Pharmacognosy1 PDF
Pharmacognosy1 PDF
Pharmacognosy1 PDF
1
1. MEANING OF PHARMACOGNOSY
crude drugs obtained from plants, animals and mineral kingdom and their
constituents.
recent historical research has found an earlier usage of this term. The physician J. A.
Schmidt (Vienna) used that one in his Lehrbuch der materia medica in 1811, to
describe the study of medicinal plants and their properties. The word pharmacognosy
is derived from two Latin words pharmakon, ‘a drug,’ and gignoso, ‘to acquire
Crude drugs are plants or animals, or their parts which after collection are subjected
only to drying or making them into transverse or longitudinal slices or peeling them
in some cases.
Most of the crude drugs used in medicine are obtained from plants, and only a small
number comes from animal and mineral kingdoms. Drugs obtained from plants
consist of entire plants, whereas senna leaves and pods, nux vomica seeds, ginger
rhizome and cinchona bark are parts of plants. Though in a few cases, as in lemon and
2
orange peels and in colchicum corm, drugs are used in fresh condition, and most of
Crude drugs may also be obtained by simple physical processes like drying or
extraction with water. Therefore, aloe is the dried juice of leaves of Aloe species,
opium is the dried latex from poppy capsules and black catechu is the dried aqueous
extract from the wood of Acacia catechu. Plant exudates such as gums, resins and
balsams, volatile oils and fixed oils are also considered as crude drugs.
Drugs obtained from animals are entire animals, as cantharides; glandular products,
like thyroid organ or extracts like liver extracts. Similarly, fish liver oils, musk, bees
wax, certain hormones, enzymes and antitoxins are products obtained from animal
sources.
Drugs are organized or unorganized. Organized drugs are direct parts of plants and
consist of cellular tissues. Unorganized drugs, even though prepared from plants are
not the direct parts of plants and are prepared by some intermediary physical
processes, such as incision, drying or extraction with water and do not contain
cellular tissue. Thus aloe, opium, catechu, gums, resins and other plant exudates are
unorganized drugs. Drugs from mineral sources are kaolin, chalk, diatomite and other
bhasmas of Ayurveda.
3
2. HISTORY OF PHARMACOGNOSY
In the early period, primitive man went in search of food and ate at random, plants or
As no harmful effects were observed he considered them as edible materials and used
them as food. If he observed other effects by their eating they were considered
inedible, and according to the actions he used them in treating symptoms or diseases.
If it caused diarrhea it was used as purgative, if vomiting it was used as memtic and if
it was found poisonous and death was caused, he used it as arrow poison.
The knowledge was empirical and was obtained by trial and error. He used drugs as
such or as their infusions and decoctions. The results were passed on from one
generation to the other, and new knowledge was added in the same way.
emperor who investigated the medicinal value of several hundred herbs. He was
reputed to have tested many of them on himself, and to have written the first Pen T-
Sao, or Native Herbal, recording 365 drugs. Shen Nung conceivably examined many
herbs, barks and roots brought in from the fields, swamps and woods that are still
4
recognized in pharmacy (podophyllum, rhubarb, ginseng, stramonium, cinnamon
Inscriptions on oracle bones from the Shang Dynasty (1766–1122 B.C.), have
number of medical treatises on silk banners and bamboo slips were excavated from
tombs which were copied from books dating from the period between (300 B.C.–A.D.
With the interest in alchemy came the development of pharmaceutical science and
herbs classified in six categories: (1) stone (minerals), (2) grasses and trees, (3)
insects and animals, (4) fruits and vegetables, (5) grains and (6) named but unused.
From the Sung Dynasty (960–1276) the establishment of pharmaceutical system has
been a standard practice throughout the country. Before the ingredients of Chinese
process, e.g. baking, simmering or roasting. The preparation differs according to the
needs for the treatment of the disease. Preparation methods, production methods
In 1552, Li Shi Zhen (1518–1593) began work on the monumental Pen T’sao Kan Mu
(Herbal with Commentary). After 27 years and three revisions, the Pen T’sao Kan Mu
5
was completed in 1578. The book lists 1892 drugs, 376 described for the first time
The most complete medical documents existing are the Ebers Papyrus (1550 B.C.), a
collection of 800 prescriptions, mentioning 700 drugs and the Edwin Smith Papyrus
(1600 B.C.), which contains surgical instructions and formulas for cosmetics. The
Kahun Medical Papyrus is the oldest, it comes from 1900 B.C. and deals with the
However, it is believed that the Smith Papyrus was copied by a scribe from an older
document that may have dated back as far as 3000 B.C. Commonly used herbs
included: senna, honey, thyme, cumin, (all for digestion); pomegranate root (for
worms) as well as pine-tar, aloe, caraway, cedar, coriander, fennel, garlic, wild lettuce,
onion, peppermint, poppy-plant and saffron. turpentine and acacia gum were also
used.
In India knowledge of medicinal plants is very old, and medicinal properties of plants
are described in Rigveda and in Atharvaveda (3500–1500 B.C.) from which Ayurveda
has developed.
6
Ayurveda is the term for the traditional medicine of ancient India. Ayur means life
and veda means the study of which is the origin of the term. The oldest writing—
Charaka Samhita—is believed to date back six to seven centuries before Christ. It is
of mentioned medicines origin from plants and animals, e.g. ricinus, pepper, lilly,
valerian, etc
(460–370 B.C.) is referred to as father of medicine and is remembered for his famous
Aristotle (384–322 B.C.), a student of Plato was a philosopher and is known for his
century.
Dioscorides, a physician who lived in the first century A.D., described medicinal
plants, some of which like belladonna, ergot, opium, colchicum are used even today.
Pliny wrote 37 volumes of natural history and Galen (131–A.D. 200) devised methods
The Doctrine of Signatures: dating from the time of Dioscorides and Galen, states
that herbs resembling various parts of the body can be used by herbalists to treat
7
ailments of those body parts. A theological justification, as stated by botanists such
as William Coles, was that God would have wanted to show men what plants would
be useful for.
Pulmonaria officinalis: Its large elongated leaves, of a beautiful dark green, are
frequently covered with white spots. These spots represented the pulmonary alveoli
(vesicles). the plant is very rich in mucilage, which gives it some softening and
expectorant virtues.
Ranunculus ficaria: Its roots are swollen in the form of elongated tubercles and
strangely recall hemorrhoids. It was proved later its efficiency as an analgesic and
anti-inflammatory drug.
Filipendula ulmaria & Salix alba : Both of them grow near water, and so they were
used to treat diseases that are caught in the water, or at least in cold. Salicylate
After the collapse of the Greco-Roman civilization, the vast Arabic speaking world of
the Middle Ages performed a great service to mankind by acting as a link between
ancient and modern medical science. For them the Middle Ages were not an era of
darkness but an era enlightened by a renaissance of scientific study which not only
preserved for the world much of the medical knowledge of the Greeks and ancient
Semites but also contributed, much that had been unknown in medical science.
8
It was the Christian Syrians who first translated Greek medical literature. The works
Hunain ibnIshaq, known as Johannitius (809-873 A.D.) who was a scholar of the
Greek language and adapted many of the Greek terms to his development of
Al-Razi " Rhazes" is considered as the greatest of all the Arabic medical men lived
from 850- 923 A.D. Over 200 books were written by Rhazes and of this number
several have been of great importance in the development of medical science, "Al-
Judari w-al-Hasbah" & " al-Hawi"; The last one was an encyclopaedic work of the
medical information known in his day. It was translated into Latin in 1280 A.D. and
was one of the total of nine books that composed the library of the Faculty of
Ibn Sina (Avicenna, 980-1037 A.D.) had the most brilliant mind in Arabic medicine,
who wrote the Canon of Medicine which was translated into Latin and Hebrew and
was widely used as a textbook until as late as the middle of the 17th century.
9
2.2. Scientific period
Pharmacy separated from medicine and materia medica, the science of material
identification of drugs both in entire and powdered conditions and concerned with
The development of modern pharmacognosy took place later during the period
analytic chemistry, including paper, thin layer, and gas chromatography and
spectophotometry.
The substances from the plants were isolated, their structures elucidated and
10
3- Isolation of vinca alkaloids, especially vincristine and vinblastine. Vincristine
was found useful in the treatment of leukaemia. These alkaloids also have
anticancer properties.
reaction.
after the American society of pharmacognosy, as the study of the physical, chemical,
drug substances of natural origin as well as the search for new drugs from natural
sources”
1- Natural form
Powders for herbal teas by infusion, decoction, digestion. The plants are delivered in
11
2- Galenic forms: containing the majority of the active constituents in a reduced
volume. Alcoholic tinctures, extracts (by water, ether, alcohol, ...) dried (powders),
expensive to synthesize
To facilitate the synthesis of molecules of interest, reducing the steps and the cost
agents, etc…).
12
4. PHARMACOGNOSTICAL SCHEME
This includes the biological names of plants or animals yielding the drug and family
to which it belongs. Botanical name includes genus and species. Often some
abbreviations are written after the botanical names, of the biologist responsible for
the classification, for example, Acacia arabica Willd. Here Willd indicates the botanist
According to the biennial theory, the botanical name of any plant or animal is always
written in italic form, and the first letter of a genus always appears in a capital later.
Biological source also includes the family and the part of the drug used. For example,
biological source of senna is, Senna consists of dried leaflets of Cassia angustifolia
These are important to mention as these are responsible for quality of a drug.
13
4.4. Morphological Characters
In case of organized drugs, the length, breadth, thickness, surface, colour, odour,
taste, shape, etc. are covered under the heading morphological characters, whereas
organoleptic properties (colour, odour, taste and surface) should be mentioned, if the
drug is unorganized.
correct identity of a drug. Under this heading all the detailed microscopic characters
of a drug is described.
The most important aspect which determines the intrinsic value of a drug to which it
constituents present in the drug. These kinds of drugs are physiologically active.
drugs whose morphology is not well defined. The drug may be correct but something
happened during the harvest, drying, storage and transport, would affect the quantity
4.7. Uses
14
4.8. Substituents
substituent. It has the same type of physiological active constituents; however, the
4.9. Adulterants
With the knowledge of the diagnostic characters of drugs, the adulterants can be
potential adulterants.
Most of the times the adulterants are completely devoid of physiologically active
15
CULTIVATION, COLLECTION & PRODUCTION OF HERBAL DRUGs
The crude drugs which reach the market and pharmaceutical industries will have
passed through different stages that have some effect in the nature and amount of
concerned more in order to make a drug useful to the mankind by all means.
1. CULTIVATION
Wild sources could be a good choice as it presents plants identical to that used in
traditional medicine, without any additives or fertilizers, but the wild plants are
Cultivation is essential in the case of drugs such as Indian hemp or opium, which are
environmental growth better plant product is obtained and makes the collection and
16
Crude drugs derive their utility from chemical contents in them. If uniformity is
content of volatile oil and other constituents. The examples of ginger, turmeric and
liquorice can be cited to illustrate this point. If the cultivated plants are kept free of
2. Collection of crude drugs from cultivated plants gives a better yield and
excellence, if the collection of crude drugs for market is done from cultivated plants
by skilled and well-experienced personnel, the high yield and therapeutic quality of
drugs can be maintained. For example, collection of latex from poppy capsules and
oleo-resins from Pinus species, if done by experienced persons, can result in better
yield of crude drugs. Preservation of green color of senna leaves and minimizing the
result the industries depending upon crude drugs do not face problem of shortage of
raw material.
17
4. The cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants also leads to industrialization to a
greater extent. The cultivation of coffee and cocoa in Kerala has given rise to several
polyploidy and hybridization. Thus it produces improved quality of plants and helps
in selecting the species, varieties or hybrids that have the desired phyto-constituents.
Collection is the most important step which comes after cultivation. Drugs are
collected from wild or cultivated plants and the tasks for collection depends upon the
The season at which each drug is collected is so important, as the amount, and
sometimes the nature, of the active constituents could be changed throughout the
The age of the plant should be taken in to great consideration since it governs not
only the total amount of active constituents produced in the plants but also the
in the percentage of alkaloids in datura as the plant ages are examples of the effect of
aging in plants.
throughout the day and night, and it is believed that some inter-conversion would
Generally the leaves are collected just before the flowering season, e.g. digitalis, at
this time it is assumed that the whole plant has come to a healthy state and contain
an optimum amount of metabolites, flowers are collected before they expand fully,
e.g. clove, saffron, etc., and underground organs as the aerial parts of plant cells die,
Some fruits are collected after their full maturity while the others are collected after
the fruits are ripe. Barks are usually collected in spring season, as they are easy to
Underground parts should be collected and shaken, dusted in order to remove the
adhered soil; water washing could be done if the adhered particles are too sticky with
plant parts. The unorganized drugs should be collected from plants as soon as they
oozes out, e.g. resins, latex, gums, etc. Discoloured drugs or drugs which were
19
3. DRYING OF CRUDE DRUGS
improve its quality and make it resistant to the growth of microorganisms. Drying
crude drug. Slow drying at moderate temperature is necessary when enzymatic action
In certain drugs, some special methods are required to be followed to attain specific
and cutting into smaller pieces is done to enhance drying, as in case of glycyrrhiza,
and squill. The flowers are dried in shade so as to retain their colour and volatile oil
content. Depending upon the type of chemical constituents, a method of drying can
In case of natural drying, it may be either direct sun-drying or in the shed. If the
natural colour of the drug (digitalis, clove, senna) and the volatile principles of the
the drugs are quite stable to the temperature and sunlight, the drugs can be dried
20
3.2. ARTIFICIAL DRYING
Drying by artificial means includes drying the drugs in (a) an oven; i.e. tray-dryers; (b)
(a) Tray dryers: The drugs which do not contain volatile oils and are quite stable to heat
or which need deactivation of enzymes are dried in tray dryers. In this process, hot air
of the desired temperature is circulated through the dryers and this facilitates the
removal of water content of the drugs (belladonna roots, cinchona bark, tea and
(b) Vacuum dryers: The drugs which are sensitive to higher temperature are dried by this
process, e.g. Tannic acid and digitalis leaves. The pressure maintained in vacuum
drying is generally 0.0296 –0.059 atm and the boiling point of water is 25-30 ◦C. The
and lower relative humidity compared to ambient pressure. That is why the drying
(c) Spray dryers: Few drugs which are highly sensitive to atmospheric conditions and
constituents, rather than the crude drugs. Examples of spray drying are papaya latex,
21
4. STORAGE OF CRUDE DRUGS
Preservation of crude drugs needs sound knowledge of their physical and chemical
properties. A good quality of the drugs can be maintained, if they are preserved
properly. All the drugs should be preserved in well closed and, possibly in the filled
containers. They should be stored in the premises which are water-proof, fire proof
and rodent- proof. Long storage is not to be recommended, except in a few cases such
as cascara bark
- Moisture A number of drugs absorb moisture during their storage and become
susceptible to the microbial growth. Some drugs absorb moisture to the extent of
25% of their weight. The moisture, not only increases the bulk of the drug, but also
causes impairment in the quality of crude drug. The excessive moisture facilitates
leaves and wild cherry bark. Gentian and ergot receive mould infestation due to
excessive moisture.
- Atmospheric oxygen is also destructive to several drugs and hence, they are filled
inert gas like nitrogen; e.g. shark liver oil, papain, etc.
- Insect or mould attacks Apart from protection against adverse physical and
important. Different types of insects, nematodes, worms, moulds and mites infest
22
the crude drugs during storage. They can be prevented by drying the drug
thoroughly before storage and also by giving treatment of fumigants. The common
fumigants used for storage of crude drugs are methyl bromide, carbon disulphide
23
OTHER SOURCES OF DRUGS
is important not only for the discovery of new therapeutic agents but such
compounds of novel chemical structure, thereby prompting the chemist for the
The invention of the aqualung and the advent of new technology in the past few
decades led to the awareness that the oceans may be a new frontier of biomedical
Extracts from marine organisms had been evaluated for various biological activities.
Although, numerous compounds have been isolated from marine organisms and the
biological activities attributed too many of them; but still very few of them have been
marketed or are under development. Few drugs have been approved by Food and
compounds in different phases of the clinical trials. Some of the currently marketed
24
compounds, like (Prialt®, Yondelis® and Carragelose®), became drugs without any
modification of the original natural molecule, while the rest of them suffered lead
Pharmaceuticals, NJ, USA): the election drug for the treatment of myeloid
Crucially, more than 40 years after its approval, cytarabine a synthesized drug
inspired from a marine natural product (isolated from the gorgonian Eunicella
analgesic drug to be approved after morphine, it was granted FDA and EMEA
approval in 2004 and 2005 respectively, for the management of severe chronic
pain associated with cancer, AIDS and neuropathies. Ziconotide was synthesized
in 1987 after its equivalent, a naturally occurring peptide, isolated from the
venom of the cone snail Conus magus (molluscs with fatal stings). The ziconotide-
1.3. Lovaza® by GlaxoSmithKline (Brentford, UK): is the brand name for an anti-
acids sourced from fish oils. The approach to this drug discovery was the
25
statistical observation that certain ethnic populations, such as the native
Alaskans, had much lower mortality rates from cardiovascular diseases, a fact
that was later correlated with their high polyunsaturated fatty acids diets
content.
isolated from the Caribbean sea squirt Ecteinascidia turbinata with a 0.0001%
produce trabectedin.
extracted from red edible seaweeds, mainly Rhodophyceae. They are widely used
in the food and pharmaceutical industry, for their gelling, thickening, and
stabilizing properties.
Definition: Tissue culture is in vitro cultivation of plant cell or tissue under aseptic
26
nutrient medium for the production of primary and secondary metabolites or to
regenerate plant.
This technique affords alternative solution to problems arising due to current rate of
nutrient medium. This process involves various steps, viz. preparation of nutrient
medium containing inorganic and organic salts, supplemented with vitamins, plant
growth hormone(s) and amino acids as well as sterilization of explant (source of plant
Explant can be defined as a portion of plant body, which has been taken from the
plant to establish a culture. It may be taken from any part of a plant (root, stem, leaf,
Techniques
Some plants are difficult to cultivate and are also not available in abundance.
27
Tissue culture is considered a better source for regular and uniform supply of raw
The natural products from plant tissue culture may be easily purified because of the
3- Political reasons
government may prohibit its export to up-value its own exports by supplying its
phytochemical product, e.g. Rauwolfia serpentina and Dioscorea spp. from India.
4- Crop improvement
1. Trease and Evans Pharmacognosy, William C. Evans, Saunders Elsevier, 2009, sixteenth ed., ISBN 978-0 -7020 -
2934 9
2. textbook of pharmacognosy & phytochemistry, Biren Shah & A.K. Seth, Elsevier, 2010, 1 st ed, ISBN: 978-81-312-
2298-0
3. Martins, A., Vieira, H., Gaspar, H., & Santos, S. (2014). Marketed Marine Natural Products in the Pharmaceutical
and Cosmeceutical Industries: Tips for Success. Marine Drugs, 12(2):
28
CLASSIFICATION OF CRUDE DRUGS
In order to pursue (or to follow) the study of the individual drugs, one must adopt
classification of drugs. A method of classification should be simple, easy to use, and free
Because of their wide distribution, each arrangement of classification has its own
merits and demerits, but for the purpose of study the drugs are classified in the
- Alphabetical classification
- Morphological classification
- Pharmacological classification
- Chemical classification
- Taxonomical classification
- Chemotaxonomical classification
1- Alphabetical Classification
sometimes local language names (vernacular names). This method is adopted by the
29
It is easy to use with no repetition of entries and is devoid of confusion, but There is
2- Morphological Classification
In this system, the drugs are arranged according to the morphological or external
characters of the plant parts or animal parts, i.e. which part of the plant is used as a
occurs.
classification of drug.
Drugs like digitalis, squill and strophanthus having cardiotonic action are grouped
Drugs having different action on the body get classified separately in more than one
group that causes ambiguity and confusion. Cinchona is antimalarial drug because of
presence of quinine but can be put under the group of drug affecting heart because of
30
4- Chemical Classification
Depending upon the active constituents, the crude drugs are classified. The plants
characters, the drugs with similar chemical constituents are grouped into the same
group.
5- Taxonomical Classification
embryological, serological and genetics. In this classification the crude drugs are
classified according to kingdom, subkingdom, division, class, order, family, genus and
species.
does not correlate in between the chemical constituents and biological activity of the
drugs.
6- Chemo-taxonomical Classification
are certain types of chemical constituents that characterize certain classes of plants.
31
This gives birth to entirely a new concept of chemotaxonomy that utilizes chemical
For example, tropane alkaloids generally occur among the members of Solanaceae,
that gives more scope for understanding the relationship between chemical
32
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY METABOLITES
enzyme-mediated and carefully regulated chemical reactions is used for this purpose.
Despite the extremely varied characteristics of living organisms, the pathways for
generally modifying and synthesizing carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and nucleic acids
are found to be essentially the same in all organisms, apart from minor variations.
These processes demonstrate the fundamental unity of all living matter, and are
found in only specific organisms, and are an expression of the individuality of species.
Secondary metabolites are not necessarily produced under all conditions, and in the
vast majority of cases the function of these compounds are not yet known.
Some are undoubtedly produced for easily appreciated reasons, un example: for
attract or warn other species, but it is logical to assume that all do play some vital role
33
for the well-being of the producer. It is this area of secondary metabolism which
2- Lipids;
5- Alkaloids;
6- Cardio-active Glycosides;
34
Taxonomical Classification
Taxonomy is concerned with the laws governing the classification of plants. The term
taxonomy includes two Greek words taxis – arrangement and nomos– laws. Plant
description and naming the plants are the bases of plant taxonomy.
The earliest systems of classification were simple and based on one or few characters.
gave more importance to floral characters because floral characters are more stable
and permanent.
For classification purposes the plant is divided into a number of phyla and in addition
Class:
Subclass:
35
- Monocotyledonae (Monocotyledons, Monocots) with one seed leaf.
Superorder: A group of related plant families. The names of the superorders end in –
idae.
Order: Each superorder is further divided into several orders. The names of the orders
end in –ales.
Family: Each order is divided into families. These are plants with many botanical
features in common, and are the highest classification normally used. At this level,
Modern botanical classification assigns a type plant to each family, which has the
particular characteristics that separate this group of plants from others, and names
the family after this plant. The names of the families end in –aceae.
Subfamily: group of plants within the family that have some significant botanical
Tribe: A further division of plants within a family. The names of the tribes end in –
eae.
Genus: This is the part of the plant name that is most familiar; the normal name that
you give a plant—Papaver (Poppy), and so on. The plants in a genus are often easily
36
Species: This is the level that defines an individual plant. Often, the name will
describe some aspect of the plant— the colour of the flowers, size or shape of the
Together, the genus and species name refer to only one plant, and they are used to
identify that particular plant. The name, of the species should be written after the
Variety: A variety is a plant that is only slightly different from the species plant, but
the differences are not so insignificant as the differences in a form. The name follows
the genus and species name, with var. before the individual variety name.
Form: A form is a plant within a species that has minor botanical differences, such as
the colour of flower or shape of the leaves. The name follows the genus and species
name, with form (or f.) before the individual variety name.
In this chapter the principal plant families of pharmaceutical interest are arranged
- Thallophytes
- Gymnosperms
37
Engler and Prantl (two German botanists) classified all the plants from algae to
Plants can be divided into two groups, the thallophyta (no embryo) and the
gymnosperms, angiosperms).
For Zoodiogama members the fertilization is made by motile male gametes reaching
the female gametes by swimming; while the male gametes of Siphonogama are non-
38
Plant Kingdom
On the basis of
embryo
Thallophyta Embryophyta
Fertilization type
Algae
Dicotyledons
0
Monocotyledon
s
1. THALLOPHYTES
The old term thallophyte includes those plants which are not differentiated into root,
stem and leaves. There are no vascular tissue in the plant body.
occur. there is no embryo formation after gametic union. most of plants are aquatic.
Engler divides them into 13 phyla. They include bacteria algae, fungi and lichens. The
The bacteria are unicellular organisms, the great majority of which range in size from
0.75 to 8 µm. They reproduce by binary fission. Most species of bacteria contain no
40
Phyla Orders Families
Rhizobiaceae
Bacteriophyta Eubacteriales
Micrococcaceae
Discales Actinodiscaceae
Chrysophyta (Diatomeae) Fragilariaceae
Pennatales
Naviculariaceae
Laminariales Laminariaceae
Phaeophyta (Brown Algae) Fucaceae
Fucales
Sargassaceae
Gelidiales Gelidiaceae
Rhodophyta (Red Algae) Gracilariaceae
Gigartinales
Gigartinaceae
Bacteria are most important in medicine and pharmacy in the following respects:
- Bacteria also play a vital role in nature for example, in the nitrogen cycle
- in the retting of fibers such as jute and flax, and in the ripening of cheese.
41
1.1.1. PHAEOPHYTA (Brown Algae)
The brown algae are mainly marine and vary from microscopic branched filaments to
leathery frond-like forms up to 60 m in length. They owe their brown colour to the
Many of the 30 species of Laminaria are used in coastal districts for agricultural
purposes. They are used for the manufacture of alginic acid (polysaccharide),
1.1.1.1.1. Laminaria angustata have been used as a hypotensive agent in Japanese folk
medicine. The constituents of Laminaria include iodine, potassium,
magnesium, calcium, iron and amino acids (e.g. L-lysine, L-arginine, and
flexible stipe and an undivided laminate blade to 3m long with parallel, ruffled sides
42
a b
Figure (2): (a) Laminaria saccharina (or Saccharina latissima) – (b)Alginic acid structure.
Examples of the Fucaceae and Fucus (about 30 spp.) and of the Sargassaceae about
250 species of Sargassum. these are collected on a large scale in many parts of the
world for the production of alginic acid and its derivatives. The species have been
either side. It is attached by a small, strongly attached disc which give rise to a short
stipe. the reproductive receptacles are swollen area at the tips of the fronds. The
eggs and sperm are liberated onto the surface of the receptacles and a pheromone
43
Distribution: This species is common in the North Atlantic south to the Canary
Islands.
for the production of alginic acid and its derivatives, and as a bulk laxative.
Alginic acid or alginates are incorporated into many aluminium- and magnesium-
acid released by the action of gastric acid helps to form a barrier over the gastric
contents.
44
1.1.2. RHODOPHYTA ( red algae)
The red algae are divided into 11 orders. The 3000 species are mainly marine and
are particularly abundant in the tropics and subtropics. Most are relatively small.
sufficient quantity to mask the other pigments. and sometimes the blue pigment
distinctly flattened, often narrower at base, ultimate branches short, often opposite,
spine-like or spathulate
45
1.1.2.2. GIGARTINALES: Gigartinaceae & Gracilariaceae
or several arising from small, fleshy, perennial discoid holdfast. Branching very
irregular.
Usage: A species of importance for agar production in other parts of the world.
a b
Agar is a carbohydrate extracted using hot dilute acid from various species of red
Agar’s main application is in bacterial culture media, where its gelling properties are
exploited. It is also used to some extent as a suspending agent and a bulk laxative.
46
Description: Cartilaginous, dark purplish-red fronds, up to 150 mm high. Stipe
compressed, narrow, expanding gradually onto a flat branched blade, in tufts from a
Distribution: the red alga collected from Irish and other Atlantic coasts in Europe.
a b c
Figure (6): (a & b) Chondrus crispus, Irish Moss –(c): kappa carrageen structure.
1.2. FUNGI
The fungi are saprophytic or parasitic members of the Thallophyta. entirely devoid
47
obtaining food from this material. Hyphal tips release enzymes that eventually
The plant body is made up of filaments or hyphae, which together constitute the
mycelium.
the organism, sexual reproduction occurs and the offspring have an increased
48
1.2.1. PHYCOMYCETES
which causes potato blight. In the Mucoraceae we have Mucor (40 spp.) and Rhizopus
(8 spp.), which are among the moulds associated with badly stored food products.
Some Rhizopus species are used industrially for the saccharification of starchy
material and for producing of lactic acid from glucose; they are important in the
1.2.2. ASCOMYCETES:
49
1.2.2.2. PLECTASCALES: Aspergillaceae
Penicillium (over' 100s pp.) yields important antibiotics. such as penicillin; the
cause otomycosis.
A. oruzae may be noted, used in the manufacture of soya sauce and fermentation of
alcholo.
A. flavus producing aflatoxin in poorly stored feeding material (maize, rice and
pistachio nuts).
a b
flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, and probably responsible for the high incidence of
liver cancer in some parts of Africa. These compounds were first detected following
Leguminosae/Fabaceae).
50
The aflatoxins primarily affect the liver, causing enlargement, fat deposition, and
necrosis, at the same time causing cells of the bile duct to proliferate, with death
resulting from irreversible loss of liver function. In the case of aflatoxin B1, is most
The epoxide intercalates with DNA, this leads to inhibition of DNA replication and of
51
1.2.2.3. CLAVICIPITATES: Clavicipitaceae
Like other Ascomycetes. the ascospores are produced in a sac or ascus. Genera of the
Ergot is a fungal disease of wild and cultivated grasses, and initially affects the flowers.
In due course, a dark sclerotium, the resting stage of the fungus, is developed instead
a b c d
Figure (9): C. purpurea, (a: Grain head with sclerotia, b: Germinating sclerotium, c+d:
stroma).
The vasoconstrictor effect leads to restricted blood flow in small terminal arteries,
death of the tissue, the development of gangrene, and even the shedding of hands,
feet, or limbs. Gangrenous ergotism was known as St Anthony’s Fire; Despite these
unpleasant effects, whole ergot preparations have been used since the 16th century to
induce uterine contractions but this use turned to be dangerous and has led to
fatalities.
52
The ergot sclerotia contain from 0.15–0.5% alkaloids:
Ergometrine is used as an oxytocic and is injected during the final stages of labour and
operations.
Ergotamine is used in the treatment of acute attacks of migraine, where it reverses the
psychotomimetic known. An effective oral dose is from 30 to 50 μg, even the trace
amounts absorbed during its handling were sufficient to give its dramatic
hallucinations.
1.2.3. BASIDIOMYCETES:
or basidium. They have septate mycelia which produce elaborate fruiting bodies (e.g.
mushrooms).
The polyporaceae includes many genus like polyporus, Ganoderma and Boletus.
53
Boletus edulis is an edible mushroom.
Ganoderma lucida, originated from Asia, has long been used in Chinese medicine and
worldwide. From PubMed database, around 500 papers were published since the
early 1970s, Most of these papers are on Ganoderma’s effect on the immune system
Recent claims were made about its anti-tumor properties. Studies are currently
- Antioxidant activity.
54
Some members are edible like common mushroom or Agaricus campestris (from
agaricaceae). others are poisonous like fly agaric, Amanita muscaria (from
a b
1.3. LICHENS
mutualism both, fungi and algae, gain benefits. The algae, representing the food
supplier, produces the carbohydrate while the fungi holds the structure and provides
mineral elements.
Most lichenized fungi are from Ascomycetes, while 90% of the lichens consist of
Even though lichens are very resistant to natural environment extremes, they are
indicators of air pollution. Some, particularly in arctic regions, are used as food. Lichen
55
- Evernia prunastri The 'oak moss' used as a fixative in perfumery is the lichen.
- Iceland moss, Cetraria islandica, has been used for disguising the taste of nauseous
medicines and with other species (e.g. Cladonia spp.) for the treatment of cough.
Cetraria islandica grows in arctic and subarctic areas, in northern and eastern
Europe, Siberia and North America and alpine mountains.
56
2. BRYOPHYTA AND PTERIDOPHYTA
These two phyla are of relatively small pharmaceutical importance, but have some
phytochemical interest.
2.1. BRYOPHYTA
They are the simplest and most primitive land plants, may be aquatic. They do not
have roots, but have rhizoids, which are relatively simple, sometimes multicellular
filaments of thin-walled cells that extend from the photosynthetic tissue into the soil.
They do not have true vascular tissue and are therefore non-vascular plants. They are
composed of haploid cells, containing only one set of chromosomes, have a two-stage
life cycle: gametophyte and sporophyte.
The gametophyte generation is a leaf-like thallus in the liverworts and a leafy plant
with a stem in the mosses.
There are about 2,000 species of bryophytes, the phylum is divided in to two classes,
Hepaticae (liverworts) and Musci (mosses). Both show alternation of generations.
Jungermaniinales SoIenostoma
Hepaticae Gymnomitrion
Diplophyllum
jubulineales Lunularia
Sphagnales Sphagnum (336
spp. )
Musci
Dicranales Dicranum (52 spp.)
Funariales Funaria (117 spp. )
57
Lunularia cruciata (liverworts): it was believed that it could cure diseases of the liver
(Doctrine of Signatures!!!), reduces erosion along stream banks.
a b
58
2.2. PTERIDOPHYTA
The Pteridophyta includes the Filices (ferns), Articulatae (horsetails) and Lycopsida
(club mosses).mostly terrestrial, may be aquatic. The plant body differentiates into
root, stem and leaves. These plants present vascular tissues. A few are of medical
importance.
It has been a recent cause of concern owing to its carcinogenic properties and known
bovine poisoning. The use of the young shoots for culinary purposes is discouraged
and avoidance of bracken spores in the atmosphere suggested. The toxic constituent
is ptaquiloside, an unstable glycoside of sesquiterpene.
59
Dryopteris filix-mas (Polypocliaceae): Male fern, The semi-evergreen leaves have an
upright habit and reach a maximum length of 150 cm, with a single crown on each
rootstock. The bipinnate leaves consist of 20-35 pinnae (leaflet) on each side of the
rachis. The leaves taper at both ends, with the basal pinnae (leaflet) about half the
length of the middle pinnae.
Male fern crude drug consists of the dried rhizome, it is collected late in the fall,
divested of its roots, leaves, and dead portions, and sometimes sliced longitudinally to
facilitate drying; The dried rhizome was used as anthelmintics (taeniafuge and a
vermifuge) to expel tapeworm, in very large doses it is a violent irritant, giving rise to
acute gastro-enteritis.
Equisetum arvense (Equisetaceae): The sterile stems are 10–90 cm tall and 3–5 mm
diameter, with jointed segments around 2–5 cm long with whorls of side shoots at the
segment joints; the side shoots have a diameter of about 1 mm. Some stems can have
as many as 20 segments. The fertile stems are of a succulent texture, off-white, 10–
25 cm tall and 3–5 mm diameter, with 4–8 whorls of brown scale leaves and an apical
brown spore cone 10–40 mm long and 4–9 mm broad.
60
a b
Figure (16): Equisetum arvense, horsetail, sterile stems (a), fertile stems(b) .
The dried sterile stems of the horsetail are used in herbal medicine and ale listed in the
BHP. Preparations are used internally as a diuretic and anti-inflammatory agent to
treat inflammation and mild infections of the genitourinary tract and externally for
wound healing, fractures…..etc. . Horsetails give a high mineral ash containing
considerable amounts of silica, thus it promotes strong bones and healthy skin, hair
and nails..
There are apparently two chemotypes of the species with different flavonoids
compositions. Correct identification of the herb is important, cause the related species
E. palustre is poisonous (especially in cattle), It may cause vitamin B (Thiamin)
deficiency.
61
The spores of lycopodium are used:
- in quantitative microscopy (evaluation of crude drugs by microscope),
Lycopodium spores are very characterized in shape and appearance and
uniform in size (25μm) on average 94000 spores present/mg of lycopodium
powder.
- to a limited extent in medicated snuffs
- as dusting powders and lubricants. As a dusting powder for rubber gloves. It
has been known to give rise to dermatitis and mild caution has been expressed
regarding its use as a lubricant non-stick agent for condoms relative to a
possible cause of granulomas.
62
3. GYMNOSPERMS
The division Gymnospermae contains many fossil members of the 11 orders in the
The gymnosperms are one of the two great divisions of the seed-bearing plants or
spermaphyta. They differ from the angiosperms in having ovules which are not
enclosed in an ovary. A perianth is absent except in the Gnetales. The seeds usually
contain one mature embryo with from two to 15 cotyledons embedded in endosperm.
The word "gymnosperm" comes from the Greek word gymnospermos, meaning "naked
The largest group of living gymnosperms are the conifers (pines, cypresses and
relatives) and the smallest is ginkgo, a single living plant species found in China.
63
Cycadales
Ginkgoale
s
Gymnosperms
Coniferae
Taxales
Gnetale
0
Figure (16): Classification of gymnosperms.
3.1. CYCADALES: CYCADACEAE
The order contains only 10 genera and about 100 species. The family Cycadaceae
contains the single genus Cycas with 20 species. A sago, un edible starchy product
from Southeast Asia, is obtained from the trunk pith of Cycas circinalis and C. revoluta.
With the exception of Ginkgo biloba, the maidenhair-tree, the plants of this order
are found only as fossils. In recent years, owing to their increasing use for the
treatment of various disease associated with the ageing process, the leaves of the
- Botanical characteristics
Ginkgo is a medium-large tree, a dioecious specie; The bark is pale grey and
roughly rutted. The leaves are presented either alternately on long annual shoots,
generally bilobed (biloba). The venation of the ginkgo tree runs parallel, a
reminder that it was once related to the conifer at a much earlier stage in its
development. In the fall the leaves turn a golden yellow color and fall to the
ground.
65
a b
d
Figure (17): Ginkgo biloba tree (a; b: tree in the fall) & leaves (c; d: leaves in the fall).
sacs that resemble catkins 3-6 cm long. Pairs of green ovules are borne on female
trees on stalks 4-5 cm long: Each ovule has a drop of fluid, the pollination drop,
that traps pollen to enable fertilization, usually only one ovule develops into a
seed.
Unlike the others gymnosperms members, ginkgo seed resembles a fruit because
the seed coat has a fleshy outer layer. The seed hangs on a slender stalk, only 1
seed per stalk; Mature seeds are shed in the fall. The hard inner layer of the seed
66
Figure (18): Ginkgo, ovules in clusters(a-b),enlarged ovules (c-d) pollen catkin (e),
fruit (f-g).
- Habitat:
It is a tree native to China, but widely planted as an ornamental especially mal trees
because the female trees produce an undesirable odor (foul smelling) as the seed coat
starts to decompose. It is also cultivated for drug use in Japan, Korea, France and the
United States.
- Chemical composition:
flavonoids.
- Uses:
Standardized extracts of the leaves are marketed against cerebral vascular disease and
memory disorders. Extracts have been shown to improve peripheral and cerebro-
vascular circulation.
67
The decline in cognitive function and memory processes in old age can be due to
disturbances in brain blood circulation, and thus ginkgo may exert beneficial effects
by improving this circulation, and assist with other symptoms such as vertigo, and
hearing loss. Virtually all clinical studies report positive results regarding cerebral
insufficiency.
3.3.1. PINACEAE
All members of the older are trees or shrubs: mostly evergreen with needle-like leaves:
monoecious or dioecious. Sporophylls usually in cones. Resin ducts occur in all parts.
The Pinaceae are trees, rarely shrubs. Important genera are: Abies (50 spp.).
Pseudotsuga (7 spp. ), Tsuga (15 spp.), Picea (50 spp.). Larix (11 spp.), Cedrus (1 spp.).
and Pinus (70-100 spp.).
They are abundant in the northern hemisphere and extend southwards to Indonesia
Commercial use:
- They are of great value as timber (used to produce furniture) and paper-making
material;
Other species are Abies balsamea. yielding Canada balsam used as an adhesive
in optical devices;
- Source of essential oil (Pinus sylvestris L.) extracted by distillation from the
68
- The barks of larch (Larix europaeus) and hemlock spruce are tanning materials;
- Pinus pinea (the umbrella pine) produces large edible seeds (pignons);
- Botanical characteristics:
and an irregular crown. Leaves are evergreen needles growing in bundles of two.
Pollen cones are small, 3-6 mm long, yellow to orange, borne in spring in clusters
Seed cones are borne in spring at the tips of new branches, emerging as tiny pink
cones. After being pollinated, it takes 2 to 3 years for them to reach maturity and
release their seeds. During the second season, the seed cones become brown and
woody, about 2.5-5 cm long. When fully ripe, their scales open to release the
seeds.
69
Figure (19): Pinus sylvestris
- Habitat: Originated from Europe and Asia; It is widely distributed and many
- Chemical composition:
- Uses:
the buds are traditionally used in the oral symptomatic treatment of cough and
acute bronchial infections; Externally in the case of a stuffy nose of colds as well
being derived from oleoresin collected from some trees mainly pines.
70
The Turpentine oil (essential oil) is prepared by hydro-distillation of the crude
oleoresin of pines, and the exhausted residue called colophony. the latter
(colophonhy or rosin) contains resin acids (about 90%), neutral inert substance
- Cup and gutter method (gum naval stores): the traditional way of collecting
by peeling the bark and then incise the trunk of the living pine trees; The crude
receiver. Trees can be tapped by this method for about 40 years, starting when
The flow of oleoresin can be increased by the application of 50% sulphuric acid,
as it has the effect of collapsing the thin-walled cells lining the ducts, thus
71
- Wood naval stores: in this case, pine stumps, usually over'40 years old, are
- Sulphate naval stores: which are derived as by-products of the sulphate Kraft
process for the pulping of softwoods during the production of paper, thus the
Preparation of resin (rosin): The crude oleoresin arrives at the distillery in barrels. It
is mixed in a heated stainless steel vessel with water about 20% weight of
turpentine and after filtration is allowed to stand to separate water and other
impurities. The diluted oleoresin is then transferred to copper or stainless steel stills
(1-2 h for 2.5 tones of oleoresin) the molten resin is run through strainers in to
Uses:
the use of turpentine is very limited in pharmacy; It was formerly used as oral
the fragrance and aroma industry, in addition to the production of detergent and
glue.
The amount of colophony used in pharmacy for the preparation of zinc oxide and
other adhesive plasters, ointments. etc.. is relatively small. Much rosin is artificially
72
modified by hydrogenation or polymerization; products involving its use include
paper, adhesives, printing inks, rubber, linoleum, thermoplastic for tiles and surface
coatings.
3.3.2. CUPRESSACEAE
persistent, small, scale-like, opposite or in whorls. Male strobili (pl. strobilus, cones)
Female cones are on short branches bearing few scales; ovuliferous scales are
Female cones are dry in Thuja, Cupressus, etc., but fused fleshy, berrylike in Juniperus.
The genera include Callitris (16 spp., Australasia), Thuja (5 spp. China, Japan and
North America). Cupressus (15-20 spp.), Chamaecyparis (7 spp.), Juniperus (60 spp.,
northern hemisphere).
Commercial use:
of cade which was formerly much used in veterinary work. This tar-like oil
73
3.3.2.1. Juniperus communis (Cupressaceae).
- Botanical characteristics:
Juniper berries are the dried ripe fruits of Juniperus communis (Cupressaceae). an
three.
The female cones consist of scales arranged in whorls of three. The berry-like fruit
takes 2 years to ripen, eventually becoming a deep purple colour and having a
bluish-grey bloom.
On drying, the berries become somewhat darker and shrivel slightly. They are
The seeds lie close together in the centre of the fruit and are hard and woody.
Large oleoresin glands are partly embedded in the hard coat of each seed. The
74
- Habitat: Europe; Western and Northren Asia; Africa and North America.
- Chemical constituents:
The main constituent are volatile oil (about 0.5-1.57%) and resin. Oil of juniper
contains over 60 compounds, of which the terpenes, α-pinene and camphene. The
oil from the leaves appears to contain a similar profile of compounds. Juniper
berries are used for the preparation of oil of juniper and in making certain
varieties of gin.
- Uses:
The oil has diuretic and antiseptic properties used in urinary infection, in addition
to its benefits in solving urinary stones (α-pinene and camphene). It has been
reported that commercial oils vary in composition and prolonged intake of some
may cause kidney damage. these side-effects are correlated with a high terpene
3.3.3. ARAUCARIACEAE
75
Two genera and 38 species of trees. which sometimes have pungent leaves.
Araucaria (18 spp.), ornamental tree, provides useful timbers; and Agathis (20
spp.), the resins known as copals or animes, which are used for varnish. Manila
copal is obtained from the Malaysian Agathis alba; and kauri copal from A.
australis, the kauri pine, In Austlalia and New Zealand. The best copals are
usually those found in the ground long after the trees are dead (sub-fossils).
3.4. TAXALES
An order of only one family Taxaceae, which includes the genera Taxus ( 10 spp.),
- Botanical characteristics:
Taxaceae also is a family of trees with small needle-like to falcate or scaly leaves
borne spirally. Cones are small with spiral members. Bracts and ovuliferous scales are
76
3.4.1. Taxus brevifolia L. (the Pacific yew)
North-West Canada (British Columbia) and the USA (Washington, Oregon, Montana,
Although the plant is not rare. it does not form thick populations. and needs to be
mature (about 100 years old) to be large enough for exploitation of its bark. At this
age, the tree will be some 6-9 m high, and have a trunk of about 25cm in diameter. The
The wood of Taxus brevifolia not suitable for timber. and in some areas, plants have
exploitable conifers.
the drug. It requires the bark from about three mature 100 year-old tree to provide
one gram of taxol, and a course of treatment may need 2 grams of taxol. Current
The common yew (European yew / English yew) , produces valuable wood. The fruit
has a fleshy red aril. All parts of the plant are very poisonous. Cattle and horses can
die very rapidly after eating the leaves and stems (cyanogenetic glycoside).
77
Figure (24): Taxus baccata Nutt
- Habitat: The yew tree is distributed throughout the northern hemisphere, and
- Chemical constituents:
The potent anticancer drug taxol, a nitrogenous diterpene, was first reported in the
bark of Taxus brevifolia. Low yields from the bark and the lack of raw material leading
the drug.
1- Tissue culture procedures for the production of taxol but the yields are still low.
the isolation of 10-deacetylbaccatin III from the fresh needles of Taxus baccata in
- Uses:
Taxol® (paclitaxel) is being used clinically in the treatment of ovarian cancers, breast
cancers and non-small cell lung cancer. It may also have potential value against other
78
cancers. Taxotere® (docetaxel) is a side-chain analogue of taxol. which has also been
3.5. GNETALES
three genera and about 70-75 species. The Ephedraceae contains the single genus
They occur in arid regions of the subtropics and tropics. their seed with two
cotyledons is enclosed in a perianth, which becomes woody. Various species yield the
3.5.1. Ephedra
Among these are the Chinese species Ephedra sinica and E. equisetina and the Indian
known to the Chinese over 5000 years ago and ephedrine isolated in 1887, it only
- Botanical characteristics:
The plants are small bushes with slender aerial stems and minute leaves, giving the
appearance of being effectively leafless. The stems are about 30 cm long, ashy greyish-
total, ephedrine (and its isomers) forms from 30 to 90%, according to the species.
- Uses:
Ephedrine: It has bronchodilator activity, giving relief in asthma and hay fever, plus a
The herbal drug ephedra is currently being traded as ‘herbal ecstasy’. Consumption
gives central nervous system stimulation, but in high amounts it can lead to
sold as an appetite suppressant for weight loss and endurance enhancement; but,
because of misuse and abuse, these have been regulated or even banned in some
countries.
80
Ephedrine has repeatedly been implicated in adverse and sometimes fatal outcomes
The FDA bans over-the-counter sales of cold medicines that contain the ephedrine and
81
4. ANGIOSPERMS
The angiosperms or flowering plants include more than 250 000 species of herbs,
shrubs and trees. The sporophylls (stamens and carpels) are usually arranged with
other leaves (the perianth) to form a 'flower'. The ovules are enclosed in a chamber (the
ovary) formed from the carpels, and a stigma is provided for the reception and
germination of the pollen. The emrbryo plant contained in the seed has one or two seed
leaves or cotyledons. The wood almost invariably contains true vessels. The phylum is
The division of angiosperms into these two large classes is based on the following
factors:
1- In dicotyledons, the embryo bears two cotyledons, and only one in monocotyledons.
2- In dicotyledons, the primary root persists and gives rise to the tap root, while in
fibrous roots.
(with but few exceptions). Further, in dicotyledons, the veinlets end freely in the
freely.
82
5- In the dicotyledonous stem, the vascular bundles are arranged in a ring and are
collateral and open, while in the monocotyledonous stem, however, the bundles are
scattered in the ground tissue and are collateral and closed. Hence, there is no
6- In the dicotyledonous root, the number of xylem bundles varies generally from 2 to
6, but in the monocotyledonous root there are many, seldom (5–8). The
dicotyledonous root has the cambium, as a secondary meristem, and gives rise to
absent.
systematic botanists who came together to try to establish a consensus view of the
83
taxonomy of flowering plants that would reflect new knowledge in angiosperm
In 1998, the first Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) classification of the orders
and families of flowering plants (which we will term APG I; APG, 1998) was
published, and this classification initiated a new approach to this long tradition.
APG I was not written by one or two authoritative individuals; rather the APG
Several important studies have been published since 1998, which resulted in
APG III (2009) and enough progress has been made that an update to the APG
2016, with some changes from APG III as a result of placements of some genera that
( )
* An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering
plants: APG IV. THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP; The Linnean Society of London, Botanical
Journal of the Linnean Society, 2016, 181, 1–20.
84
4.1. MONOCOTYLEDONS:
As the name indicates, monocotyledons have an embryo with one cotyledon. Many
members are herbs, usually with parallel-veined leaves. The stem has scattered,
closed vascular bundles; the flowers are usually trimerous. Secondary growth in
abbreviated form of Engler's classification indicating the main orders and families of
85
4.1.1. Liliaceae
A widely distributed family of about 250 genera and 3700 species; mostly perennial
herbs and climbers, and rarely shrubs or trees with a bulb or rhizome, or with fibrous
roots.
Liliaceae may be recognised by their rather large flowers with six free and often
spotted tepals three of which have nectaries, six stamens, and a superior ovary.
Many members of the family are cultivated for their flowers, ornamentals, like
a b
4.1.2. Colchicacea:
- Botanical characteristics
The flowers are solitary (4–7)cm, with six tepals (undifferentiated sepal and petal)
86
and six stamens. The ovary is below ground at the level of the bulb, if it gets
fertilized and seeds develop, they (seeds) will emerge the following year in the
Hibernation (winter sleep), April to June, appear linear leaves with the fruit in the
middle.
- Uses: (Colchicine)
o Colchicine is the classical drug for the treatment of acute attack of gout. It
87
o The colchicine is considered as a mitotic poison, as it binds to tubulin in the
mitotic spindle, yet it can't be used as anticancer agent because it is very toxic,
spindle.
4.1.3. Dioscoreaceae:
Plant rhizomatous, lianes or vines classified in four genera according to the latest
- Botanical characteristics
About 600 species of Dioscorea are more or less herbaceous dioecious vines, with
small and not very brightly coloured flowers borne along often branched
They are climbers recognized by their quite long-petiolate leaves with broad blades.
The blade has several strong longitudinal veins and reticulate fine venation
(dicotyledonous features).
88
a b
Figure (29): Dioscorea bulbifera (a), inflorescence (b) and tubers (c)
- Habitat: Many species in the genus Dioscorea forms edible tubers (5-50 kg). They
are cultivated for the consumption of their starchy tubers in Africa (Dioscorea
their tubers
- Uses:
spp.(D. composite and D. mexicana) can contain very large amounts (4-8%) of
progesterone, estrone, cortisone, and the like that are now synthesized by semi-
synthesis.
89
Powdered Dioscorea (wild yam) root or extract is also marketed to treat the symptoms
- Botanical characteristics
The squill is a perennial mediterranean plant, with a large bulb (2-4 kg) formed by
nested scales.
The leaves are tall and lanceolate (1m), They die away by fall, when the bulb produces
90
- Uses:
The crude drug consists of the dried sliced bulbs; It is not usually used for its
rodenticide. Rodents lack a vomiting reflex and are poisoned by the cardiac
effects.
4.1.5. Iridaceae
- Botanical characteristics
The corms are planted in July–August. It gives long, linear green leaves
December. Each corm is replaced by daughter corms. The flower has 6 purple
petals, 3 golden yellow stamens and one red pistil which shows as 3 stigmas
(filaments).
The flowers are collected early in the morning. The style of each flower is
separated just below the stigma and dried by artificial heat for 30–45 min.
91
- Habitat: The plant is native of south Europe and is found in Spain, France,
Macedonia, Italy, Austria, China, Germany, Switzerland, and Iran. In India, the
Figure (31): Crocus sativus (c), (a) the stigmas and (b) the flower.
- Chemical constituents
The crude drug the (stigmas) has a reddish-brown colour, this is mainly due to
- Uses:
- Adulterant:
Saffron. Exhausted Saffron, flowers, and floral parts of some Compositae like
92
4.1.6. Amaryllidaceae
4.1.6.1. Allioideae
Allioideae can be recognized by their smell, their often rather fleshy and soft
Allium cepa (onion), Allium sativum (garlic) and many ornamental species
4.1.6.1.1. Allium sativum (garlic):
It is a perennial herb having bulbs with several cloves, enclosed in a silky
4.1.6.2. Amaryllidoideae
ovary.
93
The bulbs of this subfamily are well-known for their toxic Alkaloids, at least
- Botanical characteristics:
Most of their species are spring flowering. A common feature of all species is
the central corona that may have a trumpet-, bowl- or disc-like shape and is
surrounded by six floral leaves, three sepals and three petals. The coloration
of floral leaves and corona may be the same (e.g. yellow) or different and
extends from white for the former to orange for the latter.
94
- Chemical constituent:
(snow-drop) found in the Eastern Europe used by the local people for muscle
weakness.
- Uses
(Narcissus spp.), successful clinical studies have led to the licensing of this
4.1.7. Bromeliaceae
The Bromeliaceae contains about 44 genera and 1400 species, mainly tropical
and subtropical plants. These interesting plants vary very much in size and
Bromelia (40 spp.) and Ananas (5 spp.). Ananas comosus (syn. A. sativus) is
95
4.1.8. Poaceae (ex- Graminae)
The Gramineae contains about 707 genera and 11337 species. Mostly herbs
with fibrous roots, rarely shrubs or trees. Annuals, biennials and perennials
have been the most important human food crops: rice from Oryza sativa,
wheat from Triticum, barley from Hordeum, maize from Zea mays and sugar
96
4.2. DICOTYLEDONS (EUDICOTS) (APG IV)::
The dicotyledons are herbs,. shrubs or trees, the seeds of which have two
cotyledons. The leaves are usually reticulately veined and the typical stems
are more usually bisexual. The perianth may or may not be differentiated into sepals
and petals. and the latter may be free from one another or fused.
97
Figure (33): Phylogenetic tree (APGIV)
98
4.2.1. RANUNCULALES (APG IV)::
4.2.1.1. Ranunculaceae:
The family Ranunculaceae is in the major group Angiosperms. Nearly 2,525 species of
sativa.
Distribution: Worldwide but mostly in temperate and boreal regions of the Northern
Hemisphere.
99
Remarkable features: Mostly herbs, some are aquatic, and a few are low shrubs or vine,
leaves with sheathing base, blade often divided, flowers bisexual, petals with nectary,
stamens and carpels numerous, free and spirally arranged, ovary superior, fruit a
follicle or achene.
Major genera: Ranunculus (400 species), Clematis (200), Delphinium (250), Aconitum
nectary at base.
The fleshy tubers (tuberous roots) resemble hemorrhoids (piles), and according to the
doctrine of signatures this resemblance suggests that pilewort could be used to cure
hemorrhoids (traditionally).
100
Figure (35): Ranunculus ficaria L.: pilewort
perennial herb with tuberous root, palmately divided leaves. The flowers are dark
important is aconitine.
- Uses: Aconite is a very potent and quick-acting poison which is now rarely used
internally. The Aconitum spp. was formerly used as arrow poisons in China, India
101
Figure (36): Aconitum napellus L. botanical illustration.
4.2.1.2. Papaveraceae:
Papaveraceae are usually herbs with an exudate of some kind whose fleshy leaves
have broad bases. The flowers are 2-merous, and the calyx and corolla are clearly
distinguishable; the gynoecium has two (or more) carpels, parietal placentation, and
4.2.1.2.1. Papaveroideae:
Papaveroideae are usually herbs that may be recognized by their often soft or rather
rough-hairy leaves, copious latex, and flowers with two, large, fugacious sepals
enclosing the bud, crumpled petals, usually numerous stamens, and syncarpous
gynoecium with at most a short style and parietal placentation. The fruit is generally a
102
All members contain latex tissue. The latex is sometimes in vessels which accompany
the vascular system. The subfamily is rich in alkaloids. Some, such as the opium
- Botanical characteristics:
The opium poppy, is an annual herb about 50-150 cm in height. The leaves are about
10 cm in length, entire and sessile. The margin is dentate but varies somewhat in the
different varieties.
The flowers, which are borne on a slightly hairy peduncle, are solitary, nodding in the
bud, They are large flowers of white, pink, or dull red–purple colour.
The ovary contains numerous ovules attached to parietal placentas. It bears at its apex
a flat disc formed by the union of the radiating stigmas. The capsule opens by means of
small valves, which are equal in number to the carpels and situated immediately below
(a) (b)
Figure (37): Papaver somniferum botanical illustration (a), Papaver rhoes (b)
103
The crude drug is called the opium; it is the air-dried milky exudate, or latex, obtained
- Opium production: the capsules are carefully incised with a knife to open the latex
tubes. Cuts are made transversely or longitudinally according to custom. The initially
white milky latex quickly oozes out, but rapidly turns brown and coagulates.
The main producer of medicinal opium for the world market is India, with China
producing supplies for its own domestic use. Poppy straw is cultivated in Australia,
France, Hungary, Spain, and Turkey, and more recently in the United Kingdom.
Almost all (more than 90%) of the opium destined for the black market now
Myanmar (Burma) and Laos) and Latin America (principally Mexico and Colombia).
British pharmacopeae the opium is required to contain not less than 10% of
- Uses:
Opium has been known and used for 4000 years or more. Crude opium has
been used since antiquity as an analgesic, sleep-inducer (narcotic), and for the
treatment of coughs.
In modern medicine, only the purified opium alkaloids and their derivatives
104
4.2.1.2.1.2. Papaver rhoes: red poppy
red poppy is known as an agricultural weed, the petals are used to make a sedative
4.2.1.2.2. Fumarioideae:
Fumarioideae are often fleshy herbs with watery sap and distinctive 2-merous mono-
or disymmetric flowers that are usually spurred; the calyx is usually very small or
almost invisible, certainly not green and enveloping the flower bud, and there are
usually six stamens.: they contain a watery, not milky, juice. Isoquinoline alkaloids are
105
4.2.2. MALPIGHIALES (APG IV)::
106
4.2.2.1. Euphorbiaceae :
The fruit is a spiny, greenish to reddish-purple capsule containing large, oval seeds.
- Chemical constituent: seeds oil or Castor oil contains triglycerides & fatty
acids.
107
- Toxicity: The shiny, bean-like seeds are highly poisonous for containing the
process.
4.2.2.2. Salicaceae:
- Remarkable features: Deciduous trees and shrubs, leaves with salicoid teeth,
- Economic importance: The family is important for several species grown for
ornamentals and wood production like willow (Salix spp.); The bark of Salix
108
The crude drug, Willow bark, is an ancient remedy, much esteemed for its
109
4.2.3. FABALES (APG IV)::
Quillajaceae
Fabaceae
Surianacea
e
Polygalacea
e
Figure (42): Phylogenetic tree of Fabales (AP website)
stipulate leaves whose leaflets are entire, and papilionoid flowers with a
single carpel, free petals (or two may be connate). The fruit is usually dry and
elongated called a pod. The often flattened seeds are borne in a single series.
regions.
110
- Economic importance: ranking second to Poaceae. It is the source of several
pulse crops such as kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), lentil (Lens esculenta),
chick pea (Cicer arietinum) and pea (Pisum sativum). Soybean ( Glycine max)
Early harvests provide leaf material, whilst both leaf and fruit (senna pods) are
- Chemical constituent:
B.
There are no significant differences in the chemical constituents of the two sennas,
material.
111
- Uses: Senna (leaves and fruits) is a stimulant laxative and acts on the wall of the
112
4.2.4. ROSALES (APG IV):
4.2.4.1. Rosaceae :
- Economic importance: The family is largely known for its temperate fruits:
Flowers are borne in compact clusters (5-25) together; each flower is about
10mm diameter, and has five white petals, numerous red stamens, and a
114
Fruits are round dark-red berry, up to 6 mm, structurally a pome (false fruit)
Uses: It was shown that the extracts of the leaves and the flowers of hawthorn
4.2.4.2. Rhamnaceae
regions.
- Remarkable features: Trees and shrubs, leaves toothed with strong secondary veins,
115
- Major genera: Rhamnus, Ziziphus, Ceanothus and Gouania.
sedative.
4.2.4.2.2. Rhamnus spp.: the bark of two Rhamnus species are well known
as purgative drugs:
Figure (46): Rhamnus purshiana (a-b), Rhamnus frangula (c-d) and Ziziphus jujuba (e)
DC: de Candolle, Augustin Pyramus - France , Switzerland. Mill. Miller, Philip (1691-1771)- United
Kingdom.
116
4.2.5. MALVALES (APG IV):
117
- Distribution: in tropical and temperate climates, mainly in the South
American tropics.
- Economic importance:
(Althaea rosea); Young fruits of okra (Hibiscus esculentus) are used as vegetable;
Malva sylvestris and Corchorus olitorius, both are consumed as local potherb.
Cotton is obtained from the seed hair (protective fiber of the capsule) of Gossypium
sp.
Cocoa (chocolate source) is obtained from seeds of Theobroma cacao, Cola nitida
(both formerly under Sterculiaceae and recently Sterculioideae APG IV) yields cola.
velvety plant. The leaves are short-petioled, shallow-lobed (3-7) with dentate
margins.
118
- Chemical constituents: Leaves and flowers contain mucilage (polysaccharid),
- Medicinal Use: Due to its high mucilage content, mallows make excellent
disorders.
119
Figure (49): Phylogenetic tree of SOLANALES (AP website).
4.2.6.1. Solanaceae
120
(S. melongena), ground cherry (Physalis peruviana). Peppers (Capsicum
annuum) are used both as a food source (young) and spices (ripe). Many
(stramonium).
and is grown for chewing, smoking and snuff. and many ornamental genera
- Botanical description approx 1–3 m high. The stem is erect with few
branches. The tubular flowers are light red, light pink, or white.
121
chewing gum, patches or nasal spray. Powdered tobacco leaves have
122
4.2.7. SAPINDALES (APG IV):
4.2.7.1. Rutaceae:
Distributed in warm temperate and tropical regions with the greatest diversity
123
- Remarkable features: Trees or shrubs, sometimes armed with thorns or spines,
(Citrus spp.).
- Economic importance: The family is important for its citrus fruits such as
lemon (Citrus limon), lime (C. aurantifolia), sweet orange (C. sinensis),
oranges are called China’s apples according to their geographic origin China,
The sweet orange was brought from India to Europe in the 16th century by
Portuguese traders. Already during his second voyage to the New World,
Columbus brought citrus seeds to the Carribean. The mandarin oranges came
much later in the 19th century from China to Europe, and were first grown in
Palermo, Sicily.
- Botanical description:
124
These plants are large shrubs or small to moderate-sized trees, with spiny
shoots and alternately arranged evergreen leaves with an entire margin. The
flowers are solitary or in small cluster, with five (rarely four) white petals and
leathery rind or "peel" called a pericarp. The outermost layer of the pericarp is
an "exocarp" called the flavedo, commonly referred to as the zest with oil
glands. The middle layer of the pericarp is the mesocarp, which in citrus fruits
consists of the white, spongy "albedo". The innermost layer of the pericarp is
- Chemical constituents:
Flowers, leaves and fruits are rich in terpenoid essential oil. the fruits, rich in
- Uses:
Almost every part of oranges is used for different applications: they are not only
a source of orange juice, but also of sweet orange oil, made by pressing the peel,
perfumes.
scale.
125
The flavanone glycoside hesperidin, from Citrus peels, have been included in
hemorrhoidal disease.
aurantium) and naringin from grapefruit peel (Citrus paradisi) are also used for
the same therapeutic effect.
126
Figure (53): Phylogenetic tree of GENTIANALES (AP website).
- Remarkable features:
Members of the family can be recognized in the vegetative state by their opposite,
sometimes whorled, and entire leaves that often dry blackish and interpetiolar
127
stipules that have axillary colleters. The ovary is inferior, the flowers are
polysymmetric, often with a narrow corolla tube and spreading lobes, and are quite
- Economic importance:
The family is economically important for being the source of coffee, quinine and a
large number of ornamentals. Coffee is obtained from roasted seeds of Coffea arabica
and Coffea canephora (robusta). Quinine, a remedy for malaria is derived from
several species of Cinchona. Madder (Rubia tinctoria) was formerly cultivated for its
who it was long believed was cured in 1638 from a fever by the use of the bark, she
introduced the bark to treat fevers in the area where she lived near Madrid. Whether
Amerindians used the bark as an indigenous remedy for fevers has been the subject of
much academic discussion. Jesuit missionaries worked in Peru in the early sixteenth
century and so perhaps it was the missionaries who first took the cure back to Europe
rather than the Countess. One of its common names, Jesuits' bark, reflects this belief.
However, it was some time before this 'miraculous cure' of powdered bark was
accepted by European doctors as they had their own 'cures' for malaria from which
128
they gained financially. By the late seventeenth century quinine bark was widely used
as a malarial remedy.
- Botanical description:
These trees, with their glossy, evergreen leaves and terminal panicles of red, pink or
- Chemical constituents
- Uses:
The bark has been instrumental in curing malaria due to the presence of antimalaria
alkaloids as quinine. Other alkaloids ,quinidin, in the bark are extracted for the
129
4.2.8.2. Apocynaceae (APG IV):
- Remarkable features:
Herbs shrubs or climbers, latex milky, leaves opposite or whorled, throat of corolla tube
with scales, ovary superior, fruit a follicle, seed with a tuft of hairs.
Catharanthus.
- Economic importance:
be fatal). Roots of Rauwolfia serpentina yield reserpine used as tranquillizer for patients
drugs.
Oleander or Nerium is one of the most poisonous commonly grown garden plants.
- Botanical description:
130
Oleander is latex usually milky shrub. The thick leathery leaves are narrow lanceolate
in whorls of three. Inflorescence grow in clusters at the end of each branch; They are
white, pink to red. Flowers are deeply 5-lobed corolla round the central corolla tube.
- Chemical constituents
The leaves of oleander are very toxic because they contain cardiac glycosides.
131
4.2.9. LAMIALES:
132
4.2.9.1. Lamiaceae Martynov/ Labiatae Jussieu:
- Remarkable features:
Lamiaceae are herbs, also shrubs, lianes and rarely trees, that may be recognized by
their opposite, usually serrate leaves, more or less square (4- angled) stems, and
plants are often aromatic. The calyx is an integral part of the dispersal mechanism.
- Economic importance:
The family includes several plants used in cooking and flavoring such as spearmint
(Mentha spicata), peppermint (M. piperita), thyme (Thymus vulgaris), sweet basil
(Ocimum basilicum), pot marjoram (Origanum vulgare) and sage (Salvia officinalis).
133
List of most used Lamiaceae species as a medicinal herbs:
Salvia officinalis L.
leaves and flowers
Ocimum basilicum L.
Mentha piperita L.
Leaves
Melissa officinalis L.
aerial part
Origanum vulgare L.
Leaves
Rosmarinus officinalis L.
aerial part
134
Thymus vulgaris L.
flowered aerial part
4.2.10. APIALES:
135
4.2.10.1. Apiaceae Lindley or Umbelliferae Jussieu:
- Remarkable features:
Apiaceae are usually Aromatic herbs with compound leaves that have broad,
umbels), rarely heads; and their polypetalous flowers usually have a minute calyx,
clawed petals with incurved apices, and two carpels; the fruits are dry and separate
Apioideae: usually have more or less finely-divided leaves, compound umbels, and the
usually the fruit consists of two fused carpels that separate at maturity into two
- Economic importance:
The family is the source of food plants, spices and condiments. Carrot ( Daucus carota)
and parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) are important root crops. Important flavouring plants
- Medicinal uses:
system, urinary system, gynecological and skin disorders, and also they were used as
136
antiseptic, anthelmintic, calmative, carminative (relieving flatulence), galactogogue
The dried ripe fruits of Ammi visnaga (Apiaceae/Umbelliferae) have a long history of
use in the Middle East as an antispasmodic and for the treatment of angina pectoris.
Khellin, as coronary vasodilator and spasmolytic agent, has been used in the
treatment of bronchial asthma and urinary disorder (smooth muscle relaxant in renal
colics).
137
4.2.11. ASTERALES
- Remarkable features:
capitulum with ray florets and disc florets (one type or both in a head),
138
with two branches. The rather small, single-seeded fruits often have a plumose
- Economic importance:
tinctorius. Latter is now more commonly cultivated for its seeds yielding
safflower oil, used in cooking.
It grows to a height of 15-60 cm and can be found naturally all over Europe and
the temperate areas of Asia. In the true M. recutita chamomile species, the
- Chemical constituents:
139
Both plants are cultivated to produce the flower-heads which are then dried for
- Uses:
Matricaria is used as a digestive aid, but is mainly employed for its anti-
inflammatory and spasmolytic properties.
Extracts or the volatile oil find use in creams and ointments to treat
inflammatory skin conditions, and as an antibacterial and antifungal agent.
Taken internally, matricaria may help in the control of gastric ulcers and as
carminative.
140