1 - Cell Physiology
1 - Cell Physiology
1 - Cell Physiology
Wafa’a sameer
2014
Cell physiology
P hysiology : is the science that deal with the study of the function of the
healthy living organisms and the changes which occurs during activity .
of any single type of cell in the body, there are about 75 trillion additional cells of
other types that perform functions different from those of the red cell. Size of the
different cells varies depending on the function . The cell with the largest diameter
is an Oocyte with a diameter of about 140 µm.
Although the many cells of the body often differ markedly from one
another, all of them have certain basic characteristics that are alike. For instance, 1-
in all cells, oxygen reacts with carbohydrate, fat, and protein to release the energy
required for cell function.
2- Further, the general chemical mechanisms for changing nutrients into energy are
basically the same in all cells .
3- all cells deliver end products of their chemical reactions into the surrounding
fluids.
4- Almost all cells also have the ability to reproduce additional cells of their
own kind except neurons .
Cells are capable of living, growing, and performing their special functions
as long as the proper concentrations of oxygen, glucose, different ions, amino acids,
fatty substances, and other constituents are available in this internal environment.
2- Kidneys.: Passage of the blood through the kidneys removes most substances
from the plasma that are not needed by the cells. These substances include
different end products of cellular metabolism, such as urea and uric acid; they
also include excesses of ions and water from the food that might have
accumulated in the extracellular fluid.
The kidneys perform their functions by :
a- Filtering large quantities of plasma through the glomeruli into the tubules.
b- reabsorbing into the blood those substances needed by the body, such as
glucose, amino acids, appropriate amounts of water, and many of the ions.
However , substances that are not needed by the body are not reabsorbed but ,
instead , pass through the renal tubules into the urine.
D- Regulation of Body Functions
1- Nervous System: The nervous system is composed of three major parts:
a- the sensory input portion b- the central nervous system (or integrative
portion), c- the motor output portion.
Sensory receptors detect the state of the body or the state of the surroundings.
(skin, eyes, ears , etc.) .
The CNS is composed of the brain and spinal cord. The brain can store
information, generate thoughts, create ambition ابتداء الطموح, and determine
reactions that the body should performs in response to the sensations.
Appropriate signals االيعازاا المازباare then transmitted through the motor output
portion of the nervous system to carry out one’s desires.
2- Hormonal System of Regulation : Located in the body are eight major
endocrine glands that secrete chemical substances called hormones.
Hormones are transported in the extracellular fluid to all parts of the body to
help regulate cellular function. For instance,
thyroid hormone increases the rates of most chemical reactions in all cells, thus
helping to set the tempo of bodily activity.
Insulin controls glucose metabolism.
adrenocortical hormones control sodium ion, potassium ion, and protein
metabolism.
parathyroid hormone controls bone calcium and phosphate.
Thus, the hormones are a system of regulation that complements the nervous
system. The nervous system regulates mainly muscular and secretory activities of
the body,whereas the hormonal system regulates many metabolic functions.
E- Reproduction
Sometimes reproduction is not considered a homeostatic function. It does, however,
help maintain homeostasis by generating new beings to take the place of those that
are dying .This may sound like a permissive usage of the term homeostasis, but it
illustrates that, in the final analysis, essentially all body structures are organized
such that they help maintain the automaticity and continuity of life.
Reconstruction of a typical cell, showing the internal organelles in the cytoplasm and in the nucleus.
Structure of the cell membrane, showing that it is composed mainly of a lipid bilayer of phospholipid molecules,
I. Diffusion :
Movement occur in all directions .
Movement occur along the gradient .
Thus , the diffusion is the net movement of similar molecules from their area
of higher concentration to their area of lower concentration.
Substances that diffuse through membranes do so by :
1- Diffusion of Lipid-Soluble Substances Through the Lipid Bilayer :
Lipid soluble substances will diffuse through the lipid layer of the membrane
at greater rates than they will diffuse through the protein part of the membrane .
However ; diffusion through the lipid layer is affected by :
1- The solubility of substance in lipid .
2- Temperature .
3- Concentration gradient .
2- Diffusion of Water and Other Lipid-Insoluble Molecules Through Protein
Channels :
In this type of movement , substances move from higher to lower
concentration also , but their movement is affected by :
1- Electrical charge along the surface of the pore .
2- The size of the pore .
3- The specific nature of the pore .
This type of diffusion is like other types of diffusion except for the carrier’s
ability to help the sugar molecule move across the membrane .[ its move from
higher to lower concentration . However , it does so at a faster rate than that of
simple diffusion ] . When the sugar concentration is particularly high , the rate of
movement is limited by the number of carrier molecules available .
III. Osmosis :“Net Diffusion” of Water
Water passes through pores in cell membrane rapidly in both directions . If a
concentration gradient exist , water will move from its own area of higher
concentration to its own area of lower concentration at a greater rate than it move in
the opposite direction . This net movement of water across a selectively permeable
membrane is Osmosis . Osmosis occur particularly if the membrane is permeable
only to water molecules .
During osmosis water molecules passes through the plasma membrane
in two ways :
1- By moving through lipid bilayer because of their small size and high
kinetic energy .
2- By moving through aquaporins .
Osmotic pressure : is the force under which water moves from an area
of low solute concentration to an area of high solute concentration .
Cells normally are in osmotic balance with the fluids in their environment,
that is , water is moving in & out of the cell at the same rate, so that no net
movement occurs . Both the cells 7 the fluids around them contain proteins & other
molecules and ions that exert osmotic pressure . If a concentration gradient develops
between the cells and their environment , the net movement of water will be toward
the area of higher concentration of solute ( lower concentration of water ) until
osmotic balance restored .
Osmol: A gram molecular weight of a substance divided by the number of
ions each molecule produces when it dissociates .
Osmolarity : the osmotic concentration of a solution determined by the
number of osmotically active particles it contain . [ is the number of osmoles per
liter of solution ] .
Osmolality : is the number of osmoles per kilogram of solvent .
Osmoreceptor : Hypothalamic receptors that respond to change in the
osmotic pressure of the blood .
Oncotic pressure : the colloid osmotic pressure due to the plasma colloids
in the blood is called oncotic pressure .
Tonicity : the term tonicity is used to describe the osmolality of a solution
relative to plasma . Tonicity is a measure of the ability of the solution to change the
volume of cell by altering their water content .
Isotonic : Solution that have the same osmolality as that of plasma are
said to be isotonic to that of plasma , e.g. 0.9 % sodium chloride , 5%
dextrose in water etc.
IV. Filtration :
In some situations in the body substances are pushed through membranes by
pressure , such as the pressure the pressure of flowing blood . this phenomenon ,
called filtration , is essentially the same as the movement of substances through
filter paper in a funnel because those substances are pushed through the filter paper
by the pressure of the solution standing in the funnel . This pressure is called
hydrostatic pressure . Filtration occurs as blood flows through the capillaries . Blood
pressure pushing blood along the inside of capillaries also pushes nutrients & other
substances through the walls of the capillaries out in to the tissue fluids .
V. Bulk flow :
In the capillaries and in certain other locations in the body , water molecules
move across membranes at more rapid rates that can be accounted for by diffusion .
In all causes water is moving along a gradient created by osmotic pressure or
hydrostatic (filtration) pressure . But, the rapid movement of water appears to be
due to a particular property of water molecules :- Once moving in a given direction
, water molecules tend to flow in streams through the pores of a membrane . This
streaming property of water molecules is called bulk flow . Bulk flow is an
important factor in the movement of fluids between the circulatory system & the
cells of the body .
VI. Active transport :
The transport of a substances against a gradient using an enzyme , a carrier ,
& ATP . Active transport causes molecules to move against concentration gradients
from areas of lower to areas of higher concentration .
e.g.// Na+ are pumped out of cells in to extracellular fluid where the
concentration of Na+ is higher than inside the cells . this process require energy from
ATP .
The substances to be actively transported :
1- Attaches to a carrier molecule that causes the substance to move across
the cell membrane .
2- An enzyme that is usually part of the carrier molecule release energy from
ATP . this energy is used to a-) activate the carrier , b-) separate the
substance being transported from the carrier , c-) & to discharge the
substance into or outside the cell .
The energy is required because the substances is being moved against the
concentration gradient .