Motor learning

• Motor learning has been defined as a “set of

internal processes associated with practice or
experience leading to relatively permanent
changes in the capability for skilled behavior.”
• In other words, motor learning is when complex
processes in the brain occur in response to
practice or experience of a certain skill resulting
in changes in the central nervous system that
allow for production of a new motor skill.
There are three stages in which motor
learning occurs
1. Cognitive Stage– This is the earliest phase of
learning when the performer understands
what needs to be done. During this initial
stage of motor learning, the goal is to
develop an overall understanding of the skill.
There is quite a lot of trial and error at this
phase, successful strategies should be
reinforced and unsuccessful ones dismissed
• The learner must determine what the
objective of the skill is and begin to process
environmental factors that will affect their
ability to produce the skill. Beginners are not
always aware of what they did wrong, nor do
they know how to correct errors. They need
basic, specific instruction and feedback during
this. Teacher may employ demonstration or
other methods of guidance.
• When learning a new skill we all start at the
cognitive phase. At this point we learn how to
perform the skill. We create a mental picture
of how the skill is performed. Trainers and
coaches will:
– Give clear demonstrations
– Provide simple instructions
– Have short periods for practicing
– Give praise for the correct action
– Emphasize the technique and not the outcome
2. Associative Stage – In the associative or
motor phase the performer practices and
associates the movements produced with the
mental image. At this stage the athlete
understands the fundamentals of the skill
and is in the process of refining the skill. They
experience fewer errors and can detect some
of them on their own. Performances are
more consistent and learners begin to know
what is relevant and what is not.
• During the associative stage, students improve
their practice and get a feel for the skill. The
proper technique is learnt by this stage so
concentration on practicing the skill is
important.
• Students make fewer errors and they are able
to analyse their own movements and make
corrections. Internal feedback from our senses
as well as external feedback from the coach is
used to help make corrections. Most athletes
do not move beyond this stage.
Coaches of players in the associative stage should:
• Teach movement patterns first and then add
other environmental situations (game-like
situations).
• Provide variable practice situations. For example,
soccer passing could include ‘keep off’ and corner
passing.
• Use both knowledge of performance (KP) and
knowledge of results (KR) feedback, and avoid
giving feedback on every attempt.
• Practice skills randomly rather than in blocks.
• Encourage the use of mental imagery.
3. Autonomous Stage – This is the last of the
stages of learning. At this point the skill is
well learned. The athlete performs the skill
automatically without having to focus on
execution. There are few errors and athletes
can detect and know how to correct them.
They can concentrate more on other aspects
of the game. Progression to this level of
learning allows the learner to perform the
skill in any environment with very little
cognitive involvement compared to the first
stage.
• For performers to stay at this stage they must
continuously refer back to the associative
phase where practice ensures that motor
programmes are reinforced.
• Watching Brian Lara skilfully and repeatedly
stroke a ball for four runs between fielders is
the evidence of this phase. The use of the
coach becomes limited as they are able to
detect and deal with their own errors.
Coaches assist with the finer details of the skill
such as tactics and mental preparation.
 There are many factors that influence
motor skill learning:
• individual differences
• psychosocial aspects
• task complexity
• type of skill taught (open/ closed)
• styles of instruction
• presentation style
• type of practice – massed
• types of practice – distributed
Explain any 1 of these factors as it applies to influencing motor
skill learning (but know all 8)
 Factors Influencing Motor Skill
Learning
Individual differences:
• Readiness – psychological and physiological
influencing the ability and willingness to learn
• Motivation – need and drive to learn/ arousal to
action.
• Experience
• Age
• Gender
• Social and economic background
• Intelligence and skill level.
• Personality – introverts and extroverts.
• Genetics
• Culture and environment
• Emotions - In general, while positive
emotions like joy, happiness, elation, etc.,
have facilitative effect on performance
negative emotions such as anger, fear,
anxiety, over-arousal, etc., put hurdles in the
way of performance.
• Race
• Somatotype (body shape)
• Muscle-fibre composition
• Information-processing capacity
• Aptitude for the activity - Aptitude assume
that individuals have inherent strengths and
weaknesses, and have a natural inclination
toward success or failure in specific areas
based on their innate characteristics. An
aptitude test does not test knowledge
 Psychosocial Aspects
Psychosocial characteristics is commonly
described as an individual’s psychological
development in relation to his/her social and
cultural environment. “Psychosocial” means
“pertaining to the influence of social factors on
an individual’s mind or behavior, and to the
interrelation of behavioral and social factors”
Task complexity and type
The complexity of a skill to be learnt is obviously
important in the acquisition of the skill.
Movement tasks may be classified according to
different criteria:
• The stability of the environment—open or
closed
• The precision of the movement—gross or fine
motor
• The distinctiveness of the beginning and end
points—continuous, serial or discrete
• Timing—externally paced or self-paced.
 Open or Close skills
Close skills are performed in environments that
are stable and predictable as possible. Therefore
environment has little effect on how the skill is
performed. The performer can use pre-learned
skills or patterns of movement without having to
make the major changes.
Examples of closed skills are those involved in
golf, archery, weightlifting and synchronized
swimming.
Open skills are performed in a changing,
unpredictable environment. Changes in
environment affects how the skill is performed.
The unpredictability of the environment forces
the performer to respond in a variety of ways,
some of which might not have been practised in
training.
Examples of open skill are batting in cricket,
tackling a player in soccer, executing a set play in
rugby union or making a ground stroke in tennis
 Externally paced or Self-paced
Self-paced - the athlete who determines at what
pace actions should occur. The athlete can
execute the movement at a desired speed and
method. For example, a golfer places the tee
and ball where the golfer chooses, approaches
the ball when ready to do so, takes a
predetermined number of practice swings, looks
up the fairway, and then swings—all at a pace
determined by the golfer.
Externally paced - External conditions/ the
environment determine what pace actions
should occur. The timing of the performer’s
response are initiated by actions from an
external source or stimulus such as the
opposition, the weather and the time left in the
game. The unpredictability of the environment
forces the performer to respond in a variety of
ways.
 Fine and gross skills
Fine motor skills require more precision and
coordination. When we think about hand and
eye coordination, fine motor skills are required.
Each time a child picks up a pencil, plays with
small toys, touches their nose, or eats, they are
using their fine motor skills. These skills seem
simple to adults, but require concentration for
children to develop them.
Examples of fine motor skills include:
• spinning a ball when bowling
• throwing darts.
Gross motor skills are responsible for movement
and include activities that involve moving major
areas of the body. For instance, running,
jumping, climbing, throwing, standing, and
sitting are examples of gross motor skills.
Children use their large muscle groups and move
most or all of their bodies when utilizing their
gross motor skills.
 Discrete, continuous and serial skills
Discrete motor skill are skills that have a clearly
defined starting and finishing point. Example
throwing a ball or performing a dive.
Continuous motor skill are skills with an
arbitrary start or end point. Example swimming
and running, they are so classified because the
beginning and end points are determined by the
performer, and not by the task itself.
 Serial motor skill is when a series of discrete
motor skills are put together. Example
performing a dance routine, bowling a cricket
ball and shooting an arrow in archery. In these
situations a specific series of movements must
be performed in a specific order for the task to
be performed properly.
Types of Practice
How a skill is practised will determine how that
skill is acquired and performed. Perfect practice
makes perfect performance.
Types of practice methods include the
following:
• speed and accuracy
• massed and distributed
• whole and part.
Speed and accuracy practice - Speed and
accuracy are task specific and should relate to
the final expectations of the performance.
When speed is predominant for a skill, early
emphasis on speed is preferable. When accuracy
is needed, early emphasis on accuracy is better.
If attention is directed solely to accuracy when
learning, speed will gradually improve. If
attention is directed solely to speed, however,
accuracy tends to diminish. Beginners should
concentrate on accuracy, and then increase
speed.
The length of time spent practising skills and the
time spent at rest are important training
considerations.
Massed practice is a relatively continuous type
of practice in which the rest periods are either
very short or non-existent; for example, when a
netball goal shooter practises shooting for 20
minutes continuously.
Massed practice is preferable for:
• highly skilled performers
• highly motivated performers.
 Distributed practice occurs when periods of
rest, or periods of practising other skills, are
equal to (or longer than) periods of practising
the primary skill. An example of this is a netball
goal shooter practising shots from the right for
10 minutes, having a break for 10 minutes, then
practising shooting from the left for a further
10 minutes, followed by rest for a further 15
minutes.
 For improving performance, distributed practice
is more effective than massed practice because
it allows for feedback to be given, and decreases
the likelihood of fatigue.
Distributed practice is preferable for:
• the novice
• in situations where energy demands are high
• when the task is difficult or boring.
Whole and Part practice This method refers to
whether skills should be practised in parts or
as a whole. For example, should a softball hit
be taught in its entirety or in its component
parts, such as stance, grip, swing and follow-
through? The concepts of task complexity and
task organisation aid in this decision.
Task complexity refers to how many parts or
component parts are present, and the intellectual
demands of the task. A dance routine has a high
level of task complexity, whereas weightlifting has a
low level of task complexity.
Task organisation refers to how the component
parts of the task are interrelated. A jump shot in
basketball has a high degree of task organisation
because the parts of it are interrelated—with each
part being highly dependent upon another to
achieve the objective.
 Styles of instruction/Teaching style
• The authority style is primarily used in a lecture
or auditorium setting, whereby the teacher will
give a lengthy, one-way discussion on a pre-
assigned topic whilst students take notes and
memorise key pieces of information.
• The delegator or group style is for subjects that
necessitate group work, peer feedback or lab-
based learning. As a delegator, the teacher may
take an observer role to promote collaboration
and encourage peer-to-peer learning.
• The facilitator or activity-based style
encourage self-learning in the classroom
through increased peer to teacher learning.
Unlike the lecture style, teachers ask students
to question rather than simply have the
answer given to them.
• The demonstrator style retains authority in
the classroom. However, instead of relying
solely on a verbal lecture, the demonstrator
style combines lectures with other teaching
forms, including multimedia presentations,
demonstrations and class activities.
• The hybrid style - some teachers adopt an
integrated teaching style that incorporates
their personality, preferences and interests
into their teaching. This strategy is known as
the hybrid style, and is popular in subjects like
English, Science and Religious Studies.
Teachers who use the hybrid style are able to
tailor their tutoring for different pupils,
incorporating extra-curricular knowledge to
develop a deeper knowledge of a particular
topic