SIGNAL & SYSTEMS LAB (EE-384)

LAB SESSION # 06

STUDY of LTI SYSTEM USING MATLAB

By

MUHAMMAD MOEED ZEB

20013122-039

Date: 28-12-2022

Department of Electrical Engineering

University of Gujrat

Session 2020-24

LAB SESSION#6
Lab Title:

“Study of LTI Systems using MATLAB”

Aim of Experiment:

This laboratory experiment aims to learn different properties of LTI systems i.e.
Linear/Non-Linear/Time Invariant/Time variant.

Theory:

Linear time-invariant systems (LTI systems) are a class of systems used in signals and
systems that are both linear and time-invariant. Linear systems are systems whose
outputs for a linear combination of inputs are the same as a linear combination of
individual responses to those inputs. Time-invariant systems are systems where the
output does not depend on when an input was applied.

Lab Work:
Book: Signal & System by Alan V. Oppenheim Second edition

• Page: 138 (Question: 2.3, 2.4) + consider x1= Q# 1.25 a, page# 61

Coding

>>close all;

>>n=-1:1:10;

>>a=input ('Enter the constant a');

>>b=input ('Enter the constant b');

>>x1=3.*cos ((4*n) + (pi/3));

>>subplot (2, 2, 1);

>>stem (n, x1);

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>>xlabel ('n');

>>ylabel ('amp');

>>title ('x1[n]');

>>x2= (1/2). ^ (n-2).*heaviside (n-2);

>>h=n.*heaviside(n+2);

%for Linearity and Non-Linearity

>>y01= conv (a*x1, h);

>>y02= conv (b*x2, h);

>>y1=y01+y02;

>>x= (a.*x1) + (b.*x2);

>>y2= conv(x, h);

>>L=length(x) +length (h)-1;

>>n=0: L-1;

>>subplot (2, 2, 2);

>>stem (n, y1);

>>xlabel ('n');

>>ylabel ('amp');

>>title ('Sum of Individual Responses');

>>subplot (2, 2, 3:4);

>>stem (n, y2);

>>xlabel ('n');

>>ylabel ('amp');

>>title ('Total Responses');

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>>if y1==y2

>>disp ('System is Linear');

>>else

>>disp ('System is Non-Linear');

>>end

For Time Invariance and Time Variance:

• Coding:

%for Time Invariance and Time Variance;

>>close all;

>>n=-1:1:10;

>>x= (1/2). ^ (n-2).*heaviside (n-2);

>>h=n.*heaviside (n+2);

Page | 4
>>d=input('Enter the Delay:');

>>x dn= [zeros (1, d), x];

>>y n=conv (xdn, h);

>>y=conv(x, h);

>>y dn = [zeros (1, d), y];

>>figure;

>>subplot (2, 1, 1);

>>stem (0: length(x) -1, x);

>>xlabel ('n');

>>ylabel ('amp');

>>title ('sequence of x[n]');

>>subplot (2, 1, 2);

>>stem (0: length (xdn) -1, xdn);

>>xlabel ('n');

>>ylabel ('amp');

>>title ('Delayed Sequence of x[n]');

>>figure;

>>subplot (2, 1, 1);

>>stem (0: length(y) -1, y);

>>xlabel ('n');

>>ylabel ('amp');

>>title ('sequence of y[n]');

>>subplot (2, 1, 2);

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>>stem (0: length (ydn) -1,ydn);

>>xlabel ('n');

>>ylabel ('amp');

>>title ('Delayed Sequence of y[n]');

>>if yn==yndn

>> disp ('System is Time Invariant');

>>else

>> disp ('System is Time Variant');

>>end

Question 2.4:
• Coding:

Page | 6
>>close all;
>>n= [0:1:10];
>>a=input ('Enter the constant a');
>>b=input ('Enter the constant b');
>>n1 = 1;
>>n2 = 0;
%for First Signal;
>>x1=3.*cos ((4*n) + (pi/3));
>>subplot (2, 2, 1);
>>stem (n, x1);
>>xlabel ('n');
>>ylabel ('amp');
>>title ('x1[n]');
%for Second Signal;
>>x2=n1*(n>=3 & n<=8) + n2 (n<=3 & n>=8);
>>subplot (2, 2, 2);
>>stem (n, x2);
>>xlabel ('n');
>>ylabel ('amp');
>>title ('x2[n]');
%for Impulse Response Signal;
>>h=n1*(n>=4 & n<=15) + n2*(n<=4 & n>=15);
>>subplot (2, 2, 3:4);
>>stem (n, h)
>>xlabel ('n');
>>ylabel ('amp');
>>title ('h[n]');
>>figure;
%for Linearity and Non -Linearity
>>y01= conv (a*x1, h);
>>y02= conv (b*x2, h);
>>y1=y01+y02;
>>x= (a.*x1) + (b.*x2);
>>y2= conv(x, h);
>>L=length(x) +length (h) -1;
>>n=0: L -1;
>>subplot (2, 2, 1:2);
>>stem (n, y1);
>>xlabel ('n');
>>ylabel ('amp');
>>title ('Sum of Individual Responses');
>>subplot (2, 2, 3:4);
>>stem (n, y2);
>>xlabel ('n');

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>>ylabel ('amp');
>>title ('Total Responses');
>>if y1==y2
>>disp ('System is Linear');
>>else
>> disp ('System is Non-Linear');
>>end
Result:

Graph:

Page | 8
Coding for Question 2.4:
• For Time Invariance and Time Variance:
%for Time Invariance and Time Variance;
>>close all;
>>n=-1:1:10;
>>n1 = 1;
>>n2 = 0;
>>x = n1*(n>=3 & n<=8) + n2*(n<=3 & n>=8);
>>h=n1*(n>=4 & n<=15) + n2*(n<=4 & n>=15);
>>d=input ('Enter the Delay :');
>>xdn= [zeros (1, d), x];
>>yn=conv (xdn, h);
>>y=conv(x, h);
>>ydn= [zeros (1, d), y];
>>figure;
>>subplot (2, 1, 1);
>>stem (0: length(x)-1, x);
>>xlabel ('n');
>>ylabel ('amp');
>>title ('sequence of x[n]');
>>subplot (2, 1, 2);
>>stem (0: length (xdn)-1, xdn);
>>xlabel ('n');
>>ylabel ('amp');
>>title ('Delayed Sequence of x[n]');
>>figure;
>>subplot (2, 1, 1);

Page | 9
>>stem (0: length(y)-1, y);
>>xlabel ('n');
>>ylabel ('amp');
>>title ('sequence of y[n]');
>>subplot (2, 1, 2);
>>stem (0: length (ydn)-1, ydn);
>>xlabel ('n');
>>ylabel ('amp');
>>title ('Delayed Sequence of y[n]');
>>if yn==yndn;
>>disp ('System is Time Invariant');
>>else
>>disp ('System is Time Variant');
>>end

Page | 10
SIGNAL & SYSTEMS LAB (EE-384)

LAB SESSION # 07

CORRELATION BETWEEN SIGNALS

By

MUHAMMAD MOEED ZEB

20013122-039

Date: 04-01-2023

Department of Electrical Engineering

University of Gujrat

Session 2020-24
 LAB SESSION#7

Lab Title:

“Correlation between signals”

Aim of Experiment:

This laboratory experiment aims how to find the auto-correlation and cross-correlation
between signals.

Theory:

The correlation of two functions or signals or waveforms is defined as the measure of

similarity between those signals. There are two types of correlations (a).Cross-
correlation (b).Autocorrelation. Cross-correlation between two different signals is
defined as the measure of similarity or coherence between one signal and the time-
delayed version of another signal. The autocorrelation function is defined as the measure
of similarity or coherence between a signal and its time delayed version.

Lab Work:

Signal & Systems by Alan V. Oppenheim (2nd edition)

Page 57 (Question: 1.3 a, c, d, f) and Plot original and correlated signals

(a) X1(t) = e-2t u (t) (c) X3(t) = cos (t) (d) X1(n) = (½) n u (n) (f) X3(t) = cos (n)
Code:
%Question No (1.3 part (a and c)
>>close all
>>clear all
>>t=0:0.1:10
>>u=heaviside (t)
>>e=2.73
%signal in part (a)
>>x1=e. ^ (-2.*t).*u
>>subplot (2, 2, 1)
>>plot (t, x1)
>>title ('x1(t)')
>>xlabel ('t')
>>ylabel ('e^ (-2t)')
%second signal in part (c)
>>x3=cos (t)

Page | 2
>>subplot (2, 2, 2);
>>plot (t, x3)
>>title ('x3(t)');
>>xlabel ('t');
>>ylabel (‘cos (t)')
%xcorrfuncton co-relate the two signals
>>y1=x corr(x1, x3)
>>subplot (2, 2, 3);
>>plot (y1);
>>title ('Cross Co-Related Signal');
>>xlabel ('t');
>>ylabel ('y1')
%auto co-relation
>>y2=x corr(x1)
>>subplot (2, 2, 4)
>>stem (y2)
>>title ('auto co-relation')
>>xlabel ('t')
>>ylabel ('y2')
%Part d and f
%co-relation of signals
>>figure
>>n=0:1:20
>>u=heaviside (n)
>>stem (u)
%signal part d
>>x1= (1/2). ^ (n).*u
>>subplot (2, 2, 1)
>>stem (n, x1)
%signal part f
>>x3=cos (45*n)
>>subplot (2, 2, 2)
>>stem(x3)
%crosses co-relation
>>y1=x corr(x1, x3)
>>subplot (2, 2, 3)
>>stem (y1)
>>xlabel ('n')
>>ylabel ('y1')
>>title ('cross co-relation')
%auto co-relation
>>y2=x corr(x1)
>>subplot (2, 2, 4)
>>stem (y2)

Page | 3
>>x label ('n')
>>y label ('y2')
>>title ('auto co-relation signal')

For part a and c

For part d and f

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 SIGNAL & SYSTEMS LAB (EE-384)

LAB SESSION # 08

IMPULSE RESPONSE AND STEP RESPONSE OF

LTI SYSTEMS

By

MUHAMMAD MOEED ZEB

20013122-039

Date: 18-01-2023

Department of Electrical Engineering

University of Gujrat
 Session 2020-24
LAB SESSION#8

Lab Title:

“Impulse response and Step response of LTI Systems”

Aim of Experiment:

This laboratory experiment aims at how to find the Impulse response and step response of
LTI systems.

Theory:

A system for which the principle of superposition and the principle of homogeneity are
valid and the input/output characteristics do not change with time is called the linear
time-invariant (LTI) system. When the impulse signal is applied to a linear system, then
the response of the system is called the impulse response. The convolution integral can
be used to obtain the step response of a continuous-time LTI system.

Lab Work:
Signal & Systems by Alan V. Oppenheim (2nd edition)

Page # 721 Qs: 9.5 a, b, c and Plot impulse response and step response of these questions.

Coding:

>>close all

>>syms s complex

>>H= (1/(s+1)) + (1/(s+3));

Page | 2
>> disp ('Impulse response of system is')

>>h = ilaplace (H);

>>simplify (h)

>> disp (h)

>> Y = (1/s)*((1/(s+1)) + (1/(s+3)));

>> disp ('Step response of system is')

>> y = ilaplace(Y);

>> simplify(y)

>> disp (y)

>> t = 0:0.1:20;

>> h1 = subs (h, t);

>> Subplot (2, 1, 1)

>> plot (t, h1)

>> Xlabel ('time')

>> Ylabel (‘h (t)')

>> title ('Impulse response of system by Moeed ')

>> y1 = subs(y, t);

>> Subplot (2, 1, 2)

>> plot (t, y1)

>> xlabel ('time')

>> ylabel (‘h (t)')

>> title ('Step response of system by Moeed ')

Page | 3
Coding (b) part

>>clear all

>> syms s complex

% symbolic variable created here it is complex, it can be real

>>H=(s/ (s. ^2-1)) + (1/ (s. ^2-1)) %system

>>h= ilaplace (H) %inverse Laplace

>>figure;

>>simplify (h);

>>disp (h)

>>t=.1:1:20;

>>h1=subs (h, t) %substitution

>>subplot (2, 1, 1)

>>plot (t, h1,'c--')

>>title ('impulse response')

Page | 4
>>u=1/s*H % step response of H

>>h2=subs (u, t)

>>subplot (2, 1, 2)

>>plot (h2,'g--')

>>title ('step response')

Coding(c) part:
>>clear all
>>syms s complex
% symbolic variable created here it is complex, it can be real
>>H= ((s. ^3)-1/ (s. ^2+s+1))
%system
>>h= ilaplace (H)
%inverse laplace
>>figure;
>>simplify (h);
>>disp (h)
>>t=.1:1:20;
>>h1=subs (h, t)
%substitution
>>subplot (2, 1, 1)
>>plot (t, h1,'c--')

Page | 5
>>title ('impulse response')
>>u=1/s*H
% step response of H
>>h2=subs (u, t)
>>subplot (2, 1, 2)
>>plot (h2,'g--')
>>title ('step response')

Page | 6
SIGNAL & SYSTEMS LAB (EE-384)

LAB SESSION # 09

FOURIER SERIES

By

MUHAMMAD MOEED ZEB

20013122-039

Date: 25-01-2023

Department of Electrical Engineering

University of Gujrat

Session 2020-24
 LAB SESSION#9

Lab Title:

“Fourier Series”
Aim of Experiment:

The aim of this experiment is to find the Fourier and inverse Fourier transforms.

Theory:

Fourier series simply states that, periodic signals can be represented into sum of sines and
cosines when multiplied with a certain weight. The Fourier transform simply states that
that the non periodic signals whose area under the curve is finite can also be represented
into integrals of the sines and cosines after being multiplied by a certain weight.
The inverse Fourier transform is a mathematical formula that converts a signal in the
frequency domain ω to one in the time (or spatial) domain t.

Lab Work:
For Fourier Transforms
>>close all;
>>clear all;
>>syms t s;
>>syms w real;
>>syms A real;
>>syms b real;
>>syms f floor;
>>f=dirac (t);
>>F=fourier (f);
>>disp (‘the fourier transform of dirac (t) is');
>>disp (F);
>>f1=A*heaviside (t);
>>F1=fourier (f1);
>>disp (‘the fourier transform of A= ');
>>disp (F1);
>>f2=A*exp (-t)*heaviside (t);
>>F2=fourier (f2);
>>disp ('The fourier transform of exp(-t) is');
>>disp (F2);
>>f3=A*t*exp (-b*t)*heaviside (t);
>>F3=fourier (f3);
>>disp (‘the fourier a transform of A*t*exp (-b*t)*4(t) = ');

Page | 2
>>disp (F3);
>>f4=sin (0*t);
>>F4=fourier (f4);
>>disp ('The fourier transform of sin (0*t) is');
>>disp (F4);
>>figure
Result:

For Inverse Fourier Transform:

% for Inverse Fourier Transform

>>F1=A*pi*(dirac (w-0) + (w+0));
>>f1=ifourier (F1, t);
>>disp('The inverse fourier transform of A*pi**(dirac(w-0)+dirac(w+0)= ');
>>disp (f1);
>>F2=A*pi*(Dirac (w-0)-dirac (w+0))/i;
>>f2=ifourier (F2, t);
>>disp (‘the inverse fourier transform of A*pi*(dirac (w-0) +dirac (w+0)/i= ');
>>disp (f2);
>>F3=A/ (1+j*w);
>>f3=ifourier (F3,t);
>>disp (‘the inverse fourier transform of A/ (1+jw) =');
>>disp (f3);
>>F4= (3*i*w+14)/ ((i*w) ^2+7*i*w+12);
>>f4=ifourier (F4, t);
>>disp (‘the inverse fourier transform of (3*i*w+14)/ ((i*w) ^2+7*i*w+12) =');
>>disp (f4);

Result:

Page | 3
Page | 4
SIGNAL & SYSTEMS LAB (EE-384)

LAB SESSION # 10

MAGNITUDE AND PHASE SPECTRUM

By

MUHAMMAD MOEED ZEB

20013122-039

Date: 01-02-2023

Department of Electrical Engineering

University of Gujrat

Session 2020-24
 LAB SESSION#10

Lab Title:

“Magnitude and Phase Spectrum”

Aim of Experiment:

This lab aims to calculate the Magnitude and Phase Spectrum of Fourier Transforms.

Lab Work:

Coding:
>>clear all;
>>close all;
>>syms t s;
>>syms w float;
>>f=3*exp (-t)*heaviside (t);
%given function
>>F=fourier (f);
>>disp (‘the fourier transform of 3*exp (-t)*u (t) =');
>>disp (F);
>>w=-2*pi: pi/50:2*pi;
>>F1=subs (F, w);
%substitute w in F function
>>Fmag=abs (F1);
%to find magnitude
>>Fphas=angle (F1);
%to find phase
>>subplot (2, 1, 1);
>>plot (w, Fmag);
>>xlabel ('w----');
>>ylabel ('Magnitude…');
>>title ('Magnitude spectrum');
>>grid;
>>subplot (2, 1, 2);
>>plot (w, Fphas);
>>xlabel ('w…');
>>ylabel ('Phase in Radians..');
>>title ('Phase spectrum');
>>grid;

Page | 2
Result:

Page | 3
SIGNAL & SYSTEMS LAB (EE-384)

LAB SESSION # 11

LAPLACE TRANSFORM

By

MUHAMMAD MOEED ZEB

20013122-039

Date: 15-02-2023

Department of Electrical Engineering

University of Gujrat

Session 2020-24
 LAB SESSION#11

Lab Title:

“Laplace Transform”
Aim of Experiment:

This lab aims to find Laplace Transform and inverse Laplace transforms.

Theory:

Laplace transforms permits to go from time domain to frequency domain whereas inverse
Laplace transform allows to go from frequency domain to time domain.

Lab Work:

>>close all;

>>clear all;

>>syms s;

>>F= (1/(s^2))*(1-exp (-s)-(1/2)*exp (-3*5) + (1/2)*exp (5*s));

>>f=ilaplace (F);

>>pretty (simplify (f));

>>ezplot (f, [0, 5]);

>>grid;

Results:

Page | 2
Page | 3
SIGNAL & SYSTEMS LAB (EE-384)

LAB SESSION # 12

ZEROES AND POLES

By

MUHAMMAD MOEED ZEB

20013122-039

Date: 22-02-2023

Department of Electrical Engineering

University of Gujrat

Session 2020-24
 LAB SESSION#12

Lab Title:

“Zeroes and Poles”

Aim of Experiment:

This lab aims to study Zeroes and poles in the S-plane, Zeroes and poles in Z-plane.

Theory:

The poles and zeros of a transfer function may be complex, and the system dynamics may
be represented graphically by plotting their locations on the complex s-plane, whose axes
represent the real and imaginary parts of the complex variable s. Such plots are known as
pole-zero plots. It is usual to mark a zero location by a circle (◦) and a pole location a
cross (×).

Lab work:

Zeroes and poles in the S-plane

>>clear all;

>>close all;

>>num=input ('Enter the numerator polynomial vector\n');

>>den=input ('Enter the denominator polynomial vector\n');

>>H=tf (num, den)

>> [p, z] =pzmap (H);

>>disp ('zeroes are at');

>>disp (z);

>>disp ('poles are at');

>>disp (p);

>> [p, z] =pzmap (H);

Page | 2
>>if max (real (p))>=0;

>>disp (‘all the poles do not lie in the left half of the S-plane');

>> disp ('The given LTI system is not a stable system');

>>else

>> disp ('All the poles lie in the left half of S-plane');

>>disp ('The given LTI system is a stable system');

>>end;

Result:

Zeroes and poles in the z-plane:

Coding

>>clear all;

>>close all;

Page | 3
>>num=input ('Enter the numerator polynomial vector\n');

>>den=input ('Enter the denominator polynomial vector\n');

>>H=filt (num,den)

>>Z=zero (H);

>>disp (‘the zeroes are at');

>>disp (Z);

>>[r p k] =residuez (num, den);

>>disp (‘the poles are at');

>>disp (p);

>>zplane (num, den);

>>title ('Pole-Zero map in the Z-plane');

>>if max (abs (p))>=1;

>>disp (‘all the poles do not lie within the unit circle');

>>disp ('The given LTI system is not a stable system');

>>else

>>disp (‘all the poles lie within the unit circle');

>>disp ('The given LTI system is a stable system');

>>end;

Result:

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Page | 5
SIGNAL & SYSTEMS LAB (EE-384)

LAB SESSION # 13

SAMPLING THEOREM

By

MUHAMMAD MOEED ZEB

20013122-039

Date: 01-03-2023

Department of Electrical Engineering

University of Gujrat

Session 2020-24
 LAB SESSION#13

Lab Title:

“Sampling Theorem”
Aim of Experiment:

This lab aims to implement the sampling theorem using MATLAB.

Theory:

A continuous time signal can be represented in its samples and can be recovered back
when sampling frequency fs is greater than or equal to the twice the highest frequency
component of message signal. i. e.

f s ≥ 2fm

Lab work:

>> close all;

>> clear all;
>>f1=3;
>>f2=23;
>>t=-0.4:0.0001:0.4;
>>x= cos (2*pi*f1*t) +cos (2*pi*f2*t);
>>figure (1);
>>plot (t, x,'-r')
>>xlabel ('time…');
>>ylabel ('amp…');
>>title (‘the original signal');
%case 1 :( fs<2fm)
>>fs1=1.4*f2;
>>ts1=1/fs1;
>>n1=-0.4:ts1:0.4;
>>xs1=cos (2*pi*f1*n1) +cos (2*pi*f2*n1);
>>figure (2);
>>stem (n1, xs1);
>>holdon;
>>plot (t, x,'-r');
>>hold off;
>>legend ('fs<2fm');
>>xlabel ('time…');
>>ylabel ('amp…');
>>title ('Case 1');
Page | 2
%case 2 :( fs=2fm)
>>fs2=2*f2;
>>ts2=1/fs2;
>>n2=-0.4:ts2:0.4;
>>xs2=cos (2*pi*f1*n2) +cos (2*pi*f2*n2);
>>figure (3);
>>stem (n2, xs2);
>>holdon;
>>plot (t, x,'-r');
>>hold off;
>>legend ('fs=2fm');
>>xlabel ('time…');
>>ylabel ('amp…');
>>title ('Case 2');
%case 3 :( fs>2fm)
>>fs3=7*f2;
>>ts3=1/fs3;
>>n3=-0.4:ts3:0.4;
>>xs3=cos (2*pi*f1*n3) +cos (2*pi*f2*n3);
>>figure (4);
>>stem (n3, xs3);
>>holdon;
>>plot (t, x,'-r');
>>hold off;
>>legend ('fs>2fm');
>>xlabel ('time…');
>>ylabel ('amp…');
>>title ('Case 3');

Page | 3
Page | 4
Page | 5
SIGNAL & SYSTEMS LAB (EE-384)

LAB SESSION # 14

SIMULINK

By

MUHAMMAD MOEED ZEB

20013122-039

Date: 08-03-2023

Department of Electrical Engineering

University of Gujrat

Session 2020-24
 LAB SESSION#14

Lab Title:

“Simulink”
Aim of Experiment:

Introduction to SIMULINK in MATLAB

Theory:
Simulink is a simulation and model-based design environment for dynamic and
embedded systems, integrated with MATLAB. Simulink, also developed by Math Works,
is a data flow graphical programming language tool for modeling, simulating and
analyzing multi-domain dynamic systems. It is basically a graphical block diagramming
tool with customizable set of block libraries. It allows you to incorporate MATLAB
algorithms into models as well as export the simulation results onto MATLAB for further
analysis. Simulink supports the following tasks:
1. System-level Design.
2. Simulation
3. Automatic Code Generation
4. Testing and Verification of Embedded Systems

Starting up SIMULINK
In order to use SIMULINK, you must first start MATLAB. With MATLAB running,

there are two ways to start Simulink:

 Click the SIMULINK icon on the MATLAB toolbar and Type ‘SIMULINK’ at

Page | 2
Basic Elements:
There are two major categories of elements in Simulink:

1. Blocks

2. Lines

Blocks are used to generate, modify, combine, output, and display signals. Lines, on the

other hand, are used to transfer signals from one block to another.

1. Blocks:
There are several general classes of blocks, some of which are:

 Sources: Used to generate various signals. Sources blocks have outputs but no inputs.

One may want to use a Constant input, a Sine Wave, a Step, a Ramp, a Pulse

Generator, or a Uniform Random number to simulate noise. The Clock may be used

to create a time index for plotting purposes.

 Sinks: Used to output or display signals. Sinks blocks have inputs but no outputs.

Examples are Scope, Display, To Workspace, Floating Scope, XY Graph, etc.

 Discrete: Discrete Filter, Discrete State-Space, Discrete Transfer Fcn, Discrete Zero-

Pole, Unit Delayed.

 Continuous: Integrator, State-Space, Transfer Fcn, Zero-Pole, etc.

 Signal routing: Mux, Demux, Switch, etc.

 Math Operations: Abs, Gain, Product, Slider Gain, Sign, Sum, etc.

2. Lines:
Lines transmit signal in the direction indicated by the arrow Lines must always transmit

signals from the output terminal of one block to the input terminal of another block .One

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exception to this is that a line can tap off of another line. This sends the original signal to

two (or more) destination blocks. Lines can never inject a signal into another line; lines

must be combined through the use of block such as a summing junction. A signal can be

either a scalar signal or a vector signal.

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