compliant library and supports priority inheritance.
• VRTXmc
• Optimized for power consumption and ROM and RAM sizes
• Doesnot support virtual memory
• Kernel typically requires only 4 to 8KBytes of ROM and 1KBytes of RAM
• Targeted for use in embedded applications such as computer based toys, cell phones etc
VxWorks
• VxWorks is a product from Wind River Systems.
• Host can be either a Windows or a Unix machine.
• VxWorks comes with an integrated development environment (IDE) called
Tornado which contains VxSim and Windview
• VxSim simulates a VxWorks target for use as a prototyping and testing
environment in the absence of the actual target board.
• WindView provides debugging tools for the simulator environment.
• VxWorks was deployed in the Mars Pathfinder which was sent to Mars in 1997
QNX
• QNX is a product from QNX software system Ltd.
• Intended for use in mission critical applications in the areas such as
medical instrumentation, Internet routers, telemetric devices, process
control applications and air traffic control systems.
• Can be configured to a very small size
µC/OS-II
• µC/OS-II is available from Micrium Corporation.
• Written in ANSI X and contains small portion of assembly code.
• Important Features are
• µC/OS-II was designed to let the programmers have the option of using just a
few of the offered services or select the entire range of services
• µC/OS-II has a fully preemptive kernel.
• µC/OS-II allows upto 64 tasks to be created.
• µC/OS-II uses a partitioned memory management scheme.
• µC/OS-II has been certified by Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) for use in
commercial aircrafts.
Benchmarking Real Time systems
• Rhealstone Metric
• Task Switching Time (𝑡𝑡𝑠 )
• The time it takes for one context switch among equal priority tasks.
• Task Preemption Time (𝑡𝑡𝑝 )
• Time it takes to start execution of a higher priority task (compared to
the currently running task), after the condition enabling the task
occurs.
• Interrupt Latency Time (𝑡𝑖𝑙 )
• Time it takes to start the execution of the required ISR after an
interrupt occurs.