SLM Media PDF

Media Research
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Table of Contents
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UNIT 1 Introduction to Research
LESSON-1 Research: Meaning, Definition and Objectives 02
LESSON-2 Types of Research 08
LESSON-3 Approaches to Research: Qualitative and Quantitative 13
LESSON-4 Media Research: Meaning and Scope 18
UNIT 2 Survey in Media Research
LESSON-1 Survey, Public Opinion Surveys, TRPs, TeleWeb Survey 27
LESSON-2 Readership Survey & IRS 38
LESSON-3 Election Related Survey: Opinion Poll and Exit Poll 42
LESSON-4 Media Research Agencies: BARC, ABC, MAP, RAM 48
UNIT 3 Research Design
LESSON-1 Research Design: Meaning and different Types, Hypotheses/

Research Questions 61
LESSON-2 Research Methods: Survey, Content Analysis and Case Study 71
LESSON-3 Sampling &Selecting a sample, Types of sampling: Probability and

Non-Probability 82
LESSON-4 Data Collection Tools: Primary and Secondary, Observation,

Interview, Questionnaire/ Schedule, FGD 89
UNIT 4 Data Analysis and Report Writing
LESSON-1 Processing of data – editing, coding, classification, tabulation 117
LESSON-2 Measures of Central Tendency: Mean, Median and Mode 130
LESSON-3 Analysis and Interpretation of Data 136
LESSON-4 Report Writing/ Abstract/ Proposal/ Synopsis 143
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Unit 1, Syllabus Media Research
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UNIT 1 BA (JMC) 303 L: 12

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Introduction to Research
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LESSON 1 02
Research: Meaning, Definition and Objectives
LESSON 2 08
Types of Research
LESSON 3 13
Approaches to Research: Qualitative and Quantitative
LESSON 4 18
Media Research: Meaning and Scope
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Media Research Unit 1, Lesson 1
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LESSON 1 Research: Meaning, Definition and Objectives
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STRUCTURE
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Research: Meaning and Definition
1.3 Objectives of Research
1.4 Criteria of Good Research
1.5 Summing up
1.6 Assignments
1.7 Self-check questions
1.8 Terminal questions
1.9 Possible answers of self-check questions
1.10 Keywords
1.11 Suggested further readings
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Unit 1, Lesson 1 Media Research
1. Research: Meaning, Definition and

Objectives
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In Unit 1 of the course „Media Research‟ we shall consider the introduction to

research. In this unit we will discuss meaning, definition and objectives of research;
types of research; research approaches and meaning and scope of media research.
In the present lesson we shall discuss the meaning, definition and objective of
Research.
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1.0 Objectives
After going through this lesson, you would be able to:
• describe meaning and definition of research

• describe the objectives of research
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1.1 Introduction
In our everyday activities we loosely use the term „Research‟. Knowingly or
unknowingly everyone is involved in research when deciding what to „have‟ or
not to „have‟. And everyone has a broad idea of this concept that research is
collecting information, developing theories and new phenomena.
Research is an insight into something which is not known. It is a logical and

analytical thinking used for discovering the truth. It is important to inculcate
analytical skills in all media personnel. These skills must be based on correct
opinion and accurate facts. It is important for a journalist or a communication
expert to find out facts that are hidden and have not been discovered.
Research in this lieu is one such journey from the known to the unknown.
Like an explorer, a researcher must try to bring out the undiscovered or

hidden truth about a particular person, thing, place, theory and concept. It is
not a simple task as it requires patience, multiple techniques, hard work and
love for looking beyond the expected. While researching, it must be kept in
mind that results may or may not be as expected and there is high probability
of finding reasons that were never thought of.
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1.2 Research: Meaning and Definition
It is basically a systematic and objective identification, collection, analysis,

dissemination and use of information for the purpose of improving decision
making related to the identification and solution of problems and opportunities.
Research is a diligent inquiry in seeking facts. It is a laborious and continued

process. Research is a quest for knowledge that anyone from student to
scientist to historian can undertake in order to evoke truth and produce hidden
facts.
It is a journey of discovery which enables the researcher to travel from the

known to the unknown. It is a scientific and systematic search for related
information on a specific topic. It can also be defined as a systematized effort
to gain insight and new knowledge.
Research is a human activity, based on the intellectual investigation and
aimed at discovering, interpreting and revising human knowledge on different
aspects of the world.
Research is done to draw out new conclusions by finding new facts. It is not a
result of prejudice or self drawn opinion. Facts collected during research
process are tested and analysed only then conclusions and inference are
drawn.
According to Clifford Woody, “research comprises defining and redefining
problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions, collecting,
organizing and evaluating data; making deductions & reaching conclusions; at
last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the
formulated hypothesis”.
According to Clarke and Clarke, “Research is a careful, systematic and
objective investigation conducted to obtain valid facts, draw conclusions and
established principles regarding an identifiable problem in some field of
knowledge.”
According to John W. Best, “Research is a systematic and objective analysis
and recording of controlled observations that may lead to the development of
generalizations, principles, theories and concepts, resulting in prediction for
seeing and possibly ultimate control of events.”
It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and
experiment.
Research involves specification of the information required to address various
issues, designing the methods for collecting information, managing and
implementing the data collection process, analyzing the results and
communicating the findings and their implications.
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There are various methods used for carrying out research like action research
or called applied research, cartography popularly called map drawing, case
study, classification, experience and intuition experiments, interviews,
mathematical models, participant observation, simulation, statistical surveys,
statistical analysis, content and textual analysis and ethnography which is the
study of human races and their characteristics.
1.3 Objectives of Research

The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which
has not yet been discovered.
Research aims at initiating research projects. It aims at specifying information
needed for decision making. It aims at evaluating proposed research projects.
It aims at accepting or rejecting research findings. It aims at gathering
information about competitors. It aims at gaining familiarity with a
phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it. It aims at portraying accurate
characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group. It aims at
determining the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else. It aims at testing a hypothesis of a causal
relationship between variables.
Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking. It promotes logical
thinking and habits. It provides the basis for nearly all government policies in
our economic system.
Role of research is dominant in fields of applied economics. Research has its
special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of
business and industry. Research is important for social scientists in studying
social relationships and in seeking answers to various social problems.
Research is also important for philosophers and thinkers for outlet of insights
and new ideas. It is also true that increased amount of research also supports
progress and development.
Though research does not directly participate in decision making but it
definitely facilitates the decisions of the policy makers. Research is helpful in
understanding changing human behaviour and patterns of changing society.
Research also helps in achieving intellectual satisfaction. Research is helpful
to those students who are to write a masters or Ph.D. thesis. Research and
development has also become a popular source of livelihood. It is also of
significant value for thinkers and philosophers for generating new ideas and
thoughts. Research is similar to formal training which enables one to
understand the new development in one‟s field in a better way.
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1.4 Criteria of Good Research

 It is important to clearly define the purpose of research. It is also
necessary to use common concepts for research work.
 It is important for the researcher to explain the process or methodology
of research work in detail. This not only enables smooth research work
but also helps further researchers to develop a methodology.
 Research design is an important element of research process.
Research design must be carefully woven in order to give maximum
results. Therefore, research design must be result oriented.
 If a researcher experiences flaws in procedural design, he must
express the estimated effects upon the findings.
 The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its
significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate.
1.5 Summing up
Research is a diligent inquiry in seeking facts. It is a laborious and continued
process. Research is a quest for knowledge that anyone from students to
scientists to historians do in order to evoke truth and produce hidden facts.
Research is a human activity, based on the intellectual investigation and
aimed at discovering, interpreting and revising human knowledge on different
aspects of the world. Research has its special significance in solving various
operational and planning problems of business and industry. Research is also
important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking
answers to various social problems. Research is similar to formal training
which enables one to understand the new development in one‟s field in a
better way.
1.6 Assignments
Class Assignment: Define research in the words of Clifford Woody.
Home Assignment: Write the objectives of research.

 The main aim of research is to ________________ which is hidden
and which has not yet been discovered.
 Research is helpful to understand the changing ____________ and
________ of changing society.
1.8 Terminal Questions

Describe the meaning and definition of research.
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Describe the objectives of research.
 The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and
which has not yet been discovered.
 Research is helpful in understanding changing human behaviour and
patterns of changing society.
1.10 Keywords
 Research: Research is a careful, systematic and objective investigation
conducted to obtain valid facts, draw conclusions and established
principles regarding an identifiable problem in some field of knowledge.

1. C.R. Kothari, Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques, Vishwa
Parkashan, New Delhi.
2. S.R. Sharma & Anil Chaturvedi, Research in Mass Media, Radha
Publications, New Delhi.
3. G.R. Basotia & K.K. Sharma, Research Methodology, Mangal Deep
Publications.
4. Dr. S. Munjal, Research Methodology, Raj Publishing House, Jaipur
5. Sadhu Singh, Research Methodology in Social Science, Himalaya
Publishing House, Mumbai
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LESSON 2 Types of Research
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STRUCTURE
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Types of Research
2.2.1 Exploratory Research
2.2.2 Descriptive Research
2.2.3 Applied Research
2.2.4 Fundamental Research
2.2.5 Quantitative Research
2.2.6 Qualitative Research
2.2.7 Explanatory Research
2.2.8 Co-relational Research
2.3 Summing up
2.4 Assignments
2.8 Keywords
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2. Types of Research
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In the previous session we had studied the Lesson 1 Meaning, Definition and
Objectives of the research.
In the present session we will study the various types of research.

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2.0 Objectives
 Explain various types of research
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2.1 Introduction
Research is done for various purposes and each requires different

methodology. For this purpose research has different types. Each type caters
to a particular field and objective. The methodology used to conduct the
research is different for each research. Research type depends upon the
nature, methodology and design of the research process.
2.2 Types of Research
2.2.1 Exploratory Research

The primary objective of exploratory research is to provide insight into and an
understanding of the problem confronting the researcher. It is used in cases
when the researcher must define the problems more precisely, identify
relevant courses of action, or gain insights before an approach can be
developed. The information needed is only loosely defined at this stage. The
research is flexible and unstructured.
2.2.2 Descriptive Research
The major objective of descriptive research is to describe something – usually
market characteristics or functions. It aims at describing the characteristics of
relevant groups. It is also done to make specific predictions. It is also done to
determine perceptions of groups. Descriptive research includes surveys and
fact- finding enquiries of different types. It is characterized by the prior
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information and formulation of hypothesis. Thus, the information needed is

clearly defined. This type of research is pre planned and structured. It is
typically based on large representative samples. In this type of research, the
researcher has no control over the variables, he / she simply has to describe
the happenings.
2.2.3 Applied Research
It aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organization. Marketing research or evaluation research
are examples of applied research. The aim of applied research is to discover
a solution for some pressing practical problems (e.g. dip in sales). It is done to
identify concrete social or business problems. Applied research is also called
action research.
2.2.4 Fundamental Research
It is also called pure or basic research. It is mainly concerned with
generalizations and with the formulation of a theory. Research concerning
some natural phenomenon or pure mathematics are examples of fundamental
research (evolution theory or Pythagoras theorem).
2.2.5 Quantitative Research
It is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to
phenomenon that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
2.2.6 Qualitative Research
It is applicable to phenomenon that can be related to or involve quality or kind.
Motivation research is an important type of qualitative research
It aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires. It uses techniques
like in depth interviews, word association tests, sentence completion tests,
story completion tests and similar other projective techniques.
Attitude or opinion researches are examples of qualitative research. It is
important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the
underlying motives of human behaviour.
2.2.7 Explanatory Research
The goal of explanatory research is to answer the question of why. They
include explaining things in detail and not just reporting. In this type of
research attempts go above and beyond what exploratory and descriptive
research to identify the actual reasons a phenomenon occurs. It should build
and enrich the reasons behind a theory. If there are several explanations for a
particular phenomenon, it should determine which one is the best answer. If a
theory has already been developed, the focus will be on testing a theory's
predictions or principles.
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2.2.8 Co relational Research

Correlation research the systematic investigation of relationships among two
or more variables, without necessarily determining cause and effect.
2.3 Summing Up
Research is done for various purposes and each requires different

methodology. For this purpose research has different types. Each type caters
to a particular field and objective. Research type depends upon the nature,
methodology and design of the research process. Various types of research
are exploratory research, descriptive research, applied research, fundamental
(pure) research, quantitative research, qualitative research, explanatory
research and co-relational research.
2.4 Assignments
Class Assignment: Describe exploratory Research.

Home Assignment: What is Fundamental Research?
 Fundamental research is also called _______ research.

 ___________ research is based on the measurement of quantity or
amount.
Describe various types of research.
 Fundamental research is also called pure or basic research.

 Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.
2.8 Keywords
 Exploratory Research: The primary objective of exploratory research is

to provide insight into and an understanding of the problem confronting the
researcher.
 Descriptive Research: It aims at describing the characteristics of relevant
groups.
 Applied Research: It aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem
facing by the society or an organization.
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Publications.
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LESSON 3 Approaches to Research: Qualitative and
Quantitative
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STRUCTURE
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Quantitative Research Approach
3.3 Qualitative Research Approach
3.4 Summing up
3.5 Assignments
3.9 Keywords
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3. Approaches to Research: Qualitative and

Quantitative
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In the previous lesson we had discussed the various types of research.

In the present lesson we shall discuss the two research approaches and try to
understand which approach should be used for what type of research.
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3.0 Objectives
• Describe Quantitative Research Approach
• Describe Qualitative Research Approach
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3.1 Introduction
Research approach is the path selected for conducting research. There are
two research approaches: qualitative research approach and quantitative
research approach. Both these approaches are different and are used for
specific research types. The researcher can opt for either of the two
approaches. Appropriate research approach helps in determining optimum
methodology for the research work.
3.2 Quantitative Research Approach
Quantitative Research approach involves the generation of data in

quantitative form which can be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a
formal and rigid way. It seeks to quantify the data. It typically applies some
form of statistical analysis. It includes large samples. It is structured It is rigid
in nature. Statistical techniques like mean, median, mode, percentage,
frequency etc. are used for analysis.
This approach can further be sub classified as:
 Inferential: the purpose of inferential approach to research is to form a
data base from which to infer characteristics or relationships of
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population. This means Survey research where a sample is studied to

determine its characteristics of the entire population.
 Experimental: The experimental approach is characterized by much
greater control over the research environment and in this case, some
variables are manipulated to observe their effect on other variables.
 Simulation: it involves the construction of an artificial environment
within relevant information and data can be generated. it is also
referred to as the operation of a numerical model that represents the
structure of a dynamic process.
To conduct quantitative approach following points must be considered:
 Identification of dependent and independent variables - Identify the

main element that is to be analyzed is the dependent variable and the
various factors which are needed to change to see the cause and
effect relationship will be the independent variables.
 Evaluation of change – To observe changes in dependent variable

occurring after modifying the independent variables, we must follow pre
and post testing. This can be done by collecting data before beginning
the experiment.
 Study locale – Is the area where the research study is going to be

execute.
 Sampling – It is said the research depends on good sampling

process. Thus, one has to carefully choose the samples for conducting
the study from the universe.
 Sample size – Sample size includes number of participants or group

to be involved for to make the experiment, draw conclusion and give
statistically significant data.
 Study should always be in the criteria of research ethics.
3.3 Qualitative Research Approach
Qualitative Research approach is concerned with subjective assessment of

attitudes, opinions and behaviour. Qualitative approach to research means to
study various perspectives and realities to human life, personal feeling,
opinion or taste, the need for alternative ways to behavioural knowledge. This
approach studies on social complexities like analyse the interactions,
processes, experiences, and belief system related to individual, institutions,
tradition and day to day life.
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Qualitative approach is concerned with the whole subject rather than analysis
or separation into parts; relates with study of individual to find out unique
facts.
The ultimate aim of qualitative approach is to find a close realization of
people, places, cultures and situation related to individuals/ group/ masses or
society as a whole.
Qualitative research approach has always faced the problem of reliability,
validity and errors. Most of the arguments on qualitative research arise when
the studies are inappropriately assessed through perceptions of human
knowledge and precise thought.
Thus, to gain appropriate standards of reliability following steps are
suggested:
 Qualitative research is conducted in natural settings.
 Try to ensure that the sources like people, institution and cultural group
speak confidently and give more relevant information.
 Develop and follow a single phenomenon as the world is multifaceted
and the way of analyzing things changes from person to person.
 Collection of data must be stopped when it is found that additional data
is not adding new facts to understanding or theories.
 Use more than one source of data to ensure authenticity.
 Sufficient time should be given to build trust and rapport for deeper
understanding of the culture, situation, people, place etc.
 Methodology should be checked again and again and in detail so that
the study is auditable and reproducible.
In qualitative research approach, exploratory research methodology is used. It
is based on small samples. It provides an insight and understanding of the
problem. It includes fundamental, basic or pure research.
It is non-statistical analysis. It uses techniques like focus groups, interviews,
projective techniques and in depth interviews. It is flexible. It is not conclusive.
3.4 Summing up
There are two types of research approaches. Either of the two can be
selected for research work which depends upon the type of research selected.
Qualitative Research approach is used for descriptive research whereas
Quantitative Research is used for analytical research. Qualitative and
Quantitative Research approaches are different from each other on various
parameters. For example, Qualitative Research deals with the meaning
whereas Quantitative Research deals with measurement.
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3.5 Assignments
Class Assignment: Describe Quantitative Research Approach

Home Assignment: Describe Qualitative Research Approach
1. List the two types of research approaches.

2. Can a researcher use both the research approaches for a single
research?
1. What are the two types of research approaches?

2. What are the differences between Qualitative and Quantitative
Research approaches?
1. Qualitative and Quantitative Research Approach
2. No
3.9 Keywords
 Simulation: It involves the construction of an artificial environment within
relevant information and data can be generated.
 Inferential: the purpose of inferential approach to research is to form a
data base from which to infer characteristics or relationships of population.

Publications.
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LESSON 4 Media Research: Meaning and Scope
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STRUCTURE
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Meaning of Media Research
4.3 Importance of Media Research
4.4 Areas of Media Research
4.5 Scope of Media Research
4.6 Summing up
4.7 Assignments
4.11 Keywords
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4. Media Research: Meaning and Scope

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In the previous session we had studied the Lesson 3 research approaches i.e.
quantitative and qualitative research approach.
In the present session we will study the meaning and scope of media research.
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4.0 Objectives
1. Explain print media research and its types;
2. Describe research in electronic media and methods of conducting it;
3. Discuss various forms of advertising and public relation researches.
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4.1 Introduction
Research is an attempt to discover the existing or new phenomenon. Media

research works on understanding the significance of information, sharing of
ideas and opinion. In simple words, media research may try to find answers to
questions such as what are the elements which are necessary in content
writing that make a newspaper successful. What kind of radio format is most
preferred by the listeners? Why a particular television program is not gaining
popularity? Why the other television program with same concept is performing
well? Thus, we can say that media research tries to find out every possible
reason that influences the people readership, listenership or viewership. The
recommendations and conclusions drawn help the media workers in planning
and organising new mass communication projects effectively which involves
large amount of money, efforts, time and human resources.
4.2 Meaning of Media Research
Media research is the study of the effects of the different mass media on
social, psychological and physical aspects. Research survey that segments
the people based on what television programs they watch, radio they listen
and newspaper/magazines they read.
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It includes achievements and effects of media and a study about the

development of media i.e. newspapers, magazines, radio, TV, Cinema or
other mass media analysis and collection of information. It helps to
understand the ways in which media can meet the needs of the audience,
whether it can provide information and entertainment to more and different
types of people; new technological improvements that help to improve or
enhance the medium. Thus in order to deal with social and political issues
insightfully, management and regulation of media is needed. Unbiased
evaluation of data can be achieved through media research.
Media research may also be called as “Audience Research”. It provides

information regarding the popularity & effectiveness of each medium of mass
communication and the comparative position of the cost of media. This
facilitates the selection of the most suitable media mix for the benefit of the
media users. Media research also investigates that which newspaper or
magazine consumers read and/or which radio or television programs they
listen to or watch as a part of this specific type of survey.
We need to understand the nature of medium being used, the working of the
medium, technologies involved in it, difference and similarities between it and
other media vehicles, functions and services provided by it, cost associated
and access to new medium, effectiveness and how it can be improved.
Hence, media research is the study of information related to any form of mass
communication. Media includes television, radio, newspapers and magazines,
cinema, outdoor media, traditional media, advertising, public relations etc.
Digital media, Internet and social media are also considered mass media if
they have a wide enough reach.
4.3 Importance of Media Research
Many businesses are trying to target advertising, but some people are also
concerned with the well-being of a very plugged in society. Businesses study
mass media to see which form of mass media produces the greater result for
its advertisements. In contrast, from a public health standpoint, studies have
been performed to see what kind of effect watching TV violence has on
children. From these studies, parents and educators know that watching too
much violence on TV may make children more violent. Parents can use this
information to limit the amount or type of television their children watch. Thus,
the purpose of media research is mainly for business purposes and for public
health reasons.
Media research for business focuses more on conversions, the number of

people watching or reading a mass media form and then turning into
customers. This is important as the numbers found through media research
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helps the business decide whether a certain form of advertising is financially

worth it.
Likewise producers of media products like TV program, radio program or

newspaper/magazine contents are also conduct media research to find out
that which program or channel is most liked by the media users. Accordingly
they plan their future productions.
Mass media research for health and well-being reasons is important as

scientists are still learning about how technology is affecting people in both
positive and negative ways. For example, with the increasingly prevalent use
of smart-phones, some scientists are concerned that the increased exposure
to radiation will negatively impact people's health.
4.4 Areas of Media Research
The mass media research studies can be broadly categorised in broad areas
such as:
A. Print Media
B. Electronic Media: Radio, Television and Internet.
C. Advertising and Public Relation
A. Research in Print Media
The various forms of print media are newspapers, magazines, books,

brochures, pamphlets, catalogues, journals which are the oldest media
available even today. Therefore, it was the first subject of mass media
research. Earlier, qualitative research were more in practice, later on with the
availability of more basic data, development of convenient research tools and
increase in institutional support to quantitative research are also performed in
print media making it more empirical. With increasing competition after the
commencement of radio and television the growth of private sector research
started. Mainly Communication Surveys Researches (CRS) are sponsored by
various organisations and associations to develop new strategies and ideas
for competing in the market.
Now it is seen that many big newspaper house have in-house research cell
which conduct research relating to every department of the newspaper house
like editorial, circulation, advertising and marketing.
Mostly, readership survey, circulation and management research are

conducted in print media research area. As these are form of
applied/utilitarian research, which has more of practical usage for immediate
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actions to be taken for the purpose of growth and improvement. Research on

online media use is either performed to know the growth rate between internet
news sites and traditional newspapers or to compare the readership and
understand the relation between the newspaper‟s web version and its print
version. The typography and readability research studies are conducted but
comparatively less in number.
B. Research in Electronic Media: Radio, Television and Internet.
Electronic media is a very popular media in India. Convenient licensing

procedure is increasing its number at a faster pace. Due to this the
competition is touching the sky. To lead in this race of competition one has to
understand its target audience‟s need and interest. Research is the most
suitable way to find out the target audience and know their interests and
needs. The demands of the audience keep on changing with time. Hence,
research in electronic media has become very common as the entertainment
industry need to know what their target audience wants in terms of
programming and content.
C. Research in Advertising and Public Relation
Advertising has a vast scope and with advancing technology and growth of
media provides a larger platform to advertising world. Today be it newspaper
house or radio station or television channel all sought after advertisement for
generating revenue for their organisation. Also, the major brands are
depended on good advertising to keep a connection with the customers or
else they would switch to their competitive brand. With this increasing demand
of advertisement and large amount of investment on a single advertisement it
has become necessary to conduct advertisement research and explore
various research applications and approaches of advertising.
Public relations have become more research oriented in recent years. Many
public relation practitioners favour to have a systematic public relation
research like the advertising research studies. Research is an integral part of
public relation and traditional research methods are widely used in this field.
Content analysis, focus group, in-depth interviews and surveys are mostly in
practice.
4.5 Scope of Media Research
Media practitioners, policy designers, strategist‟s communicator and journalist

have been looking for the valuable research findings which can make them
more effective in their endeavours. Media scholars are trying to work out their
priorities of research keeping in view the various research areas. Elements of
communication process as an area of media research study are –
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1. Source analysis
2. Message analysis
3. Channel analysis
4. Audience analysis
5. Process, effect and impact of research
1. Source analysis: The source analysis is conducted on two aspects i.e.

individual as a source and channel as a source. Individual as a source
can be analysed to know the communication pattern, attitude,
knowledge, social system, culture of the society broadcasted through
various mass media channels and channel as a source can be
analysed to know the availability of media channels like radio,
television, newspaper, magazine, internet, cable network etc.
2. Message analysis: The analysis of message is performed in the ways
like contents, ways of expression, structure and treatment of message,
coding and decoding pattern etc.
3. Channel analysis: Channel is a medium or instrument, through which
communicators sends the message to the audience to get the
feedback such as radio, television, pictures, photographs, films,
internet, mobile-phones, newspapers, magazines, posters, outdoor
publicity materials etc.
4. Audience analysis: Collection of analytical and critical information
regarding the reach, accessibility, exposure, composition and
environmental context of media in relation to potential / target audience
is known as Audience Research. Audience is the receiver of the
message and all efforts are designed to reach him so that he interprets
properly, understand and act upon the message. Composition of
audience covers a wide aspect. Composition can be classified as
demography, social status, culture, economic status, language, literacy
level, marital status, ethnic status, attitude, media reach and
accessibility, need, lifestyle, leisure hours, working hours,
entertainment time etc.
5. Process, effect and impact of research: Following the process
research, we may find that the message delivered to the target
audience has started showing certain changes in them. There is
change in knowledge, skills and attitude of the audience. This is
ultimately coming out as change in behaviour. This change in
behaviour is called Effect Research.
The impact study is done on a certain subject to understand the cause
and effect relationship. Impact studies find data from many different
sources and often look at many different aspects of the issue.
BA (JMC) 303 23
In terms of media research study the effect is a short term change but,
if it continues it will eventually turn as a habit of the audience and
would stay as long term effect that is impact. Thus, it is called as
Impact research.
4.6 Summing up
Media research is related to effectiveness of print media, electronic media and
new media. The recommendations and conclusions drawn help the media
workers in planning, organizing and conducting various communication
strategies. Media research also encompasses academic researches like
theories, models and new media technologies. The print media research can
be of various types like circulation, readership, management, typography,
readability and online media use research. Research in electronic media can
be conducted in several ways. Rating methods and not-rating methods are
used most commonly. Research in advertising and public relations includes
creative concept research, audience analysis and profile study and strategy
research. The public relation research examines specific problems related to
public relation programmes and fundamentals of PR process.
4.7 Assignments
Class Assignment: Describe the meaning of media research.

Home Assignment: List the scope of media research.
1. Channel stands for _____________________________

2. Audience stands for ____________________________
 What type of questions mass media research tries to find the answers?
 Explain the scope of media research.
 Channel is a medium or instrument, through which communicators sends the

message to the audience
 Audience is the receiver of the message and all efforts are designed to reach
him.
4.11 Keywords
 Media research: Media research is the study of information related to any

form of mass communication. Media includes television, radio,
24 BA (JMC) 303
newspapers and magazines, cinema, outdoor media, traditional media,

advertising, public relations etc. Digital media, Internet and social media
are also considered mass media if they have a wide enough reach.

Publications.
BA (JMC) 303 25
Media Research Unit 2, Syllabus
___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
Survey in Media Research

___________________________________________________________________
LESSON 1 27
Survey, Public Opinion Surveys, TRPs, TeleWeb Survey
LESSON 2 38
Readership Survey & IRS
LESSON 3 42
Election Related Survey: Opinion Poll and Exit Poll
LESSON 4 48
Media Research Agencies: BARC, ABC, MAP, RAM
26 BA (JMC) 303
___________________________________________________________________
LESSON 1 Survey, Public Opinion Surveys, TRPs, TeleWeb
Survey
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
STRUCTURE
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Survey
1.3 Characteristics of Survey
1.4 Types of Survey
1.5 Five basic steps involved in Survey Research
1.6 Public Opinion Survey
1.7 Importance of Public Opinion Survey
1.8 Television Rating Point (TRP)
1.9 TeleWeb Surveys
1.10 Summing up
1.11 Assignments
1.15 Keywords
BA (JMC) 303 27
1. Survey, Public Opinion Surveys, TRPs,

TeleWeb Survey
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
In Unit II of the course „Media Research‟ we shall discuss the meaning,
characteristics and types of survey. We shall also discuss Public Opinion Surveys,
TRPs, TeleWeb Survey, Readership survey, IRS, Election related survey – opinion
poll and exit poll.
In the present lesson we shall discuss the meaning, characteristics and types of
survey and public opinion surveys.
___________________________________________________________________
1.0 Objectives
• describe Survey
• describe the types of Survey
• describe the characteristics of Survey
___________________________________________________________________
1.1 Introduction
One of the oldest and common research methods in media research is

survey. To acquaint with the common idea, perspective and attitude of the
population a survey is conducted. In this method a sample is drawn from a
large population and the information gained is used to generalise about that
population as a whole.
Often questionnaire and schedule are used as research tools for conducting
survey. As survey are useful mainly for describing patterns in large population
rather than in depth analysis of individual‟s view.
1.2 Survey
The survey method gathers data from a relatively large number of cases at a
particular time. Surveys are concerned with describing, recording, analyzing
and interpreting conditions that either exist or existed. The researcher does
not manipulate the variable or arrange for events to happen. Surveys are only
28 BA (JMC) 303
concerned with conditions or relationships that exist, opinions that are held,
processes that are going on, effects that are evident or trends that are
developing. They are primarily concerned with the present but at times do
consider past events and influences as they relate to current conditions.
Therefore, in surveys, variables that exist or have already occurred are
selected and observed.
Surveys are usually appropriate in the case of social and behavioural
sciences. Surveys are an example of field research. Surveys may either be
census or sample surveys. They may also be classified as social, economic or
public surveys. Whatever be their type the method of data collection happens
to be either observation, or interview or questionnaire or some projective
techniques. Research design must be rigid, must make enough provision for
protection against bias and must maximize reliability as the aim happens to be
to obtain complete and accurate information. Possible relationships between
the data and the unknown in the universe can be studied through surveys
whereas experiments are meant to determine such relationships. Correlation
analysis is relatively more important in survey i.e. controlling relationships
between variables are more important in surveys.
A survey is a very convenient research method needs a well defined
population, a sample, which truly represents the population, a sampling size
which is appropriate to the population size. In survey research quantitative
and non – quantitative methods can be used.
 Specific Objectives: The first step in conducting a survey is to list

down straight objectives of the survey. A survey without clear goals
will not yield desired results.
 Straightforward Questions: The survey must consist of
straightforward questions which are constructed in a simple and crisp
manner. It is important for the respondents to understand the
questions listed in the survey. Confusing and ambiguous questions
may disinterest the respondents.
 Proper Sample: It is not necessary to survey the entire population.
It is important to capture responses from the selected representative
of the entire population. It is important to ask the right respondents
rather than asking every person.
 Reliable and Valid: It is important for the respondents to be

authentic and the information provided by them valid. Otherwise, the
objective behind conducting the survey is lost.
BA (JMC) 303 29
 Accurate Reporting of Result: Survey results must be carefully

analyzed. In order for the report to be accepted by the target
audience, it must be fair, true and accurate. Credible reports include
both negative and positive results.
1.4 Types of Survey
Surveys are classified according to their focus and scope (census and sample
surveys) or according to the time frame for data collection (longitudinal and
cross-sectional surveys). A survey that covers the entire population of interest
is referred to as a census. In research, however the population is used to refer
to the entire group of individuals to whom the findings of a study apply. The
researcher defines the specific population of interest.
A) Classifying surveys on the basis of their scope and their focus
gives four categories:
1) A census of tangibles: One seeks information about a small
population, such as a single school, and when the variables are
concrete, there is little challenge in finding the required answers.
2) A census of intangibles: One seeks information about constructs that
aren‟t directly observable but must be inferred from indirect measures.
Such constructs may include apprentice achievement or aspirations,
teacher morale, parents‟ attitudes toward school, or the achievement
testing program carried out by most schools.
3) A sample survey of tangibles: One seeks information about large
groups. Sampling techniques are used and the information collected
from the sample is used to make inferences about the population as a
whole.
4) A sample survey of intangibles: One seeks information about
constructs that aren‟t directly observable but must be inferred from
responses made by the subjects to questionnaires or interviews. For
example, how someone is going to vote is intangible, but what is
marked on a ballot is tangible.
B) Surveys Classified According to the Time Dimension
1) Longitudinal Surveys: gather information at different points of time in
order to study changes over extended periods of time.
2) Panel Study: the same subjects are surveyed at different times over
an extended period. Because the same subjects are studied over time,
researchers can see the changes in the individuals‟ behaviour and
investigate the reasons for the changes.
3) Trend Study: different people from the same population are surveyed
at different times.
30 BA (JMC) 303
4) Cohort Study: a specific population whose members changed over

the duration of the study is followed over a length of time.
5) Cross-sectional Study: study a cross section (sample) of a population
at a single point of time.
1.5 Five basic steps involved in Survey Research
1) Planning: Survey research begins with a question that the researcher

believes can be answered most appropriately by means of the survey
method. The researcher needs to decide on the data-gathering
technique that will be used.
2) Sampling: The researcher must make decisions about the sampling
procedure that will be used and the size of the sample to survey. If one
is to generalize the sample findings to the population, it is essential that
the sample selected be representative of that population.
3) Constructing the Instrument: A major task in survey research is the
construction of the instrument that will be used to gather the data from
the sample.
4) Conducting the Survey: Once the data-gathering instrument is
prepared, it must be field-tested to determine if it will provide the
desired data. Also included in this step would be the training of the
users of the instrument, interviewing subjects or distributing
questionnaires to them, and verifying the accuracy of the data
gathered.
5) Processing the Data: The last step includes coding the data,
statistical analysis, interpreting the results, and reporting the findings.
1.6 Public Opinion Survey
In India, ORG – MARG, IMRB, MRAS, MODE are the chief organizations,
regularly carrying out public opinion polls. The results are reported widely in
the media, and possibly exert some influence in shaping public opinion in the
cities, and in providing valuable data to the government and its various
departments. An opinion poll selects a random sample, say a few hundred
from each region, up to a total of around 2000 or 3000. With modern
probability methods of sampling and statistics, it is believed that it is possible
to calculate the accuracy of the sample. Yet the error ranges from 3-4% .
Errors in polling occur generally because of inadequate sampling, poor
phrasing of questions and the drawing of unwarranted inferences from
meagre data.
Errors in tabulation and analysis are not uncommon. Also, the variables in the
analysis of human behaviour are so many that it is impossible in any survey to
BA (JMC) 303 31
take all of them into account. It is important for big publishers to find out how
the public feels about their newspapers, magazines and books. Also PR &
Advertising personnel would like to know if they have succeeded in efforts to
build you a favourable image for companies and their products, through
consumer surveys.
1.7 Importance of Public Opinion Survey
Polls tell us what proportion of a population has a specific viewpoint. They do

not explain why respondents believe as they do or how to change their minds.
This is the work of social scientists and scholars. Polls are simply a
measurement tool that tells us how a population thinks and feels about any
given topic. This can be useful in helping different cultures understand one
another because it gives the people a chance to speak for themselves instead
of letting only vocal media stars speak on behalf of all. Opinion polling gives
people who do not usually have access to the media an opportunity to be
heard.
Public opinion polling has become an essential tool in public policy decision-
making, election campaigns, and media reporting. Among others, politicians
and policy makers want to know citizens‟ satisfaction with service delivery,
their perceived national priorities, their political preferences, and their attitudes
on the state of the economy. Because polling exerts tremendous impact on
politics and public policy debate, it is important that those who undertake polls
exercise conform to minimum professional ethics and practices. Not only do
polls affect public policy debate, but they also serve as one of the most
significant communication links between governments and the governed.
There are some political analysts who argue that the publication of polls gives
an unfair advantage to the candidates who are leading in the polls. This
phenomenon described as “bandwagon effect” assumes that knowledge of
the popular “tide” will likely change voters intentions in favour of the winning
candidates. Others counter-argue that not all voters are inclined or have the
proclivity to follow the winning candidates. While some voters may want to be
on the winning side, at least, there are some who want to support the losing
candidates-the “underdog effect.”
Furthermore, there are others who argue that polling can have a demotivating
effect on the losing candidate or party. On one hand, poor polling results can
actually demoralize party workers and supporters and make them less
effective.
32 BA (JMC) 303
1.8 Television Rating Point (TRP)
Television Rating Point (TRP) is a tool provided to judge which programmes

are viewed the most. This gives us an index of the choice of the people and
also the popularity of a particular channel. For calculation purpose, a device is
attached to the TV set in a few thousand viewers' houses for judging purpose.
These numbers are treated as sample from the overall TV owners in different
geographical and demographic sectors. The device is called as People's
Meter. It records the time and the programme that a viewer watches on a
particular day. Then, the average is taken for a 30-day period which gives the
viewership status for a particular channel.
TRP is the criterion that indicates the popularity of a channel or programme

and this data is very useful for the advertisers. Presently, INTAM (Indian
Television Audience Measurement) is the only electronic rating agency
functioning in India. INTAM uses two methodologies for calculating TRP. First
is frequency monitoring, in which 'people meters' are installed in sample
homes and these electronic gadgets continuously record data about the
channel watched by the family members. 'People meter' is costly equipment,
which is imported from abroad. It reads the frequencies of channels, which
are later, decoded into the name of the channels and the agency prepares a
national data on the basis of its sample homes reading. But there is a
drawback in the technique, as cable operators frequently change the
frequencies of different channels before sending signals to the homes. It may
be very misleading to read a channel according to a particular frequency even
if the down linking frequency is same all over India.
Second technique is more reliable and relatively new to India. In picture

matching technique people meter continuously records a small portion of the
picture that is being watched on that particular television set. Along with this
agency also records all the channels' data in the form of small picture portion.
Data collected from the sample homes is later on matched with the main data
bank to interpret the channel name. And this way national rating is produced.
 Importance for the Advertisers: TRP‟s enable the advertisers to

know the viewership of their advertisements. They also provide
information to the advertisers on whether their desired target audience
is viewing their Ads or not. The ratings aid the advertisers in
determining the correctness of the rates quoted by the broadcasters of
the Ad spots of various television shows.
 Importance for the Broadcasters: The advertisement revenues of the

broadcasters are determined by the overall economic environment and
the viewership enjoyed by the programmes of the broadcasters. The
advertisers are willing to pay higher Ad rates for the programmes. It
BA (JMC) 303 33
has been observed that a decline in viewership ratings leads to a

slower growth in advertisement revenues of the broadcasters and
sometimes even a decline in their revenues.
 Importance for the Content Providers: The payment that the content
providers receive from the broadcasters often have a fixed component
as well as a variable component linked to the TRP‟s . Therefore, higher
TRP‟s enable the content providers to enjoy higher realizations. The
content providers also customize their content on the basis of the
TRP‟s.
1.9 TeleWeb Surveys
TeleWeb Surveys are generally known as online surveys. TeleWeb Surveys

are one of the most widely utilized survey methods, an online survey is the
systematic gathering of data from the target audience characterized by the
invitation of the respondents and the completion of the questionnaire over the
World Wide Web. The online survey has been a faster way of collecting data
from the respondents as compared to other survey methods.
TeleWeb extracts information from Guardian data files or Non Stop Server
Spooler jobs and creates reports, which can be viewed online as soon as the
data becomes available. TeleWeb includes security features that protect
reports from unauthorized access. The program's built-in Group and User
feature provides password protection to access reports.
TeleWeb provides rapid information access and minimizes network download

traffic. It facilitates information retrieval by parsing large reports into smaller
segments, and allows users to select different parts of the report to view.
TeleWeb has the ability to distribute information in TEXT, PDF, or HTML
format.
Key Features
 Generates reports from data files or Non Stop Server Spooler Jobs for
viewing and download on a browser which provides different view sizes,
search capability, etc.
 Coverts data into different data formats automatically:
 TXT: Simple text
 PDF: Adobe Acrobat Reader
 HTML: Include your company logo or graphics in your reports.
 Highly configurable to support different options
 Broadcast reports to group of users or to an individual user
 Detailed log files for status and statistics reporting.
34 BA (JMC) 303
Benefits of using Report Web
 Guardian-based: The TeleWeb software runs on the HP-Non Stop Server,

and requires no other external hardware or software. All the software
components are built utilizing reliable Guardian technology that you
already familiar with.
 Reliability: TeleWeb delivers reports reliably with log files accounting for
every action and step taken.
 Efficiency: TeleWeb stores one copy of the reports to be viewed by
selective groups of users.
Advantages
1. Ease of Data Gathering: The Internet is a vast virtual world that connects
all kinds of people from around the globe. For this reason, a survey that
requires a hundred or more respondents can be conducted faster via the
Internet. The survey questionnaire can be rapidly deployed and completed
by the respondents, especially if there‟s an incentive that is given after
their participation.
2. Minimal Costs: Traditional survey methods often require you to spend

thousands of dollars to achieve the optimal results. On the other hand,
studies show that conducting an Internet survey facilitates low-cost and
fast data collection from the target population. Sending email
questionnaires and other online questionnaires are more affordable than
the face-to-face method.
3. Automation in Data Input and Handling: With online surveys, the

respondents are able to answer the questionnaire by means of inputting
their answers while connected to the Internet. Then, the responses are
automatically stored in a survey database, providing hassle-free handling
of data and a smaller possibility of data errors.
4. Increase in Response Rates: Online survey provides the highest level of

convenience for the respondents because they can answer the
questionnaire according to their own pace, chosen time, and preferences.
5. Flexibility of Design: Complex types of surveys can be easily conducted

through the Internet. The questionnaire may include more than one type of
response format in such a way that the respondents would not get
discouraged from the changes in the manner they answer the questions.
BA (JMC) 303 35
Disadvantages of Online Survey
1. Absence of Interviewer: An online survey is not suitable for surveys

which ask open-ended questions because there is no trained interviewer
to explore the answers of the respondents.
2. Inability to Reach Challenging Population: This method is not

applicable for surveys that require respondents who do not have an
access to the Internet. Some examples of these respondents include the
elderly and people who reside in remote areas.
3. Survey Fraud: Survey fraud is probably the heaviest disadvantage of an

online survey. There are people who answer online surveys for the sake of
getting the incentive (usually in the form of money) after they have
completed the survey, not with a desire to contribute to the advancement
of the study.
1.10 Summing up
The meaning of public opinion has changed dramatically over the time. It is
important to analyse public opinion. Therefore, Public Opinion Surveys are
conducted. Television Rating Points plays an important role in determining Ad
slots and popularity of television programmes.
1.11 Assignments
Class Assignment: What are the characteristics of survey
Home Assignment: Describe TRP.
1. Public opinion polling has become an essential tool in public policy

decision-making, _________________, and media reporting.
2. _________________________is a tool provided to judge which
programmes are viewed the most.
3. _____________________________________________is the only
electronic rating agency functioning in India.
1. What is Public Opinion Survey?

2. What is the need for Public Opinion Survey in India?
3. What are the methods used to calculate TRP‟s?
4. Discuss the importance of Television Rating Points.
36 BA (JMC) 303
1. Election campaigns
2. Television Rating Point (TRP)
3. INTAM (Indian Television Audience Measurement)
1.15 Keywords
 ORG Operations Research Group

 TRP Television Ration Point

Parkashan, New Delhi
Publications, New Delhi
Publication.
BA (JMC) 303 37
__________________________________________________________________
LESSON 2 Readership Survey & IRS
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
STRUCTURE
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Strength of Readership Survey
2.3 Weakness of the Readership Survey
2.4 Indian Readership Survey
2.5 Summing up
2.6 Assignments
2.10 Keywords
38 BA (JMC) 303
2. Readership Survey & IRS

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
In the previous lesson we had discussed the Surveys, Public Opinion Surveys,
Television Rating Points and TeleWeb Surveys.
In the present lesson we shall discuss Readership Survey like and about IRS
___________________________________________________________________
2.0 Objectives
After going through this lesson, you should be able to
 Explain Readership Survey and about National Readership Survey.
___________________________________________________________________
2.1 Introduction
In a readership survey, one communicates with the readers of a publication to

determine whether they remember an article or Ad about a particular product
and if they did what was their feedback. Therefore, readership surveys are
conducted at regular intervals to note the feedback for a particular publication.
A readership survey is conducted by getting a set of questions, popularly
known as a questionnaire, filled by the target readers. It can be either
telephonic or personal.
2.2 Strengths of Readership Survey
1. Awareness and Perception: It helps in understanding the perception of

the readers about a particular publication.
2. The relative power of marketing vehicles: It helps in determining if the

readers are influenced by the articles or Ads or trade shows or friends?
3. The Publication‟s Credibility and Pull: It also determines whether the

readers will get influenced to purchase the publication or not.
2.3 Weakness of the Readership Method
1. Questions can be raised against their total market biased surveys.
BA (JMC) 303 39
2. They do not go beyond the head – counting exercise which is of course

of some interest to advertising and marketing agencies because it is
the only estimate we have of „readership‟
2.4 Indian Readership Survey (IRS)
IRS includes both Urban and Rural respondents. It was conducted in 1995
and later in 1997 & 1998. IRS uses „masthead method‟ wherein the title and
logo of newspapers are shown to the respondents and they are asked
Have you seen it?
Have you read this paper yesterday?
Have you read this paper last week?
Have you read this paper previous fortnight?
The recent RR method (reading technique) is also used by IRS. It has an

annual sample size of 209, 076, covering 12 year old individuals living in both
urban and rural markets. It is a continuous survey conducted over 10 months,
year after year. It also studies TV viewership and channel penetration.
IRS is the single source survey for media and product ownership/usage. The
prime objective of the study is to collect readership information from a cross-
section of individuals, in great detail, so as to present a true and unbiased
picture of their readership habits. On the media front, it also captures
information on television and cinema viewing habits, radio listening habits and
Internet usage. In addition to this, IRS captures information on various FMCG
(Fast Moving Consumer Goods) products, usage and consumption along with
durability of products and its ownership in households. Since media and
product ownership/ consumption information is captured from the same
household, it enables linkages between the media and product data. IRS
equips you with information that is truly reflective of the Indian population for
making informed decisions.
2.5 Summing Up
Readership surveys enable the respective organizations to measure the

impact and desirability of the publication amongst the readers. It measures
the frequency of the articles read by the readers. It also helps in identifying
the applicability, timeliness, credibility and impact of the publication. It also
answers pertinent questions like will the reader renew the subscription or is
he/she looking to change.
40 BA (JMC) 303
2.6 Assignments
Class Assignment: What are the strength of readership survey?
Home Assignment: Write in brief the IRS.
1. A readership survey is conducted by getting a set of questions

popularly known as a ____________________by the target readers.
2. Readership Survey helps in understanding the perception of the

readers about a particular publication. True or False
3. The prime objective of the IRS is to collect readership information from

a cross-section of individuals, in great detail, so as to present a true
and unbiased picture of their readership habits. True or False
1. What is the importance of readership surveys?
1. Operation Research Group (ORG)
2. False
3. True
2.10 Keywords
 IRS Indian Readership Survey
1. 1. C.R. Kothari, Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques,

Vishwa Parkashan, New Delhi
Publication.
BA (JMC) 303 41
___________________________________________________________________
LESSON 3 Election Related Survey: Opinion Poll and Exit Poll
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
STRUCTURE
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Opinion Poll
3.3 Exit Poll
3.4 Opinion poll/Exit Poll and elections
3.5 Guidelines of Election Commission for Broadcasting Opinion/ Exit Poll
3.6 Summing up
3.7 Assignments
3.11 Keywords
42 BA (JMC) 303
3. Election Related Survey:

Opinion Poll and Exit Poll
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
In the last lesson we had discussed the need for Readership Surveys and the Indian
Readership Survey.
In the present lesson we shall discuss election related surveys like the exit and
opinion poll.
___________________________________________________________________
3.0 Objectives
 describe the importance of Opinion and Exit Poll

 describe the guidelines of the Election Commission for broadcasting
opinion poll /exit poll
___________________________________________________________________
3.1 Introduction
An opinion poll sometimes simply referred to as a poll, is a survey of public

opinion from a particular sample. Opinion polls are usually designed to
represent the opinions of a population by conducting a series of questions and
then extrapolating generalities in ratio or within regular intervals.
3.2 Opinion Poll
Opinion polls are conducted by various organizations to access the electoral

environment before the polls are conducted. It is truly said that media has the
power to set an agenda both for the policy makers and the public. These polls
are conducted to extract public opinion to check which political party has
received more support from the public. There are certain guidelines to monitor
the publication and broadcast of these polls. These guidelines are important
as many times the opinion polls may be biased.
Analysing Opinion Polls: In analysis of Public Opinion polls the following

questions need to be asked to assess their real worth:
BA (JMC) 303 43
1. Who sponsored the survey? What were the motives for the
sponsorships?
2. How exactly were the questions framed? Could a different phrasing or
ordering of questions give another set of findings?
3. What percentage of population was sampled? What was the basis of
the sampling?
4. What was the size of the sample? How many responded to the survey?
5. What is the margin of error allowed for?
6. Are any of the findings based only on part of the total sample? Do all
the generalizations of the total population follow from the data gathered
and processed?
7. How was interview conducted – by phone, mail, face to face at home or
in the office?
8. What was the timing of the interview in relation to other social,
economic or political events?
3.3 Exit Poll
An election exit poll is done immediately when the voters exit the polling
station. An exit poll asks the voter whom did he actually vote for. It helps in
generating a fair picture of who is going to win the elections. This concept
contradicts the concept of secret ballot.
Purpose of Exit Poll
Exit polls are also used to collect demographic data about voters and to find
out why they voted as they did. Since actual votes are cast anonymously,
polling is the only way of collecting this information.
Exit polls have historically and throughout the world been used as a check
against and rough indicator of the degree of election fraud.
Limitations of Exit Poll
 Exit polls by nature do not include a margin of error.

 There can be use of inadequate data and poor choice of sampling
points.
 A number of causes indicating differential response rates.
3.4 Opinion Poll/Exit Poll and Elections
The Election Commission has banned the publications of the results of

Opinion Polls and Exit Polls for about a fortnight during which the national
elections are held. For example, the Election Commission banned the
publication and dissemination of exit polls of any kind in the five poll bound
44 BA (JMC) 303
states from November 11 till December 4, 2013 when the Assembly elections
will be over. The poll panel issued these orders and sent them to Chief
Electoral Officers of the entire five poll–bound states of Chhattisgarh, Madhya
Pradesh, Mizoram, Rajasthan and Delhi. The exit polls were banned from 7
am on November 11 when polling in the first phase of Chhattisgarh started till
5:30 pm on December 4 when the Delhi Assembly polls end. TV channels
were also prohibited from telecasting interviews of voters after casting their
votes. The poll panel also banned the publication of results of any opinion
polls 48 hours before polling in a state.
3.5 Guidelines of Election Commission for Broadcasting Opinion/

Exit Poll
The Commission discussed the matter with all recognized National and State
political parties at the meetings held on 22nd and 23rd December 1997.
Almost all the political parties with the exception of one or two stated that
Opinion Polls, the way the same are conducted are unscientific. According to
them, there is a considerable bias in the size and nature of the sample drawn
to make such an opinion poll and they tend to influence the voters in an
unbecoming manner. They further stated that the surveys are motivated and
are not impartial, because of the known prejudices of some of the
organizations conducting such polls, towards or against certain political
parties and / or their leaders. The Election Commission has in pursuance of
its sacred and solemn duty of conducting free and fair elections to Parliament
and State legislature, entrusted to it by Article 324 of the Constitution, decided
to lay down the following guidelines for observance by print and electronic
media, including government controlled electronic media with the conduct of
Opinion Polls and Exit Polls by them.
1. The organizations or agencies conducting Opinion Polls shall be free to

conduct such polls, and publish results thereof, in or by any print or electronic
media, at any time, except the period mentioned in clause (ii), during the run
up to the polls for the aforesaid general elections to the House of the People
and State Legislative Assembles.
2. No result of any opinion poll conducted at any time shall, be published,

publicized or disseminated, in any manner whatsoever, in or by any print or
electronic media after 1700 hours on the 14th February, 1998 and till half an
hour after the closing of poll in all states and Union Territories, except three
Parliamentary Constituencies in the State of Jammu and Kashmir.
3. The organizations and agencies shall also be free to conduct exit polls.
But the result of any such exit poll conducted at any time shall also not be
published, publicized or disseminated in any manner in or by any print or
BA (JMC) 303 45
electronic media at any time from 5 pm on the day of the poll till half an hour
after the closing of poll in all States and Union Territories.
4. Any organization or agencies conducting any Opinion Poll or Exit Poll,

while publishing, publicizing or disseminating the result of any such poll, must
indicate the sample size of the electorate covered by such polls and
geographic spread of survey so conducted. They must invariably give the
details of methodology followed, likely percentage of errors, the professional
background and experience of the organization or organizations and the key
professional involved in the conduct and analysis of the poll.
Explanation: in this order,
a. Electronic media includes Radio and Television – both Government

owned and private and covers Satellite, Terrestrial and Cable Channels.
b. Dissemination includes publication in any newspaper, magazine or

periodical or display on electronic media or circulation by means of any
pamphlet, poster, placard, handbill or any other document.
3.6 Summing up
There will always be an argument between the Election Commission and the
Media regarding the publication and broadcasting of the opinion polls and exit
polls. These polls are done in order to gather the view and opinion of the
public. The criticism received by the media for broadcasting and publishing
opinion and exit polls is that these polls are biased. Looking at the
fundamental right of freedom of speech and expression guaranteed to the
press under article 19(1) (a) of the Indian Constitution, these restrictions may
appear baseless but for fair and transparent elections these restrictions may
also appear legitimate.
3.7 Assignments
Class Assignment: Describe Opinion Poll.

Home Assignment: Describe Exit Poll.
1. It is truly said that media has the power to set an agenda both for the
_____________________ and the __________________.
2. An election ________________is done immediately when the voters
exit the polling station.
46 BA (JMC) 303
3. Exit polls are also used to collect _________________ data about

voters and to find out why they voted as they did.
1. What is exit poll? What are the limitations of exit poll?

2. Discuss the guidelines of the Election Commission for broadcasting
and publication of the exit and opinion polls.
1. Policy makers, public

2. Exit poll
3. Demographic data
3.11 Keywords
Public Opinion is the aggregate of individual attitudes or beliefs. Public

opinion can also be defined as the complex collection of opinions of many
different people and the sum of all their views or as a single opinion held by
an individual about a social or political topic.
Exit Poll An election exit poll is done immediately when the voters exit the
polling station.

Prakashan, New Delhi.
Publication
BA (JMC) 303 47
___________________________________________________________________
LESSON 4 Media Research Agencies: BARC, ABC, MAP, RAM
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
STRUCTURE
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 BARC - Broadcast Audience Research Council India
4.3 ABC – Audit Bureau of Circulation
4.4 MAP – Media Analysis Package
4.5 RAM – Research and Analysis of Media
4.6 Summing up
4.7 Assignments
4.11 Keywords
BA (JMC) 303 48
4. Media Research Agencies:

BARC, ABC, MAP, RAM
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
In the previous lesson we had discussed the election related surveys like the exit
and opinion poll.
In the present lesson we shall discuss the various media research agencies i.e.
BARC, ABC, MAP & RAM.
___________________________________________________________________
4.0 Objectives
 Discuss the role of media in public healthcare campaigning such as

Pulse Polio Campaign, HIV/AIDS and Reproductive Child Health.
___________________________________________________________________
4.1 Introduction
In order to create the greatest impact for their viewers, audience or readers it
is imperative for all agencies that plan and buy media, no matter their size, to
utilize the unique and innovative tools made available to the media industry. A
media research agency can be a valuable tool for various aspects of media
research, providing a way to study readers/ viewers/ listeners/ consumer/ any
type of media users‟ opinions, thoughts and commentary. Media agencies
play a big role in human being‟s everyday lives. Media research agencies
providing studies or surveys on a specific advertising medium. Find a
company to generate information such as a medium's subscriber profile,
audience awareness and audience attitudes. Media research services are
available for all types of media, including TV, radio, print, internet and outdoor.
4.2 BARC - Broadcast Audience Research Council India

BARC (Broadcast Audience Research Council) India is an industry body set
up to design, commission, supervise and own an accurate, reliable and timely
television audience measurement system for India.
BA (JMC) 303 49
Guided by the recommendations of the TRAI (Telecom Regulatory Authority

of India) and MIB (Ministry of Information and Broadcasting) notifications of
January 2014, BARC India brings together the three key stakeholders in
television audience measurement, broadcasters, advertisers, and advertising
and media agencies, via their apex bodies.
BARC India is committed towards establishing a robust, transparent and

accountable governance framework for providing data points that are required
to plan media spends more effectively.
To develop a reliable television audience measurement system for India it is

promoted by three industry associations i.e. the Indian Broadcasting
Foundation (IBF), the Indian Society of Advertisers (ISA) and the Advertising
Agencies Association of India (AAAI), based on the 60:20:20 formula (IBF
60%, ISA 20%, AAAI 20%).
A. Indian Broadcasting Foundation (IBF): Indian Broadcasting Foundation

established in 1999 is India's premium apex organization of television
broadcasters. IBF promotes the interests of the Indian Television Industry,
making an essential and ever-increasing contribution to the Nation and
working as a clearing house of ideas for this vast and rapidly growing industry.
IBF consists of major broadcasters with more than 250 TV Channels. IBF
enjoys a unique position as the accredited spokesman of the broadcasting
industry.
IBF has played a significant role in a short span of time, in protecting and
promoting the interests of its members and freedom of electronic media in the
world's largest democracy. IBF identifies and pursues growth opportunities for
its members and ensures that the members present a strong collective voice
regionally, nationally and globally. IBF, as the apex industry association of the
Broadcast industry, plays a critical role in building consensus on major issues
across the industry.
B. Indian Society of Advertisers (ISA): The Indian Society of Advertisers has

been the peak national body for advertisers for 60 years and represents the
interests of organisations involved in Indian advertising, marketing and media
industry. ISA's aim is to promote and safeguard the rights of its members to
communicate freely with their customers, and to protect consumers by
ensuring advertising and marketing communications are conducted
responsibly. Over the years nearly all major advertisers have become
members of the ISA and its current membership of around 160 is spread
throughout the length and breadth of the Country. Collectively, the
membership of ISA accounts for two thirds of all annual advertising
expenditures made in India.
50 BA (JMC) 303
C. The Advertising Agencies Association of India (AAAI): The Advertising

Agencies Association of India is the official, national organisation of
advertising agencies, formed to promote their interests so that they continue
to make an essential and ever-increasing contribution to the nation.
The AAAI today is truly representative, with a very large number of small,
medium and large-sized agencies as its members, who together account for
almost 80% of the advertising business placed in the country. It is thus
recognised at all forums - advertisers, media owners and associations, and
even government - as the spokesperson for the advertising industry.
Data Collection Process
1. Audio Watermarking embeds audio watermarks in video content prior to

upload and broadcast. These watermarks are not audible to the human ear,
but can easily be detected and decoded using dedicated hardware or
software.
2. The watermark is broadcast along with the content.
3. As viewing details are recorded by the BAR-O-meters, so are the watermarks.
4. The raw data is cleaned, merged with the channel, program, language and
broadcast schedule details. Universe Estimates are applied to get viewership
data.
This gives content owners unprecedented visibility into when and where their
content is broadcast, who has viewed it, etc.
As the watermark is part of the content, any attempt to destroy or remove it

will also ruin the quality of the material in which it is embedded. This increases
the integrity of the data generated by BARC India‟s ratings.
A number of factors distinguish the BARC India rating system.
1. Transparency: BARC India follows the Ministry of Information &

Broadcasting‟s notification with regard to:
Sample size: The minimum panel size is 20,000 reporting homes, and this
number will rise by 10,000 homes every year until it reaches 50,000 reporting
panel homes.
Ownership: No broadcasting or advertising company will be allowed to hold

more than 10% of BARC‟s shares.
Audit: We subject ourselves to both external and internal audit.
2. Advanced watermarking technology: BARC India uses an advanced,

audience measurement technique - audio watermarking, to track content
through its broadcast cycle. This is a code inserted into the audio channel of
BA (JMC) 303 51
the television signal which transmits through the distribution platforms and
cannot be, either deleted or overwritten in the cryptographic family it adopts.
This increases the integrity and reliability of the data generated by BARC
India‟s ratings.
3. Includes rural households in sample: In the first round, about 30% of the
sample comprises rural households, at an all-India level.
4. Comprehensive reporting: BARC India‟s system reports the following also:
Time shifted viewing: Metrics of programs that are recorded and viewed later.
Simulcast viewing: Details of programs broadcast simultaneously on more

than one channels – viewership of every individual channel can be reliably
tracked.
Viewing as per the New SEC (NCCS): Details as per the new classification
based on the education of Chief Wage Earner of the family and the number of
durables owned by the home from a predefined list of 11 durables
5. Advanced BAR-O-meters: The BAR-O-meters are place in metered homes

are compact and use the latest technology. As they are indigenously
manufactured, they cost almost one-sixth the price of imported meters, which
lets us deploy a lot more of them to measure viewership.
6. Platform agnostic: The BARC India system captures data about TV content
consumed through any form of distribution – Terrestrial, DTH, Analog Cable,
Digital Cable and other Digital media.
7. Compliance: BARC India has an audit mechanism in place to ensure its

internal processes and government‟s guidelines are being followed.
4.3 ABC – Audit Bureau of Circulation

Audit Bureau of Circulations (ABC): ABC founded in 1948 is a not-for-profit,
voluntary organisation consisting of publishers, advertisers and advertising
agencies as members. It does pioneering work in developing audit procedures
to certify the circulation figures of publications which are members of ABC.
ABC as it is called and understood by all is a founder member of the

International Federation of Audit Bureau of Certification. The main function of
ABC is to evolve, lay down a standard and uniform audit procedure by which
a member publisher shall compute its Qualifying copies. The circulation figure
so arrived at is checked and verified by a firm of chartered accountants which
are empanelled by the Bureau. The Bureau issues ABC certificates every six
52 BA (JMC) 303
months to those publisher members whose circulation figures confirm to the

rules and regulations as set out by the Bureau.
Circulation figures that are checked and certified by an independent body are
an important tool and critical to the advertising business community. ABC's
membership today includes 562 Dailies, 107 Weeklies and 50 magazines plus
125 Advertising Agencies, 45 Advertisers & 22 New Agencies and
Associations connected with print media and advertising. It covers most of the
major towns in India.
An Advertiser would like to know the facts and figures before investing his
money in advertising. An Advertiser ought to know how many people buy a
publication and in which area. The ABC gives all these vital statistics every six
months. The ABC figures are not the outcome of opinions, claims or
guesswork, but they are the result of rigid, in-depth and impartial audits of
paid circulation of member publications by independent firms of Chartered
Accountants working in accordance with the rules/procedures prescribed by
the Bureau.
The Working of ABC
Bureau's Council of Management functions as the Board of Directors which is

the main policy making body. Council members meet frequently atleast once
in two months.
Bureau's Council of Management comprises of:
• 8 elected representatives of Publisher members

• 4 elected representatives of Advertising Agency members
• 4 elected representatives of Advertiser members
The position of Chairman of the Council of Management rotates every year
between the senior most publisher member and senior most non publisher
member of the Council (Advertising Agency and Advertiser). Chairman is
elected by the Council of Management every year.
The Bureau (ABC) certifies circulation figures of member publications every

six months i.e. for the audit periods January to June and July to December.
The Audits of circulation figures are carried out by empanelled firms of
Chartered Accountants as per the prescribed Bureau's audit guidelines and
procedures.
Bureau also has a separate panel of Bureau auditors to undertake surprise

checks and surprise recheck audits as deemed essential by the Bureau. All
members of the Bureau receive online thru Bureau's website
"http://www.auditbureau.org" certified circulation data of member publications
along with the distribution statements duly mentioning the state, district, town
in which member publications are distributed. The average qualifying sales of
BA (JMC) 303 53
those member publications who comply with the prescribed audit guidelines
are certified by the Bureau.
The certified circulation data is primarily used for media planning purpose by
various media agencies, print media advertisers and government publicity
departments.
The day-to-day activities of the Bureau are carried out by the Secretariat as
per the directions of the Bureau's Council of Management.
ABC & the Publisher
ABC's primary objective is to arrive at and certify authentic circulation figures

representing Net Paid Sales of member publications and disseminate the data
for the use of space buyers. Together with the ABC Certificate, data on
territorial distribution of copies in various states, major cities and small towns
is included as an add on.
As ABC Certificates are regularly referred to for media selection, the publisher
has a far better chance of being selected by space buyer members of ABC.
By enjoying the confidence of space buyers, publishers are able to increase
their Ad revenues and also improve their services.
Publisher members must maintain essential books and records to facilitate a

proper ABC audit and also appoint an independent firm of Chartered
Accountants from amongst the approved panel of auditors named by ABC.
Admission of publishers to ABC membership is subject to a satisfactory
admission audit. ABC has a system of recheck audit and surprise check
audits of publications to be carried out as and when ABC deems appropriate.
ABC & the Advertising Agency
ABC provides its member advertising agencies with uptodate audited

circulation data every six months relating to member publications in the
country. This circulation data covers distribution of copies in various states,
major cities and even smaller towns which are potential markets. The half-
yearly ABC Certificates are used for media planning. To get maximum value
for their clients, the ABC Certificates enable advertising agencies to compare
the circulation trends of various newspapers and periodicals.
ABC provides reliable, accurate and audited circulation figures which normally
forms a sound foundation for media recommendation.
ABC has been the foundation for all print media buyers providing the
advertising industry with an even playing field. Advertisers are assured
through ABC that each Rupee spent is correctly invested in media that
54 BA (JMC) 303
provides accurate circulation numbers while extending creditability to

publishers‟ circulation claims.
ABC & the Organisation
The ABC plays an important role together with DAVP, Press Registrar and
Publicity Officers of the various State Governments and Public Sector
undertakings to improve, promote and project nationally accepted objectives
through the medium of the press.
The ABC with the active co-operation and expertise of its member publishers,
advertisers and advertising agencies, can assist the Union and the State
Governments in reaching their targets in rural and semi-urban areas
effectively and fruitfully.
4.4 MAP – Media Analysis Package
MAP is the strategy tool in the industry that helps to track advertising spends
across TV, Print and Radio. The software represents an ideal platform in
gauging the shifting trends over a period of time. It helps to study competitor
media‟s buying behaviour and helps in media planning and budgeting
activities. Currently MAP is monitoring 650 TV channels, 900
publications/editions, 93 radio stations, 1000 digital publishers.
Advantages
 Top spenders (advertisers) across medium
 Trends analysis advertisers by weeks, months, and quarter across
medium.
 Seasonality of product group
 Prominent categories and advertisers for pitching purpose.
 Advertisers which are more skewed toward TV or Print or Radio
 AD volume by advertisers
 Most exposed brand in the market in a particular category.
 Genre-wise comparison of ad spent as ad volumes
 Promo tags consumption of advertiser.
 Preferred genre for advertisement by the advertiser
 Preferred ad slots by the advertiser on various channels.
4.5 RAM – Research and Analysis of Media

RAM - Research and Analysis of Media is an international media research
company. With about 1000 clients in 18 countries RAM provides the industry
with pioneering statistics of how ads, articles and other media communication
are consumed and understood for both print and digital media. RAM works
with online surveys and analysis of advertising and editorial content for media
companies, media consultants and advertisers worldwide.
BA (JMC) 303 55
RAM‟s vision is to provide easy to use advanced IT solutions and be the

world‟s leading supplier of knowledge-based and cost efficient analysis
services for media companies. With probably the largest reference database
in the world for media, RAM compare measured results against standard
values in order to evaluate the results achieved. In a period of over 10 years,
RAM has carried out over 50 million interviews of ads and editorial content in
order to measure the effectiveness of the communication and the database is
continuously growing.
Research and Analysis of Media (RAM) was founded in 2001 with its
headquarters in Stockholm, Sweden. In 2007, RAM started a subsidiary
company in the United States, Research and Analysis of Media of Americas
Inc. and subsidiaries also in Norway and Finland in 2008. RAM opened 2008
an office in London for the UK & Ireland and most recently in Germany in
2012.
RAM has a global client base with clients in the USA, UK, Ireland, Canada,
Sweden, Norway, Finland, Iceland, Estonia, Germany, Switzerland, Austria,
Italy, Brazil, Puerto Rico, Mexico, Chile and Barbados.
The RAM Method
RAM provides a critical link between media and its audience. Digital surveys
measure how ads and articles are read and perceived by the general media
audience as well as a target audience. In as little as 24 hours, RAM can
collect data from targeted panels and validate these results against our
reference database, which houses over 50 million interviews, from 500,000
panel members, in 18 different countries.
RAM makes analyzing data easy and efficient. Smart online based analytics
offer immediate access to results. Subscribing clients have access to the
results from 50 million interviews at their fingertips and can filter data by target
group, industry/media type, location and various other parameters and easily
export data to create effective client presentations.
Panels are recruited by each media to represent a target audience, usually via
ads or banners referring the reader/consumer to a registration page at RAM.
Panelists register and answer questions concerning socio-demographics,
reading frequency and interests. Participation is voluntary and based on the
panelist‟s relationship with the media. RAM panels have high response rates,
around 40-60%, worldwide.
Surveys – standard and Ad Hoc
56 BA (JMC) 303
Standard surveys target recognition and engagement of media content. When

a RAM survey is commissioned the client uploads the media content to be
measured and an assembled online panel is used as sample. Results are
available online directly after the survey is completed and data is weighted
against the target audience. Several ads, articles or banners can be
measured at the same time, allowing clients to quickly build a channel/media
specific reference database.
RAM gathers additional data from panelists through ad hoc surveys, which
include two types: add-on surveys added to established surveys or stand-
alone surveys, the latter need not be attached to any other RAM
measurement. Add-on surveys gather additional information by asking
panelists additional questions. Images, audio, and video can be combined into
these surveys. Stand-alone surveys provide feedback from panelists on
content that has not yet been published - a great way to test upcoming
editorial themes, page layouts, and advertising concepts.
The RAM system is a fully functional and complete research tool. For
example, RAM can be the source for research on entire sections through the
Page Traffic study, or analyze a single page or home page in a Page Quality
survey. In addition, Consumer Behavior studies reflect the position of specific
brands in the market and Campaign Measurements aid advertisers monitor
performance from all their channels and maximize their spend in Media.
4.6 Summing up
Media research agencies providing studies or surveys on a specific

advertising medium. Find a company to generate information such as a
medium's subscriber profile, audience awareness and audience attitudes.
Media research services are available for all types of media, including TV,
radio, print, internet and outdoor. There are number of media research
agencies working in market to provide audience profile, attitude, need and
feedback and effects on the life of their targeted media users.
BARC (Broadcast Audience Research Council) India is an industry body set

television audience measurement system for India. Guided by the
recommendations of the TRAI (Telecom Regulatory Authority of India) and
MIB (Ministry of Information and Broadcasting) notifications of January 2014,
BARC India brings together the three key stakeholders in television audience
measurement, broadcasters, advertisers, and advertising and media
agencies, via their apex bodies.
Audit Bureau of Circulations (ABC): ABC founded in 1948 is a not-for-profit,

voluntary organisation consisting of publishers, advertisers and advertising
BA (JMC) 303 57
agencies as members. It does pioneering work in developing audit procedures

to certify the circulation figures of publications which are members of ABC.
RAM - Research and Analysis of Media is an international media research

company. RAM provides the industry with pioneering statistics of how ads,
articles and other media communication are consumed and understood for
both print and digital media. RAM works with online surveys and analysis of
advertising and editorial content for media companies, media consultants and
advertisers worldwide.
4.7 Assignments
Class Assignment: Describe BARC

Home Assignment: Describe the ABC
1. ABC stands for _____________________________.

2. BARC stands for ________________________________________.

Describe the components of Reproductive Child Health Programme.
1. Audit Bureau of Circulation

2. Broadcast Audience Research Council
4.11 Keywords
BARC: Broadcast Audience Research Council India is an industry body set
television audience measurement system for India.
Indian Broadcasting Foundation (IBF) is India's premium apex organization

of television broadcasters. IBF promotes the interests of the Indian Television
Industry.
Indian Society of Advertisers (ISA) has been the peak national body for
advertisers represents the interests of organisations involved in Indian
advertising, marketing and media industry. ISA's aim is to promote and
safeguard the rights of its members to communicate freely with their
customers, and to protect consumers by ensuring advertising and marketing
communications are conducted responsibly.
58 BA (JMC) 303
Audit Bureau of Circulations (ABC) is a not-for-profit, voluntary organisation

consisting of publishers, advertisers and advertising agencies as members.
Research and Analysis of Media (RAM) is an international media research

company provides pioneering statistics of how ads, articles and other media
communication are consumed and understood for both print and digital media.

Publication
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___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
Research Design
___________________________________________________________________
LESSON 1 61
Research Design: Meaning and different Types,
Hypotheses /Research Questions
LESSON 2 71
Research Methods: Survey, Content Analysis and
Case Study
LESSON 3 82
Sampling & Selecting a sample, Types of sampling:
Probability and Non- Probability
LESSON 4 89
Data Collection Tools: Primary and Secondary, Observation,
Interview, Questionnaire/ Schedule, FGD
BA (JMC) 303 60
___________________________________________________________________
LESSON 1 Research Design: Meaning and different Types,
Hypotheses /Research Questions
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
STRUCTURE
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Meaning of Research Design
1.3 Need for Research Design
1.4 Types of Research Design
1.5 Variables
1.6 Research Design in Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Design
1.7 Research Design in Exploratory Research
1.8 Research Design in Hypothesis Testing Research Studies
1.9 Meaning of Hypothesis
1.10 Types of Hypothesis
1.11 Qualities of Hypothesis
1.12 Characteristics of Hypothesis
1.13 Summing up
1.14 Assignments
1.18 Keywords
61 BA (JMC) 303
1. Research Design: Meaning and different

Types, Hypotheses /Research Questions
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
In Unit III of the course „Media Research‟ we shall discuss the research design,
hypothesis, research methods, sampling and data collection techniques.
In the present lesson we shall study the meaning and types of Research Design. We
shall also study the hypotheses and research questions.
___________________________________________________________________
1.0 Objectives
• describe the meaning and different types of Research Design
• describe the meaning and types of Hypothesis
• describe the research questions
___________________________________________________________________
1.1 Introduction
In a systematic research, the researcher needs to follow a research design.

Research design is like a house map which explains the elements involved in
the process of research.
In a research process, hypothesis is the assumption or a prediction that a
researcher makes on the basis of the extensive literature survey conducted by
the researcher. Proving the hypothesis is the main purpose or objective of any
research findings. Hypothesis must be ready for testing. A working hypothesis
results in a successful research work.
1.2 Meaning of Research Design
Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means

concerning an inquiry or a research study constitutes a research design.
Research design is a pattern by which data related to research work is
collected and analysed to get solution of research problem. After deciding the
research topic, identification of specific problems and working out objectives
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of the research, research design should be prepared. It helps in research by

clarifying about the study, the type of data required, the purpose and its
scope, the sources for data collection, the study locale, the time, materials
and samples required, the method of data collection and its analysis.
According to Claire Sellitz, “A research design is the arrangement of
conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to
combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure”. It is
a blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. The research
design includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing the
hypothesis and its operational implications to the final analysis of data.
1.3 Need for Research Design
Research design is needed because:
 It facilitates the smooth sailing of various research operations, thereby

making research as efficient as possible.
 Research design has a great bearing on the reliability of the results
arrived at and as such constitutes the firm foundation of the entire
edifice of the research work.
 The research design helps the researcher to organize his ideas in a
form whereby it will be possible for him to look for flaws and
inadequacies.
1.4 Types of Research Design
There are primarily two types of research design used viz., cross sectional
design and longitudinal research design.
4.4.1 Cross Sectional Design
It involves the collection of information from any given sample of population
elements “only once”. Cross sectional designs are of two types:
Single Cross Sectional: in the single cross sectional design, only one sample
of the respondents is drawn from the target population and information is
obtained from this sample only once.
Multi Cross Sectional: In multi cross sectional, there are two or more samples
of respondents and information from each sample is obtained only once.
4.4.2 Longitudinal Design
It is a form of correlation study. That tries to correlate subjects either in
ascending or descending order. It is also called as Vertical Study. It involves
intense observation of the same variable over a long period of time.
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Here, a fixed sample (s) of population element is measured repeatedly on the

same variables. The sample remains the same over time and same variables
are measured.
1.5 Variables: Meaning and Types
A concept which can take on different quantitative values is called a variable.

Weight, height, income are all examples of variables.
1.5.1 Types of Variables
Continuous Variable: Phenomenon which can take on quantitatively different

values even in decimal points called „continuous variables‟. A continuous
variable is that which can assume any numerical value within a specific range.
E.g. Age
Discrete Variable: Variables which can only be expressed in integer values

are called non–continuous or discrete variables. A variable for which the
individual values fall on the scale only with distinct gaps is called a discrete
variable. If age is an example of continuous variable, number of children is an
example of discrete variable.
Dependent Variable: If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of

the other variable, it is called dependent variable.
Independent Variable: the variable that is antecedent to the dependent

variable is termed as an independent variable. For example, if we say, that
height depends upon age, the height is a dependent variable and age is an
independent variable or if in addition to being dependent upon age, height is
also dependent on gender, then height is a dependent variable and age and
gender are independent variables.
Extraneous Variables: Independent variables that are not related to the

purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent variable are termed as
extraneous variables. For example, suppose the researcher wants to test the
hypothesis that there is a relationship between children‟s gain in social studies
achievement and their self concepts. In this case self concept is an
independent variable and social studies achievement is a dependent variable.
Intelligence may as well affect the social studies achievement but since it is
not related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it is
termed as extraneous variable. A study must always be so designed that the
effect upon the dependent variable is attributed entirely to the independent
variable and not to some extraneous variable.
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Confounded Relationship: when the dependent variable is not free from the
influence of extraneous variable (s), the relationship between dependent and
independent variables is said to be confounded by extraneous variables.
1.6 Research Design in Descriptive and Diagnostic Research

Studies
Descriptive research studies are those concerned with describing the

characteristics of a particular individual or a group. Diagnostic research
studies determine the frequency with which something occurs or its
association with something else. Studies concerned with specific predictions,
with narration of facts and characteristics concerning individual, group or
situation are all examples of descriptive research. Studies concerning whether
certain variables are associated with the research are examples of diagnostic
research studies. It is important for the researcher to be able to define clearly
what he wants to measure and must find adequate methods for measuring it
along with a clear definition of „population‟ he wants to study. The research
design must make enough provisions for protection against bias and must
maximize reliability, with due concern for the economical completion of the
research study. The design in such studies unlike formulative research must
be rigid and not flexible. The research design in such studies must focus
attention on the following:
 Formulating the objective of the study
 Designing the methods of data collection
 Selecting the sample
 Collecting the data
 Processing and analyzing the data
 Reporting the findings
In most of the descriptive / diagnostic research studies the researcher takes

out sample (s) and then wishes to make statements about the population on
the basis of the sample analysis. As the data is collected, it should be
examined for completeness, comprehensibility, consistency and reliability.
The processing and analyzing procedure of the data collected should be
planned in detail before actual work is started so that it becomes economical.
Coding should be done carefully to avoid any error and for this purpose the
reliability of codes needs to be checked.
1.7 Research Design in Exploratory Research
It is done for formulating a problem for more precise investigation or

developing the working hypothesis from an operational point of view. It
emphasizes on the discovery of ideas and insights.
BA (JMC) 303 65
The research design must be flexible enough to provide opportunity for

considering different aspects of a problem under study. Generally, the
following three methods in the context of research design for such studies are
talked about:
a) The survey of concerning literature: which has to be the most simple

and fruitful method of formulating precisely the research problem or
developing hypothesis. In this way, the researcher should review and build
upon the work already done by others. Bibliographical survey of studies,
already made in one‟s area of interest may as well as be done by the
researcher for accurately formulating the problem. The researcher must
make an attempt to apply concepts and theories developed in different
research contexts to the area in which he is himself working.
b) Experience survey is the survey of people who have had practical

experience with the problem to be studied. The objective of this survey is
to obtain insight into the relationship between variables and new ideas
relating to the research problem. For such survey people who are
competent and can contribute new ideas may be selected. The
respondents so selected may then be interviewed. The researcher must
prepare an interview schedule for the systematic questioning of
informants. But the interview must be flexible and must include issues and
questions not previously asked by the investigator. The experience of
collecting interview is likely to be long and may last for few hours. Hence, it
must be sent in advance so that the respondent will get an opportunity for
some advance thinking over the various issues. The experience survey
may enable the researcher to define the problem more concisely and help
in formulation of the research hypothesis.
c) Analysis of ‘insight stimulating’ examples is also a fruitful method for

suggesting hypothesis for research. It is particularly suitable in areas
where there is little experience to serve as a guide. This method consists
of the intensive study of selected instances of the phenomenon in which
one is interested. For this:
 Existing records may be examined.
 The unstructured interviewing may take place
 Some other approach may be adopted.
Attitude of the investigator, the intensity of the study and the ability of the
researcher to draw together diverse information into a unified interpretation
are the main features which make this method an appropriate procedure for
evoking insights.
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1.8 Research Design in Hypothesis Testing Research Studies
It is also called experimental studies. Hypothesis – testing research studies

are those where the researcher tests the hypothesis of causal relationships
between variables. Such studies require procedures that will not only reduce
bias and increase reliability, but will permit drawing inferences about causality.
Basic principles of experimental research designs are:
The Principle of Replication: according to the principle of replication, the
experiment should be repeated more than once. Thus, each treatment is
applied in many experimental units instead of one. By doing so the statistical
accuracy of the experiment is increased.
The Principle of Randomization: provides protection, when we conduct an
experiment, against the effect of extraneous factors by randomization. This
principle indicates that we should design or plan the experiment in such a way
that the variation caused by extraneous factors can be combined under the
general condition of „chance‟.
The Principle of Local Control: the extraneous factor, the known source of
variability, is made to vary deliberately over as wide a range as necessary and
this needs to be done in such a way, that the variability it causes can be
measured and hence eliminated in a manner so that one can perform better a
two – way analysis of variables, in which the total variability of the data is
divided into 3 components attributed to the treatments, the extraneous factor
and experimental error.
1.9 Meaning of Hypothesis
Hypothesis is an unproven statement or proposition about a factor or

phenomenon that is of interest to the researcher. It is a specific statement of
prediction.
It describes in concrete or definite terms what you expect will happen in your
study rather than theoretical.
It consists either a suggested explanation for a phenomenon or of a reasoned
proposal suggesting a possible correlation between multiple phenomenon.
For example, Automobile A is performing better than Automobile B.
Research hypothesis is a predictive statement capable of being tested by
scientific methods that relates an independent variable to some dependent
variable.
1.10 Types of Hypothesis
a) Null Hypothesis: A null hypothesis is always the hypothesis that is tested.

It is a statement of the status quo, one of no difference or no effects. It should
always be specific hypothesis. (Not approximately). For example, if we are to
BA (JMC) 303 67
compare „A‟ method with „B‟ method about its superiority and if it is proved on
the assumption that both these methods are equally good, then this
assumption is called null hypothesis.
b) Alternative Hypothesis: This is the one in which some difference or effect
is expected. It is opposite of null hypothesis. For example, if we assume that
method A is better than method B. in research, the null hypothesis is
formulated in such a way that its rejection leads to the acceptance of
Alternative hypothesis.
1.11 Qualities of Hypothesis
Often, a hypothesis is a possible answer to the research question. They are

statements of relationships or propositions rather than merely questions.
Hypotheses are declarative and can be tested empirically.
An important role of a hypothesis is to suggest variables to be included in the
research design.
When stated in operational terms, they provide guidelines on what and how
data are to be collected and analysed.
1.12 Characteristics of Hypothesis
 It should be clear and precise.

 It should be capable of being tested.
 It should be limited in scope.
 It should be specific.
 It should be consistent with most known facts i.e. it must be consistent with
a substantial body of established facts.
 It should explain the facts that gave rise to the need for explanation.
 Hypothesis is fact based and just not based on premonition of the
researcher. The Research Question formulated in the beginning helps in
generating possible Hypothesis which finally becomes the title of the
research work. It is also important for the researcher to be precise while
constructing Hypothesis for research because long Hypothesis may be
confusing. It is important that these predictions are tested.
1.13 Summing up
Ethics is a code of values, which govern our lives, and are thus very essential
for moral and healthy life. In the context of the media, “Ethics” may be
described as a set of moral principles or values, which guide the conduct of
journalism. The media all over the world has voluntarily accepted that the
68 BA (JMC) 303
code of media ethics should cover honesty and fairness; provide space to
critical opinions; reality of objectivity; duty not to endanger people. These
code of conducts are flexible, general principles, the range, reach and terrain
of which are wider than those of law.
An ethical approach to HIV/AIDS, whether from the media, the medical

profession or the public at large, aims to achieve a reduction in the numbers
of people who contract the virus and to relieve, as far as possible, physical or
psychological distress suffered by those living with HIV.
1.14 Assignments
Class Assignment: Describe Variables.

Home Assignment: Describe types and characteristics of Hypothesis.
1. Hypothesis is an ___________________or proposition about a factor

or phenomenon that is of interest to the researcher.
2. It should be ________ and precise.
3. Hypotheses are _________ and can be tested empirically.
4. A ______________ is always the Hypothesis that is tested. It is a
statement of the status quo, one of no difference or no effects.
5. _________________ is the one in which some difference or effect is
expected.
1. Explain the research design.

2. Explain the Hypothesis
1. Unproven statement
2. Clear
3. Declarative
4. Null Hypothesis
5. Alternative Hypothesis
1.18 Keywords
 Hypothesis is an unproven statement or proposition about a factor or

phenomenon that is of interest to the researcher.
 Null Hypothesis is always the hypothesis that is tested.
BA (JMC) 303 69
 Alternative Hypothesis is the one in which some difference or effect

is expected. It is opposite of null hypothesis.

Publication
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___________________________________________________________________
LESSON 2 Research Methods: Survey, Content Analysis and
Case Study
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
STRUCTURE
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Survey
2.4 Types of Survey
2.5 Five Basic Steps Involved in Survey
2.6 Content Analysis
2.7 Uses of Content Analysis
2.8 Process of Content Analysis
2.9 Advantages of Content Analysis
2.10 Case Study
2.11 Characteristics of Case Study
2.12 Advantages of Case Study Method
2.13 Disadvantages of Case Study Method
2.14 Summing up
2.15 Assignments
2.19 Keywords
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2. Research Methods: Survey, Content

Analysis and Case Study
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
In the last lesson we had discussed the meaning and types of design, variables,
hypothesis and research question.
In the present lesson we shall discuss research methods i.e. survey, content
analysis and case study.
___________________________________________________________________
2.0 Objectives
 describe the Survey

 describe the content analysis
 describe the case study
___________________________________________________________________
2.1 Introduction
When the sample size is very large for example in census, survey method is
used for primary data collection. Survey uses questionnaire for data
collection. It is an expensive and time consuming process. It is majorly done
for descriptive research type. In this the existing condition is only described
and no interpretation is used. There are various types of surveys like sample
survey, census survey, socio, economic and public surveys.
2.2 Survey
Surveys are conducted in descriptive research. Survey type research method
usually have larger samples however the percentage of responses generally
happens to be low, as low as 20 to 30%, especially in mailed questionnaire
studies.
The survey method gathers data from a relatively large number of cases at a
particular time; it is essentially cross sectional. Surveys are concerned with
describing, recording, analyzing and interpreting conditions that either exist or
existed. The researcher does not manipulate the variable or arrange for
events to happen. Surveys are only concerned with conditions or relationships
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that exist, opinions that are held, processes that are going on, effects that are
evident or trends that are developing. They are primarily concerned with the
present but at times do consider past events and influences as they relate to
current conditions. Therefore, in surveys, variables that exist or have already
occurred are selected and observed.
Surveys are usually appropriate in the case of social and behavioral sciences.
Surveys are an example of field research. Surveys may either be census or
sample surveys. They may also be classified as social, economic or public
surveys. Whatever be their type the method of data collection happens to be
either observation, or interview or questionnaire or some projective
techniques. Research design must be rigid, must make enough provision for
protection against bias and must maximize reliability as the aim happens to be
to obtain complete and accurate information. Possible relationships between
the data and the unknown in the universe can be studied through surveys
whereas experiments are meant to determine such relationships. Correlation
analysis is relatively more important in survey i.e. controlling relationships
between variables are more important in surveys.
 Specific Objectives: The first step in conducting a survey is to list

down straight objectives of the survey. A survey without clear goals will
not yield desired results.
 Straightforward Questions: The survey must consist of
straightforward questions which are constructed in a simple and crisp
manner. It is important for the respondents to understand the questions
listed in the survey. Confusing and ambiguous questions may
disinterest the respondents.
 Proper Sample: It is not necessary to survey the entire population.
It is important to capture responses from the selected representative of
the entire population. It is important to ask the right respondents rather
than asking every person.
 Reliable and Valid: It is important for the respondents to be

authentic and the information provided by them valid. Otherwise, the
objective behind conducting the survey is lost.
 Accurate Reporting of Result: Survey results must be carefully

analyzed. In order for the report to be accepted by the target audience,
it must be fair, true and accurate. Credible reports include both
negative and positive results.
BA (JMC) 303 73
2.4 Types of Survey

Surveys are classified according to their focus and scope (census and sample
surveys) or according to the time frame for data collection (longitudinal and
cross-sectional surveys). A survey that covers the entire population of interest
is referred to as a census. In research, however the population is used to refer
to the entire group of individuals to whom the findings of a study apply. The
researcher defines the specific population of interest.
Classifying surveys on the basis of their scope and their focus gives four
categories:
1) A census of tangibles: One seeks information about a small
population, such as a single school, and when the variables are
concrete, there is little challenge in finding the required answers.
2) A census of intangibles: One seeks information about constructs that
aren‟t directly observable but must be inferred from indirect measures.
Such constructs may include pupil achievement or aspirations, teacher
morale, parents‟ attitudes toward school, or the achievement testing
program carried out by most schools.
3) A sample survey of tangibles: One seeks information about large
groups. Sampling techniques are used and the information collected
from the sample is used to make inferences about the population as a
whole.
4) A sample survey of intangibles: One seeks information about
constructs that aren‟t directly observable but must be inferred from
responses made by the subjects to questionnaires or interviews. For
example, how someone is going to vote is intangible, but what is
marked on a ballot is tangible.
Surveys Classified According to the Time Dimension
1) Longitudinal Surveys: gather information at different points of time in
order to study changes over extended periods of time.
2) Panel Study: the same subjects are surveyed at different times over
an extended period. Because the same subjects are studied over time,
researchers can see the changes in the individuals‟ behavior and
investigate the reasons for the changes.
3) Trend Study: different people from the same population are surveyed
at different times.
4) Cohort Study: a specific population whose members changed over
the duration of the study is followed over a length of time.
5) Cross-sectional Surveys: study a cross section (sample) of a
population at a single point of time.
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2.5 Five Basic Steps Involved in Survey

1) Planning: Survey research begins with a question that the researcher
believes can be answered most appropriately by means of the survey
method. The researcher needs to decide on the data-gathering
technique that will be used.
2) Sampling: The researcher must make decisions about the sampling
procedure that will be used and the size of the sample to survey. If one
is to generalize the sample findings to the population, it is essential that
the sample selected be representative of that population.
3) Constructing the Instrument: A major task in survey research is the
construction of the instrument that will be used to gather the data from
the sample.
4) Conducting the Survey: Once the data-gathering instrument is
prepared, it must be field-tested to determine if it will provide the
desired data. Also included in this step would be the training of the
users of the instrument, interviewing subjects or distributing
questionnaires to them, and verifying the accuracy of the data
gathered.
5) Processing the Data: The last step includes coding the data,
statistical analysis, interpreting the results, and reporting the findings.
2.6 Content Analysis

Earl Babbie defines Content Analysis as "the study of recorded human
communications, such as books, websites, paintings and laws”. Content
analysis is considered a scholarly methodology in the humanities by which
texts are studied as to authorship, authenticity, or meaning. Content Analysis
is sometimes also referred to as textual analysis. It majorly deals in analysing
the published content which may assist the researcher in developing the
content for research purpose. Ole Holsti offers a broad definition of Content
Analysis as "any technique for making inferences by objectively and
systematically identifying specified characteristics of messages". In 1931,
Alfred R. Lindesmith developed a methodology to refute existing hypotheses,
which became known as a content analysis technique.
The method of content analysis enables the researcher to include large

amounts of textual information and systematically identify its properties, such
as the frequencies of most used keywords by locating the more important
structures of its communication content. Such amounts of textual information
must be categorised to provide a meaningful reading of content under
scrutiny. Since the 1980s, content analysis has become an increasingly
BA (JMC) 303 75
important tool in the measurement of success in public relations (notably

media relations) programmes and the assessment of media profiles.
In these circumstances, content analysis is an element of media evaluation or

media analysis. Content Analysis is “a research technique for making
inferences by systematically and objectively identifying specified
characteristics within a text” – Stone, Dunphy, Smith & Ogilvy, 1966. Content
Analysis is one of the most dominant methodologies employed in public
communication, journalism and mass media research.
2.7 Uses of Content Analysis

 Content Analysis is used to make inferences about the antecedents of a
communication.
 Content Analysis is used to describe and make inferences about
characteristics of a communication.
 Content Analysis is also used to generate inferences about the effects of a
communication strategy.
 Content Analysis is also used in the context of basic communication
paradigm.
 Content Analysis is a valuable tool for applied researchers and
communication practitioners.
2.8 Process of Content Analysis

Content Analysis is a systematic, step by step procedure used to answer
research questions. Content analysis involves the following procedure
2.8.1 Selecting Texts
The first need is to acquire a representative and sufficient sample. The

researcher must devise a method of obtaining a sample which is
representative of the universe from which it comes and of sufficient size to
adequately represent that universe. Content analysis uses simple random,
systematic, stratified or cluster sampling techniques to acquire representative
samples.
2.8.2 Determining the Unit of Analysis
Keppendorf identifies five units that researcher studies: physical, syntactical,

referential, propositional and thematic units. Physical units are the texts that
are to be used in the study, such as newspapers, books, magazines or T.V.
shows. Syntactical units consist of individual symbols, as when counting the
number of times the term communism appears in the newspaper editorials.
Referential unit link symbols to particular referents, as when counting the
76 BA (JMC) 303
number of positive words written in newspaper editorial comments about XYZ

politician. Propositional units carry explicit proposals. For example, Gerbner,
studied how ideological biases were apparent in proposals advocated in
newspaper articles. Thematic units are topics contained within messages, as
when identifying sexist or racist themes in the conduct of television shows.
2.8.3 Developing Content Categories
Once researchers have identified the appropriate unit of analysis, they use
nominal measurement procedures to develop categories into which units can
be classified. These categories must be mutually exclusive, equivalent and
exhaustive. Berelson (1952) identifies two general types of categories used to
classify units in content analysis: substance and form. For example, Alderton
and Frey (1983) classified the substance of small group argumentation into
majority and minority arguments. They could also have classified each
argument according to whether it took the form of a statement or a question.
The value of a content analytical study rests on developing valid categories
into which units can be classified.
2.8.4 Coding Units
Once the appropriate units have been determined and the categories have
been developed, researchers train observers, called coders, to identify the
appropriate category for each unit. Researchers usually use two coders and
classify each unit into its appropriate category independently. Researcher
then uses a procedure to assess the reliability of these coding.
2.8.5 Analyzing the Data
Coding units into nominal categories yields qualitative data; counting the
number of units in each category yields quantitative data. knowing the number
of units in each category informs them about how often these types of
messages are being communicated.
Both types of data are useful for describing, understanding and critiquing the
content of the communication being studied. Researcher can use this
information to understand how input and output variables relate to message
behaviour.
2.9 Advantages of Content Analysis

Fitting the material into a model of communication: It should be determined on
what part of the communication inferences shall be made, to aspects of the
communicator (his experiences, opinions, feelings), to the situation of text
production, to the socio-cultural background, to the text itself or to the effect of
the message.
BA (JMC) 303 77
Rules of analysis: The material is to be analyzed step by step, following rules

of procedure, devising the material into content analytical units.
Categories in the center of analysis: The aspects of text interpretation,

following the research questions, are put into categories, which were carefully
founded and revised within the process of analysis (feedback loops).
Criteria of reliability and validity: The procedure has the pretension to be inter-
subjectively comprehensible, to compare the results with other studies in the
sense of triangulation and to carry out checks for reliability.
For estimating the inter-coder reliability we use in qualitative content analysis

(in contrary to quantitative content analysis) only trained members of the
project team and we reduce the standard of coder agreement.
2.10 Case Study Method

Sometimes the researcher has limited time and money. In such
circumstances, the researcher uses secondary data collection techniques like
case studies. Secondary data is easily available and saves a lot of money and
time.
It is a very popular form of qualitative analysis and involves a careful and
complete observation of a social unit,(a person, a family, an institution, a
cultural group or entire community).It is a method of study in depth rather than
breadth.
Case study is essentially an intensive investigation of the particular unit under
consideration. The object of the case study method is to locate the factors that
account for the behaviour–patterns of the given unit as an integrated society.
It is an exhaustive study of a person or group. Burgess has used the words
“the social microscope” for the case study method. Pauline V. Young
describes it as “a comprehensive study of a social unit be that unit a person, a
group, a social institution, a district or a community.”
2.11 Characteristics of Case Studies
Under this method the researcher can take one single social unit or more of
such units for his study purpose; he may even take a situation to study the
same comprehensively.
Here, the selected unit is studied intensively i.e. it is studied in minute details.
Generally, the study extends over a long period of time to ascertain the
natural history of the unit so as to obtain enough information for drawing
correct inferences. In the context of this method we make complete study of
the social unit covering all facets. Through this method we try to understand
the complex of factors that are operative within a social unit as an integrated
78 BA (JMC) 303
totality.
Research approach is qualitative. Mutual inter–relationship of causal factors is
studied. Behaviour pattern of the concern unit is studied directly and not by
indirect or abstract approach. Case study method results in fruitful hypothesis
along with the data which may be helpful in testing them, and thus, it enables
the generalized knowledge to get richer and richer. It is a widely used
systematic field research technique in sociology. Herbert Spencer used Case
Study Method first in his comparative study of different cultures. Frederic
Cellery used it as a hand–maiden to statistics in his studies of family budget.
William Healy resorted to his method in his study of juvenile delinquency. This
method is based on several assumptions.
The important assumption may be listed as follows:
 The assumption of uniformity in the basic human nature in spite of the fact
that human behaviour may vary according to situations.
 The assumption of studying the natural history of the unit concerned.
 The assumption of comprehensive study of the unit concerned.
Major Phases
 Recognition and determination of the status of the phenomenon to be
investigated or the unit of attention.
 Collection of data, examination and history of the given phenomenon.
 Diagnosis and identification of causal factors as a basis for remedial or
developmental treatment.
 Application of remedial measures i.e. treatment and therapy which is also
called case work.
 Follow up programme to determine effectiveness of the treatment applied.
2.12 Advantages of Case Study Method
 Enables to understand fully the behavioUr pattern of the concerned units.
 Useful in obtaining a real and enlightened record of personal experiences
which would reveal man‟s inner strivings, tensions and motivations that
drive him to action along with the forces that direct him to adopt a certain
pattern of behaviour.
 Trace out history.
 Intensive study
 Helpful in constructing questionnaire, document, study reports etc.
 Also called “mode of organizing data”
 Emphasis of historical analysis.
 Enhances the experience of the researcher and this in turn increases his
analyzing ability and skill.
 It makes possible the study of social change.
BA (JMC) 303 79
 Case study methods are indispensible for therapeutic and administrative

purposes. Quite useful for diagnosis, therapy and other practical problems.
2.13 Disadvantages of Case Study Method
 Case situations are seldom and information collected is often not
comparable.
 „Read Bain‟ does not consider the case data as significant data since they
do not provide knowledge of the „impersonal, universal, non – ethical, non-
practical, repetitive aspects of phenomenon.‟ Subjectivity of the researcher
does enter in the collection of information.
 Danger of false generalizations (no rules are followed in collecting data).
 Time consuming and expensive.
 Assumptions may not be very realistic at times; therefore usefulness of
data is always subject to doubt.
 Can be used in a limited sphere. Sampling is also not possible under a
case study.
 Response of the investigator is an important limitation of the Case Study
Method. He often thinks that he has full knowledge of the unit and he can
answer about it.
2.14 Summing up
Survey method is expensive and time consuming but also gives authentic and
accurate information. Surveys are classified according to their focus and
scope (census and sample surveys) or according to the time frame for data
collection.
Content Analysis is an important tool of data collection. It is primarily a
secondary data collection technique used by a researcher when exhaustive
content is available and the researcher can benefit by analysing the same. It
majorly deals with answering six questions. It is very helpful in analysing
qualitative content. Content Analysis is a popular exercise amongst
researchers.
Case Study is an important method of secondary data collection. It is done
when the researcher has limited time and money. There are several
advantages and disadvantages of the Case Study Method. Case Study
Method is indispensible for therapeutic and administrative purposes. It is quite
useful for diagnosis, therapy and other practical case problems.
2.15 Assignments
Class Assignment: Describe the process of content analysis method.
Home Assignment: Describe the advantages and disadvantages of case
study method.
80 BA (JMC) 303

1. Survey type research method usually has larger samples. Is it true?
2. Content Analysis is "the study of recorded human communications, such
as books, websites, paintings and laws”. True or False
3. Case study is a method of study in depth rather than breadth. Is it true?

o What is survey? Discuss various types of Survey.
o Explain the steps involved in Survey Research
o What is Content Analysis? What is the use of Content Analysis?
o What is Case Study? Explain the importance of Case Study Method.

1. True
2. True
3. True
2.19 Keywords
Census A survey that covers the entire population of interest is referred to as
a census.
Cross-sectional Surveys study a cross section (sample) of a population at a
single point of time.
Case study is essentially an intensive investigation of the particular unit
under consideration.
Inference: A conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and reasoning.
Analysis: Detailed examination of the elements or structure of something

Publication
BA (JMC) 303 81
___________________________________________________________________
LESSON 3 Sampling &Selecting a sample, Types of sampling:
Probability and Non- Probability
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
STRUCTURE
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Meaning of Sampling
3.3 Criterion of Selecting a Sampling Procedure
3.4 Characteristics of a Good Sample Design
3.5 Types of Sampling
3.6 Summing up
3.7 Assignments
3.11 Keywords
BA (JMC) 303 82
3. Sampling & Selecting a sample, Types of

sampling: Probability and Non- Probability
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
In the last lesson we had discussed the research methods i.e. survey, content
analysis and case study.
In the present lesson we shall discuss the sampling, types of sampling.
___________________________________________________________________
3.0 Objectives
• describe sampling
• explain the process of selecting a sample
• describe and differentiate between various types of sampling.
___________________________________________________________________
3.1 Introduction
To minimize error, to curb expenses, to generate authentic data in restricted
time frame can only be possible if correct respondents are selected from the
desired population or universe. The technique of selecting these respondents
from a total universe is called sampling. Sampling is a planned activity which
is done in order to support the researcher in data collection. If the sampling
technique is incorrect, there is a high probability of incorrect and unauthentic
data collection by the researcher.
3.2 Meaning of Sampling
It is an act, process or technique of selecting a representative part of a

population for the purpose of determining parameters or characteristics of the
whole population.
Population is the aggregate of all the elements that share some common set
of characteristics and that comprise the universe for the purpose of research
problem.
Census: a census is a complete enumeration of the elements of a problem.
BA (JMC) 303 83
Sample: A sample is a sub group of the element of the population selected for
the participation in the study. Sample characteristics, called statistics are then
used to make inferences about the population parameter.
Sample Design: a sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample
from a given population. It refers to the technique or the procedure that the
researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample.
3.3 Criterion of selecting a sampling procedure
Two costs are involved in a sampling analysis:

 The cost of collecting the data
 The cost of an incorrect inference resulting from the data.
The two causes of incorrect inferences are systematic bias and sampling
error.
Systematic bias results from errors in sampling procedures, and it cannot be
reduced or eliminated by increasing the sample size. At best the causes
responsible for these errors can be detected and corrected. Usually, a
systematic bias is the result of one or more of the following reasons:
 Inappropriate sampling frame: if the representation of the universe is
biased, it will result in a systematic bias.
 Defective measuring device: if the measuring device is constantly in
error, it will result in systematic bias. In survey work, systematic bias
can result if the questionnaire or the interviewer is biased.
 Non-respondents: if we are unable to sample all the individuals initially
included in the sample, then there may arise a systematic bias. The
reason is that in such a situation like this there is likelihood of
establishing a contact or receiving a response from an individual which
is often correlated with the measure of what is to be estimated.
 Indeterminacy principle: sometimes we find that individuals act
differently when kept under observation than what they do when kept in
non-observed situation. For example – workers of a factory.
 Natural bias in the reporting of data: natural bias of respondents in the
reporting of data is often the cause of a systematic bias in many
inquiries. Downward bias in the income tax collected by government
taxation department, whereas we find an upward bias in the income
data collected by some social organization. For tax purposes, people
do not reveal their true income but if people are asked about their
social status or their affluence, they quote more.
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3.4 Characteristics of a Good Sample Design

 Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.
 Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error.
 Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available.
 Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled
in a better way.
 Sample design should be such that the results of the sample study can
be applied, in general, for the universe with a reasonable level of
confidence.
3.5 Types of Sampling
Broadly there are two types of sampling:

(A) Non Probability Sampling and
(B) Probability Sampling
(A) Non Probability Sampling

It does not afford any bias for estimating the probability that each item in the
population has of being included in the sample.
 It is also called deliberate, purposive and judgment sampling
 The researcher deliberately selects the items of his choice.
 In such a design, personal element has a great chance of entering into
the selection of the sample.
 There is always a danger of bias.
 Sampling errors cannot be estimated.
 It is very convenient and is relatively inexpensive
Types of Non Probability Sampling
Convenience Sampling
If a researcher wishes to secure data from, say, gasoline buyers, he may
select a fixed number of petrol stations and may conduct interviews at these
stations. This would be an example of convenience sample of gasoline
buyers. At times such a procedure may give very biased results particularly
when the population is not homogeneous. On the other hand, in judgment
sampling the researcher‟s judgment is used for selecting items which he
considers as representative of the population. For example, a judgment
sample of college students might be taken to secure reactions to a new
method of teaching. Judgment sampling is used quite frequently in qualitative
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research where the desire happens is to develop hypotheses rather than to

generalise larger populations.
Quota Sampling: In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples
from individual strata is often so expensive that interviewers are simply given
quota to be filled from different strata, the actual selection of items for sample
being left to the interviewer‟s judgment. This is called quota sampling. The
size of the quota for each stratum is generally proportionate to the size of that
stratum in the population. Quota sampling is thus an important form of non-
probability sampling. Quota samples generally happen to be judgment
samples rather than random samples.
(B) Probability Sampling
It is also called random sampling or chance sampling.
Under this, every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion in the
sample. e.g.: a lottery.
Probability or random sampling states that if on an average the sample
chosen is a random one, the sample will have the same composition and
characteristics as the universe.
It is the best technique of selecting a representative sample.
Random sampling allows each element in the population an equal probability
of getting into the sample and all the choices are independent of one another.
It gives each possible sample combination an equal probability of being
chosen.
Types of Probability Sampling Designs
Systematic Sampling
In some instances, the most practical way of sampling is to select every nth
item on a list. For example, if a 4% sample is desired, then 1 st item would be
selected randomly from the 1st 25, thereafter every 25th item would be
included in the sample. In this samples are selected systematically at fixed
intervals or for example, if there are 100000 elements in a population and
sample of 1000 is desired, therefore sample interval is equal to 100000/1000=
100. Random number between 1 to 100 is selected, says 23, therefore
samples selected are 23, 123,223,323,423,523...
Stratified Sampling
If the population from which a sample is drawn does not constitute a
homogeneous group, stratified sampling technique is generally applied. Under
stratified sampling, the population is divided into several sub – population
called „strata‟. This population is more homogeneous. Then we select items
from each stratum to constitute a sample. Since each stratum is more
homogeneous than the total population, we are able to get more precise
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estimates for each stratum and by estimating more accurately each of the
component parts, we get a better estimate of the whole. This type of sampling
is more reliable and detailed information. Strata should be formed on the
basis of common characteristics of the items to be put in each stratum. One
should always consider the relationship between the characteristics of the
population and the characteristics to be estimated are normally used to define
the strata. For this small samples of equal size are taken.
Cluster Sampling
The target population is divided into mutually exclusive and exhaustive
clusters. Then a random sample of clusters is selected, based on probability
technique usually, Simple Random Sampling. For each selected cluster,
either all elements are included in sample or a sample of element is drawn
probabilistically. If the cluster happens to be geographic sub – division, in that
case cluster sampling is better known as Area sampling. To understand
cluster sampling, let us read an example, if there are 200000 machine parts in
the inventory at a given point, stored in 400 cases of 50 each. Using cluster
sample, we would consider the 400 cases as cluster and randomly select „n‟
cases and examine all the machine parts in each randomly selected case.
3.6 Summing up
The technique of selecting respondents from a total universe is called

sampling. Sampling is a planned activity which is done in order to support the
researcher in data collection. There are two types of sampling techniques first
probability and second is non-probability. Probability sampling is also called
random sampling and non-probability sampling is called purposive or
deliberate sampling. Sample design must result in a truly representative
sample. It must be in the estimated cost. Minimum error must occur.
3.7 Assignments
Class Assignment: Describe Non-probability sampling.

Home Assignment: Describe the Systematic sampling.
3.8 Self-Check Questions
1. Population is the aggregate of all the elements that share some

common set of characteristics and that comprise the universe for the
purpose of research problem. Is it true?
2. List two characteristics of a good sample design.
3. Name two types of sampling techniques.
4. Cluster sampling is a non-probability sampling technique. Is it true?
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1. What is sampling. What is the process of selecting a good sample?

2. Explain the two types of sampling techniques.
3. Explain the criterion of selecting a sample procedure.
4. Explain the criterion of a good sample design.
3.10 Possible answers of Self-Check Questions
1. Yes, it is true.
2. Sample design must result in a truly representative sample and sample
design must be such which results in a small sampling error.
3. Probability and non probability sampling techniques.
4. False.
3.11 Keywords
Population is the aggregate of all the elements that share some common set
of characteristics and that comprise the universe for the purpose of research
problem.
Census: a census is a complete enumeration of the elements of a problem.
Sample: A sample is a sub group of the element of the population selected for
the participation in the study. Sample characteristics, called statistics are then
used to make inferences about the population parameter.
Sample design: a sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample
from a given population. It refers to the technique or the procedure the
researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample.

Publication
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___________________________________________________________________
LESSON 4 Data Collection Tools: Primary and Secondary,
Observation, Interview, Questionnaire/ Schedule, FGD
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
STRUCTURE
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Primary Data
4.3 Secondary Data
4.4 Selection of an Appropriate Method for Data Collection
4.5 Questionnaire Method
4.6 Schedule Method
4.7 Difference between Questionnaire and Schedule
4.8 Observation Method
4.9 Interview Method
4.10 Focused Group Discussion Method
4.11 Summing up
4.12 Assignments
4.16 Keywords
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4. Data Collection Tools: Primary and

Secondary, Observation, Interview,
Questionnaire/Schedule, FGD
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
In the previous lesson we had discussed the sampling and its types.
In the present lesson we shall discuss the data collection tools, primary & secondary
data, observation, interview, questionnaire & schedule and focused group
discussion.
___________________________________________________________________
4.0 Objectives
 Discuss the data collection tools – questionnaire and schedule

 Discuss the data types – Primary and Secondary Data
 Discuss the observation, interview and focused group discussion.
___________________________________________________________________
4.1 Introduction
Data collection is one of the most important steps in research process. Every
researcher has to collect data to analyse it and test the hypothesis. Data is
the raw material collected, which once processed becomes information. The
primary difference between data and information is that data is raw,
unprocessed whereas information is processed data. Also, data is impersonal
whereas information is personal. Data can be used to generate varied
information. For any researcher it is of utmost importance that the data
collected is accurate and authentic. If the data collected is obsolete and
incorrect it will lead to an irrelevant and incorrect research. Data collection
begins after a research problem has been defined and research design is
chalked out. Data is of two type viz. Primary Data and Secondary Data.
4.2 Primary Data
Primary data is the first time collected data by the researcher. It is the first
hand data collected for research purpose. It involves field work by the
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researcher. It is a tedious task and very time consuming. Though it is difficult

to collect primary data, it is the most authentic data collected by the
researcher. Primary data is fresh and updated. It is believed to be most
accurate. The researcher may use several tools and techniques to collect
primary data like interview, observation, questionnaire and survey. Collecting
primary data is also expensive. It may also involve huge cost in training
representatives of the researcher.
4.2.1 Characteristics of Primary Data
1. It is freshly collected data by the researcher which means it is the first hand
data collected
2. It is expensive
3. It requires the researcher to personally collect Data through various tools of
Data Collection.
4. It is time consuming
5. It is the most accurate
6. It is not easily available
7. It seldom requires cross checking as it is collected by the researcher
himself.
4.2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Primary Data
S. No. Parameter Primary Data
1. Cost Expensive
2. Availability Not Easily Available
3. Accuracy Most Accurate
4. Time Time Consuming
5. Usability Easily usable
Tools Questionnaire, Survey, Schedule, Interview,

6.
Observation
4.2.1 Collection of Primary Data
For various research Primary Data can be collected with the help of different
tools. For example, while doing an experimental research, Primary Data is
collected by doing experiments as done in clinical laboratories. In the case of
descriptive research, surveys are performed like the sample surveys and
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census survey, for example, the National Sample Survey Office, an

organization under the Ministry of Statistics of the Government of India
conducts regular Socio- Economic surveys. Primary Data can also be
obtained through a simple mechanism of Observation which may be direct
communication or indirect communication or participatory or non participatory
observation or structured or unstructured observation, e.g. when a
documentary film maker wishes to collect data for his film, he may either use
any of the above mentioned tools of Data Collection. In case, there is a
language barrier between the film maker and the target audience, he may not
indulge in participatory observation but may use non participatory observation
to collect the required Data.
Another commonly used tool for collecting Primary Data, is the Questionnaire
tool. Questionnaire is a set of questions prepared by the researcher to be
filled in by the respondents with the objective of finding solutions to the
problem listed by the researcher.
Another common tool of collecting Primary Data is the Interview method. It is
a method which involves presentation of oral- verbal stimuli and reply in terms
of oral–verbal responses. This method can be used through personal
interviews and also through telephone and e–mails.
4.3 Secondary Data
Secondary data on the other hand is the data which is already available. The
researcher uses books, internet, case studies, journals, periodicals which are
already available to do the research work. In comparison to primary data,
collecting secondary data is less tedious and less time consuming. Secondary
data is also not very credible. It may also be old. Depending upon secondary
data is not always a good idea.
4.3.1 Characteristics of Secondary Data
1. Readily available
2. Less Tedious
3. Less Time Consuming
4. Less Expensive
5. Risky
4.3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Data
S. No. Parameter Primary Data
1. Cost Less expensive
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2. Availability Easily Available
3. Accuracy May or May Not be Accurate
4. Time Less Time Consuming
5. Usability Little complicated
6. Tools Case Studies, Content Analysis, Reviews
4.3.3 Characteristics of Secondary Data
1. Reliability of Data
The reliability can be tested by finding out such things about the said data: a.
who collected the Data? b. What were the sources of Data? c. Were they
collected by using proper methods d. At what time were they collected? e.
Was there any bias of the compiler? f. What level of accuracy was desired?
Was it achieved?
2. Suitability of Data
The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily be found
suitable in another enquiry. Hence, if the available data are found to be
unsuitable, they should not be used by the researcher. In this context, the
researcher must very carefully scrutinize the definition of various terms and
units of collection used at the time of collecting the data from the Primary
source originally. Similarly, the object, scope and nature of the original enquiry
must also be studied. If the researcher finds differences in these, the data will
remain unsuitable for the present enquiry and should not be used.
3. Adequacy of Data
If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found to be inadequate for the
purpose of the present enquiry, it will be considered as inadequate and should
not be used by the researcher. The data will also be considered inadequate, if
they are related to an area which may be either narrower or wider than the
area of the present enquiry.
4.3.4 Collection of Secondary Data
The main tool for collecting Secondary Data is the case study method. This
method is a popular form of Qualitative analysis and involves a careful and
complete observation of a social unit. It is majorly done for descriptive
research.
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4.4 Selection of an Appropriate Method for Data Collection

1. Nature, Scope and Object of research
This is the most important factor in selecting a specific method of data
collection. The researcher must select a method that is appropriate for the
study he / she is interested in. It is the nature, scope and object of the study
that determines whether the researcher will use already available data or the
researcher will himself collect fresh data.
2. Availability of Funds
Research is an exhaustive process and requires monetary support. When the
researcher has adequate funds at his disposal he uses Primary Data
collection tool and when the researcher has limited funds, he uses Secondary
Data collection tool. Finance, is a big constraint in practice and the researcher
has to act within this limitation.
3. Time Factor
Availability of time is another important factor in deciding what data collection
tool should the researcher opt. There are methods which take relatively more
time than the others whereas, there are a few methods which do not take
much time. Therefore, the time at the disposal of the researcher affects the
selection of the method by which the data has to be collected.
4. Precision Required
The researcher must keep in mind that precision is required in the study
before the data collection method is decided.
Questionnaire technique of primary data collection is very popular, especially
in case of big enquiries. It requires a set of questions prepared by the
researcher and filled by the respondents. The questionnaire is collected,
edited and tabulated by the researcher.
4.5 Questionnaire Method
A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a
definite order on a form or set of forms. The questionnaire is mailed to
respondents who are expected to read and understand the questions and
write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the questionnaire
itself. It is most extensively used in various economic and business surveys.
Therefore, it can be said that Questionnaire Method is used for big enquiries.
The questionnaire has to be filled by the respondent himself. The
questionnaire is either mailed or given in person to the respondents. It is
advisable to conduct „pilot study‟ for testing the questionnaire as it eliminates
the possibility of bias. Pilot study or survey is the rehearsal of the main survey
which is conducted by the experts so as to highlight the weakness and
limitations of the questionnaire.
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4.5.1 Merits of Questionnaire Method
There is a low cost involved when the universe is large and is widely spread
geographically. In such a condition, it is difficult for the researcher to conduct
interviews.
 The questionnaire is free from the prejudice of the interviewer as the

answers are given by the respondents. Therefore, there are no
interjections from the interviewer.
 The respondent has adequate time to fill the answers. Therefore, the
answers are well thought.
 It is also a convenient method as the respondents can be approached
easily.
 A good research involves large sample and questionnaire method is an
appropriate method to reach out to large population. Therefore, the result
obtained is more dependable and accurate.
4.5.2 Demerits of Questionnaire Method
 The respondent may delay the response time. Therefore, low rate of return
is witnessed. Sometimes even non – response error is seen.
 Questionnaire can only be used when the target audience is educated and
is ready to contribute.
 There can be no clarifications made by the researcher when the
questionnaire is sent. There is a possibility of incorrect and ambiguous
replies. Interpretation of the same may be difficult.
 It is also difficult to determine whether the willing respondents are truly
representative.
 This is likely to be the slowest method of receiving the data.
4.5.3 Main Aspects of a Questionnaire
Questionnaire is considered the heart of the survey operation. Therefore, it

requires careful construction. If the questionnaire is not carefully constructed,
it may result if the failure of the survey. Researcher should note the following
with regard to the three main aspects of a questionnaire:
4.5.4 General Format of Questionnaire
The questionnaire can either be structured or unstructured.

Structured Questionnaires are those questionnaires in which there are
definite, concrete and pre-determined questions. The questions are presented
with exactly the same wording and in the same order to all respondents. The
form of the question may be either closed i.e. of the type „yes‟ or „no‟ or open
i.e. which invites free response but should be stated in advance and not
constructed during the questioning. Structured questionnaires may also have
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fixed alternative questions in which responses of the informants are limited to

the stated alternatives. Therefore, a highly structured questionnaire is one in
which all questions and answers are specified and comments in the
respondent‟s own words are held to the minimum. Structured questionnaire
are simple to administer and relatively inexpensive to analyse. The provision
of alternative replies at times helps to understand the meaning of the question
clearly. Despite numerous advantages, there are limitations too. The
researcher cannot receive wide range of data and that too in respondent‟s
own words with structured questionnaires. They are usually considered
inappropriate in investigations where the aim happens to be to probe for
attitudes and reasons for certain actions or feelings. They are not suitable for
exploratory research in which working hypothesis is sought.
Unstructured Questionnaire: On the other hand, in an unstructured
questionnaire, the interviewer is provided with a general guidelines on the
type of information to be obtained, but the exact question formulation is
largely his own responsibility and the replies are to be taken down in the
respondent‟s own words to the extent possible; in some situation tape
recorders may be used to achieve this goal.
4.5.5 Question Sequence
In order to make the questionnaire effective and to ensure quality to the

replies received, a researcher should pay attention to the question –
sequence in preparing the questionnaire. A proper sequence of questions
reduces considerably the chances of individual questions being
misunderstood. The – sequence must be clear and smoothly moving,
meaning thereby that the relation of one question to another should be readily
apparent to the respondent, with questions that are easiest to answer being
put in the beginning. The first few questions are particularly important
because they are likely to influence the attitude of the respondent and in
seeking his desired cooperation. The opening questions should be such as to
arouse human interest.
The following type of questions should generally be avoided as opening
questions in a questionnaire:
 Questions that put too great strain on the memory or intellect of the
respondent.
 Questions of a personal character
 Questions related to personal wealth
Following the opening questions, we should have questions that are really
vital to the research problem and a concerning thread should run through
successive questions. Ideally, the question–sequence should conform to the
respondent‟s way of thinking.
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Knowing what information is desired, the researcher can rearrange the order
of the questions to fit the discussion in each particular case. In structured
questionnaire the best can be done is to determine the question –sequence
with the help of a pilot survey which is likely to produce a good rapport with
most respondents. Relatively difficult questions must be relegated towards the
end so that even if the respondent decides not to answer such questions,
considerable information would have already been obtained.
Thus, question–sequence should usually go from the general to the more
specific and the researcher must remember that the answer to the given
question is a function not only to the question itself, but of all previous
questions as well. For example, if one question deals with the price usually
paid for coffee and the next with reason for preferring that particular brand,
the answer to this latter question may be couched largely in terms of price –
differences.
4.5.6 Question Formulation and Wording
With regard to this aspect of a questionnaire, the researcher should note that
each question must be very clear, for any sort of misunderstanding can do
irreparable harm to a survey. Question should also be impartial in order to
give unbiased picture of the true state of affairs. Questions should be
constructed with a view of their forming a logical part of a well thought
tabulation plan. Basically, all the questions should meet the following
standards:
1. Should be easily understood
2. Should be simple
3. Should be concrete
4. Should conform to the respondent‟s way of thinking
Considering the form of questions, there are two principle forms a. multiple
choice question, b. the open–end question. In the former the respondent
selects one of the alternative possible answers put to him, whereas in the
latter he has to supply the answer in his own words. The question with only
two possible answers (Yes or No) can be taken as a special case of the
multiple choice question or can be named as a closed question. There are
some advantages and disadvantages of each possible form of question.
Multiple choice or closed questions have the advantages of easy handling,
mainly simple to answer, quick and relatively inexpensive to analyse. The
main drawback of fixed alternative questions is that of putting answers in
people‟s mouths.
They are not appropriate when the issue under consideration happens to be a
complex one and also when the interest of the researcher is in the exploration
process.
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Researcher must pay attention to the wordings of the questions since reliable
and meaningful returns depend on it to a large extent. Since words are likely
to affect responses, they should be properly chosen. Simple words, which are
familiar to all respondents should be employed. Words with ambiguous
meanings must be avoided. Similarly, danger words, catch-words or words
with emotional connotations should be avoided. Caution must also be
exercised in the use of phrases which reflect upon the prestige of the
respondent. Question wording, in no case, should bias the answer. In fact,
question wording and formulation is an art an can only be learnt by practice.
4.5.7 Essentials of a Good Questionnaire
 Questionnaire should be comparatively short and simple which means the
size of the questionnaire should be kept to the minimum.
 Questions should proceed in logical sequence moving from easy to more
difficult questions.
 Personal questions should be left to the end.
 Technical terms and vague expressions capable of different interpretations
should be avoided in the questionnaire.
 Questions may be dichotomous (yes or no answers), multiple choice or
open ended.
 There should be some control questions in the questionnaire which
indicate the reliability of the respondent. Controlled question does not
permit the respondent to deviate from the answer.
 Questions affecting the sentiments of the respondents should be avoided.
 Adequate space for answers should be provided in the questionnaire to
facilitate editing and tabulation.
 Brief directions with regard to filling up the questionnaire should invariably
be given in the questionnaire.
 The physical appearance of the questionnaire is also important. Therefore,
the questionnaire must be attractive.
4.5.1 Sample of a Questionnaire to Conduct Media Research on
‘Positive Impact of Piracy on the Content’
Questionnaire
Age (Variable): ____________ Sex: M F

Profession: __________________ Email Id: _____________________
Carefully read the following questions and mark the answers.

Q1. Have you ever bought or downloaded any pirated content (films/ TV
shows/books/video games/music)?
Yes No
Q2. Have you noticed an increase in your consumption of content, (Films, TV Shows,
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Music, Books and Video Games) since it started freely floating over the internet and
becoming cheaply available in the market?
Yes No
Q3. Piracy can be used as an excellent content distribution network. Do you agree?
Yes No Can’t Say
If Yes, then how?

___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Q4. Do you agree that piracy does little to hurt the industry, and it may even help the
producer
in gaining returns for their products/services?
A. Yes No Can’t Say
Q5. Do you agree that the losses claimed by the bosses in the entertainment industry
due to piracy is much inflated and wrongly calculated?
A. Yes No Can’t Say
Q6.Producers tend to ignore the profits made by them via online streaming, surfing,
downloading, purchase of merchandise, purchase of concert tickets and positive word of
mouth, while calculating the loss incurred due to piracy. Do you agree?
A. Yes No
Q7. Do you agree that in a world where piracy is nonexistent, content would still be
consumed at the same rate as it is being consumed now?
A. Yes No
Q8. In a world where piracy is nonexistent, would you be willing to buy original copies of all
the pirated content that you have bought, downloaded or borrowed till now?
Yes No
If No, then why?
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Q9.Have you ever discovered/sampled any content through piracy that you liked to the
extent
that you went on to purchase its original copy?
Yes No
Q.10. Have you ever discovered any artist or content producer through piracy and later
Recommended them to your friends to sample/follow their work?
Yes No
Q11. Have you ever discovered any artist or content producer or any content through piracy
and liked it to the extent that you spent money on its future works and/or on purchasing
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related
complimentary products like Concert tickets or merchandise?
Yes No
Q12. Have you as A content producer, ever used piracy to your advantage?
Yes No
If Yes, then how?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Q 13. Which type Of content do you think are the biggest losers to piracy?
Commercial, Mainstream Smaller, Lesser Known,
Content (Books, Movies, Independent Content
Music, Video Games) (Books, Movies, Music, Video Games)
Q.14. Do you agree that smaller content producers usually benefit from piracy?
Yes No
Q.15. The entertainment industry as a whole (Music, Movies, Books and Video Games)
loses nothing to piracy, as the losses made by big commercial projects due to piracy are
evened
Out By the Profits made by the small projects. Do you agree?
Yes No
If yes, the'n
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Q.16. Do you agree that the entertainment industry should legalize piracy, keeping in mind
the profits made by the industry as a whole, while ignoring an individual producer’s
losses?
Yes No
Q.17. Would content producers gain back the money that they claim to be losing to piracy, if
the practice of piracy is completely eliminated?
Yes No
Q.18. In the content industry money lost to piracy is technically money not lost and is equal
to the operational/running costs or spillage costs of other industries. As even if piracy was
non-existent in our world, consumers would have found some alternate means to consume
and share content for free. Do you agree?
Yes No
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4.6 Schedule Method

There are times when the research has to be conducted on a large scale and
requires information from both literates and illiterates. In such a case the
researcher uses the Schedule method in which a set of questions are
prepared which are then filled by a trained middleman called the enumerator
on behalf of the respondent. It is an expensive and time taking method which
involves training.
It is very much like the collection of data through questionnaire. The only
difference is that the schedules are filled by the enumerators who are
especially appointed for this purpose. These enumerators alongwith
schedules go to the respondents, put to them the questions from the proforma
in the order the questions are listed and record the replies in the space meant
for the same in the proforma. Enumerators explain the aims and objectives of
the investigation and also remove the difficulties which any respondent may
feel in understanding the implications of a particular question or the definition
or concept of difficult terms. This method requires the selection of
enumerators for filling up the schedules or assisting respondents to fill up the
schedules and as such enumerators must be scheduled very carefully.
4.6.1 Qualities of an Enumerator
 The enumerator must be trained to perform his job well.

 Enumerator must be intelligent and must possess the capacity of cross –
examination.
 He/she must be honest, sincere, hard working and should have patience
and perseverance.
4.6.2 Characteristics of the Schedule Method
 This method is very useful in extensive enquiries and can lead to fairly
reliable results.
 It is very expensive and is usually adopted in investigations conducted by
the government agencies or by some big organizations.
 Population census all over the world is conducted through this method.
4.6.3 Sample of a Schedule for Conducting Behavioural Research in the
Field of Education
Schedule for Classmate

I. Opening
A. (Establish Rapport) [shake hands and introduce yourself] My
name is ______________ and as a member of the same
communications class, Ron thought it would be a good idea
BA (JMC) 303 101

to interview you, so that I can better inform the rest of the

class about you.
B. (Purpose) I would like to ask you some questions about your
background, your education, some experiences you have
had, and some of your hobbies and interests in order to learn
more about you and share this information with our class.
C. (Motivation) I hope to use this information to help the class
become more comfortable speaking to and with you by
knowing you better.
D. (Time Line) The interview should take about 10 minutes. Are
you available to respond to some questions at this time?
(Transition: Let me begin by asking you some questions about
where you live and your family)
II Body
A. (Topic) General demographic information
1. How long have you lived on Maui?
(Question 1. did not have to be asked because this information
is on the Bio-Sheet)
a. Are you originally from Maui?
I saw on your Bio-Sheet that you previously lived in Fiji. What
was it like living there? Why?
2. Do you have a small or large family?
a. How many siblings do you have?
b. Please describe your relationship with your family.
c. What type of activities do you do with your family? (Transition to
the next topic: ____________________________________)
B. (Topic) Education
1. Why did you MCC for your studies?
2. Why did you choose to major in Human Services?
a. How many classes have you taken in Human Services?
b. Would you recommend the Major? If so Why?
c. Why did you change your Liberal Arts major to Human
Services?
3. Do you plan to pursue a career in Social Services?
a. If so, where?
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b. What area of services would you like to specialize? Why?

c. What type of people would you like to work with? Why?
(Transition to the next topic: ________________________)
1. You stated on your bio-sheet that you have had the opportunity
to do some public speaking.
a. Where did you speak?
b. What was/were the occasion(s) that you presented?
c. How do you think that your previous public speaking
experience(s) will help you in this class?
d. On your bio-sheet you stated three of your goals for this class
this semester - please elaborate on these?
e. You stated on your bio-sheet that you could competently inform
our class about the types of events involved in a windsurf
competition and what it takes to win. What topic will you speak
on for your informative speech?
2. You listed on your Bio-Sheet that you sell real estate in your
spare time. How do you think this class will help you become a
better real estate agent?
3. You declared on your bio-sheet that you have traveled to Japan.
a. Where did you travel in Japan?
b. Describe your first impressions of Japanese culture.
c. Would you recommend Japan to a fellow student as a travel
destination? Why or Why not?
e. What was your most enlightening experience in your travels to
Japan? (Transition to the next topic: __________________ )
What campus and/or community activities are you involved in besides
the Human Services program?
1. You listed on your Bio-Sheet that you love to windsurf and you
compete professionally.
a. What do you like best about windsurfing?
b. What was your most memorable windsurfing experience?
c. Do you ever give windsurfing lessons?
d. Where is your favorite place to windsurf? Why?
(Transition: Well, it has been a pleasure finding out more about
you. Let me briefly summarize the information that I have
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recorded during our interview.)

III Closing
A. (Summarize) You are very involved in __________________ You plan
to pursue a career in __________________. Your hobbies and
interests are ____________.
B (Maintain Rapport) I appreciate the time you took for this interview. Is
there anything else you think would be helpful for me to know so that I
can successfully introduce you to our class?
C. (Action to be taken) I should have all the information I need. Would it
be alright to call you at home if I have any more questions? Thanks
again. I look forward to introducing you to the rest of our class.
Source: http://www.hawaii.edu/mauispeech/pdf/interviewschedule.pdf
4.7 Difference between Questionnaire and Schedule
 Questionnaire is generally sent through mails to the respondents but

schedule is generally filled in by the research worker or the enumerator,
who can interpret questions when necessary.
 Questionnaire method is cheap and economical whereas schedule method
is expensive.
 Non–response is usually high in case of questionnaire whereas non –
response is low in case of schedule.
 Identity of the respondent is not always clear in questionnaire but in
schedules it is clear.
 Questionnaire method is likely to be slow since many respondents do not
return the questionnaires in time. Whereas in case of schedules, the
information is collected well in time as they are filled in by enumerators.
 Personal contact is not necessarily possible in questionnaire but in
schedule, direct personal contact is established.
 Questionnaire can be used only when respondents are literate whereas
through schedules information can be extracted from illiterates too.
 Wider and more representative distribution of sample is possible under the
questionnaire but in case of schedules, there usually remains difficulty in
sending enumerators over a wide area.
 Risk of incomplete and wrong information is more under the questionnaire
method.
 The success of questionnaire method lies more on the quality of the
questions itself but in the case of schedules much depends upon the
honesty and competence of enumerators.
 The physical appearance of questionnaire must be attractive whereas it
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doesn‟t matter in schedules as they are filled by enumerators.

Along with schedules, the observation method can also be used while
collecting data which is not possible in questionnaire.
4.8 Observation Method
Observation method is the most commonly used method in studies related to

behavioural sciences. In a formulated research purpose is systematically
planned and recorded and is subjected to checks and controls on validity and
reliability. Here, observation method is used and it becomes a scientific tool.
The information obtained under this method relates to the current happenings
and not complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or
attitudes.
This method is independent of respondents‟ willingness to respond and as
such is relatively less demanding of active cooperation on the part of
respondents as happens in the case of interview or the questionnaire method.
This method is particularly suitable in studies which deal with respondents
who are not capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or
the other.
4.8.1 Limitations of Observation Method
 It is an expensive method
 It provides limited information
 Sometimes, unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task.
 Sometimes the respondents are rarely accessible to direct observation
which creates an obstacle/ hindrance for this method to collect data
effectively.
4.8.2 Things to be kept in mind while using Observation Method
 The researcher must decide what should be observed and what should be
ignored. If the researcher is unable to decide the point of observation, he
may lose money and time and all efforts can go in vain.
 The researcher must decide how the observation should be recorded.
What recording techniques should be used to control time and cost.
Whether the researcher should use pen and paper or audio – visual tool to
record the observation has to be decided.
 The researcher must also decide how the accuracy of the observation can
be ensured. The researcher must make sure that the respondents are not
provoked or instructed to act while recording observation. If this happens
the accuracy and authenticity of the observation is hampered.
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4.8.3 Types of Observation Method
There are various types of observation methods that can be used for Primary
Data Collection. An observation can be structured or unstructured,
participatory or non-participatory and controlled or uncontrolled. It depends
upon the need and constraints of the researcher which observation method is
opted for the purpose.
 Structured Observation
Observation is a fundamental way of finding out about the world around us.
As human beings, we are very well equipped to pick up detailed information
about our environment through our senses.
As the name suggests structured means planned. This type of observation
method is planned. The researcher has a careful definition of the units to be
observed. The researcher knows what technique of recording for observation
is to be used. There is a standardized condition of observation and selection
of important background material is done. Structured observation is majorly
done in descriptive research in which the researcher aims at observing and
simply describing the socio- economic state of the respondents.
Observation method focuses on describing the subject‟s behaviour.
Researchers utilizing the observational method can exert varying amounts of
control over the environment in which the observation takes place. Time
sampling is a sampling method that involves the acquisition of representative
samples by observing subjects at different time intervals. These time intervals
can be chosen randomly or systematically. If a researcher chooses to use
systematic time sampling, the information obtained would only generalize to
the one time period in which the observation took place. In contrast, the goal
of random time sampling would be to be able to generalize across all times of
observation. Depending on the type of study being conducted, either type of
time sampling can be appropriate. One benefit to structured observation is
that it allows researchers to record behaviours that may be difficult to observe
using naturalistic observation, but that are more natural than the artificial
conditions imposed in a lab.
However, problems in interpreting structured observations can occur when the
same observation procedures are not followed across observations or
observers, or when important variables are not controlled across
observations.
The work of Charles Darwin would be a good example of the way in which
careful observation provided the evidence which enabled him to build his
theory of evolution in The Origin of Species. Observation in contemporary
educational and social research deals with highly complex social phenomena
and provides major challenges for the researcher.
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 Unstructured Observation
Unstructured observation as the name suggests is not planned and no
mechanism of observation is listed. The method of recording the observation
is not decided and the researcher may use more than one method of
recording depending upon the convenience and availability of the researcher.
This type of observation is done for exploratory research where the
researcher has limited knowledge about the subject. It is a difficult method
and may have risk of losing the data for it may not be recorded.
Ethnography is a method of unstructured observation. Naturalistic observation
is observation carried out in real-world settings: it is an attempt to observe
things 'as they are', without any intervention or manipulation of the situation
itself by the researcher which is also a type of unstructured observation.
Although unstructured observation has been used in nursing research, it is
less favoured than the interview. Furthermore, although some of the dilemmas
concerned with observation such as the role of the researcher, covert
research and informed consent have received attention in the nursing
literature, other aspects remain relatively unexplored. In particular little has
been written concerning access to the field and field notes. Both these
aspects have practical and theoretical considerations that require the attention
of the researcher. This omission may partly explain nurses‟ apparent
reluctance to use unstructured observation in their studies. Unstructured
observation is used to understand and interpret cultural behavior. It
acknowledges the importance of context and co construction of the
researcher.
 Participant Observation
If the observer himself shares the life of the group he is observing is called
Participant observation. The researcher is enabled to record the natural
behaviour of the group. The researcher can even gather information which
could not easily be obtained even if he observes in a disinterested fashion.
The researcher can even verify the truth of statements made by informants in
the context of a questionnaire or a schedule. The observer may lose the
objectivity to the extent he participates emotionally. In participant observation,
the problem of observation control is not solved. Participant observation may
narrow down the researcher‟s range of experience. For example, Shyam
Benegal notable filmmaker did Participant observation when he collected Rs.
2 from rural farmers to produce a film to empower the dairy industry in
Gujarat.
 Non Participant Observation
When the observer observes as a detached emissary without any attempt on
his part to experience through participation what others feel is called non
participant observation.
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Non participant observation is also called disguised observation. In the non

participant observation the observer doesn‟t lose the objectivity to the extent
he participates emotionally. This method may also narrow down the
researcher‟s range of experience.
In non–participant observation the researcher‟s doubts may not get cleared.
For example, when a wildlife documentary filmmaker is researching on the
gestation period of a lioness, he decides to do Non–Participant observation or
disguised observation.
 Controlled Observation
If the observation takes place according to definite pre arranged plans,
involving experimental procedure, it is called controlled observation. In
controlled observation, the researcher uses mechanical instruments for
standardization. It is used in Clinical „diagnostic‟ research. Such research has
the tendency to supply formalized data upon which generalizations can be
built with some degree of assurance.
 Uncontrolled Observation
If the observation takes place in the natural setting, it is called uncontrolled
observation.
No attempt is made to use precision instruments. The major aim of this type of
observation is to get a spontaneous picture of life and person. It is used in
exploratory research. The main pitfall in uncontrolled observation is that of
subjective interpretation.
There is also the danger of having the feeling that we know more about the
observed phenomenon.
 Direct Observation
Researcher often decides to investigate communication by directly observing
people engaging in it. Sometimes the observations occur in a laboratory
setting in which a researcher gathers people together, giving them a reason to
interact, and then he observes what they say or do. Sometimes the
researcher goes out into the field to observe people as they engage in
everyday activities.
Sometimes the primary target of direct observational research is a particular
person or group of people. For example, studying the non verbal behaviour of
reticent people, observing and comparing how they talked to friends and to
strangers. Sometimes the primary focus to direct observation research is a
particular communication activity. For example, studying why children get into
arguments is also an example of direct observation. Videotaping a number of
group sessions and then analyzing the arguments is also an example of direct
observation.
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 Indirect Observation
When using indirect observation, researcher examines communication
artifacts rather than observing live communication events. Communication
artifacts may be transcripts of discourse or products of communication. One
form of communication artifacts is recordings of communication events, such
as, written, filmed, audio taped speeches, conversations or meetings. Other
communication artifacts include the wide range of communication media that
people produce, including written material (books, pamphlets, magazines,
letters), electronic media (records, films, television programs) and assorted
works of art (painting, sculpture). All indirect observation measures, however,
analyze the records or products of human communication rather than the
communication event itself.
 Coding Observation
Observations, like questions, range from open to close. Observers in
experimental and textual analysis research often use closed ended checklists
with predetermined categories. Ethnographic researchers typically use open
ended observations to be sure to record the subtle as well as the obvious
events being observed. Developing valid and reliable coding schemes is a
complex task that requires the researcher to first determine the type of texts to
be coded.
4.9 Interview Method
One of the most used tools for Primary Data Collection is the Interview
method. This method establishes a direct or indirect contact between the
researcher and the respondent. It gives an opportunity to generate instant
questions which may add to the knowledge of the researcher.
The interview method of primary data collection involves presentation of oral –
verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral – verbal responses. This method can
be used through personal interviews and also through telephone and e –
mails. In the Interview method a set of questions is prepared by the
researcher for the respondents. These questions are prepared with the
objective of finding the possible answers to the Research question.
There are three types of interviews conducted by the researcher for Data
Collection; Personal, telephonic and through e – mails.
4.9.1 Merits of Interview Method
 Greater depth of information is obtained.
o Interviewee by his own skills can overcome the resistance.
o Greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to restructure
questions is always there.
o Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal answers to
various questions.
BA (JMC) 303 109

o Personal information can be obtained.

o Samples can be controlled more effectively. Non response error has less
chance.
o Interviewer can control which person (s) will answer the questions ( in
case of a group discussion)
o Interviewer may catch the informant off guard and can obtain most
spontaneous reactions.
o Language of the interview can be adapted to the ability of the person
interviewed.
o Interviewer can collect supplementary information about the respondent‟s
characteristics and environment.
4.9.2 Demerits of Interview Method
 Expensive, especially when large and wide spread geographic sample is

taken.
 There is possibility of bias.
 There is a high possibility of respondents not being easily approachable.
 Sometimes, pressure of the interviewer may over – stimulate the
respondent.
 The interview method is time consuming.
 Selecting, training and supervising the field staff is complex with
formidable problems.
 It may also introduce systematic errors.
 Proper rapport with the respondent must be there to facilitate free and
frank response, which can be a problem.
4.9.3 Personal Interviews
As the term suggests, personal interviews require face to face interaction

between the interviewer and the interviewee. It requires a person known as
the interviewer asking questions generally in a face to face contact with the
other person or group. In case of direct personal investigation the interviewer
has to collect the information personally from the sources concerned. He has
to meet people from whom data has to be collected. This method is
particularly suitable for intensive investigations. In cases where personal
contact with the concerned person is not possible, direct personal
investigation technique may not be used. In such cases indirect oral
examination can be conducted under which the interviewer has to cross
examine other persons who are supposed to have knowledge about the
problem under investigation and the information, obtained is recorded. The
method of collecting information through Personal Interview is usually carried
out in a structured way. Such interviews are called structured interviews. Such
interviews involve the use of a set of predetermined questions and highly
110 BA (JMC) 303

standardized techniques of recording.

Focused interview is meant to focus attention on the given experience of the
respondent and its effects. Under it the interviewer has the freedom to decide
the manner and the sequence in which the questions would be asked and has
the freedom to explore reasons and motives. The main task of the interviewer
in case of a focused interview is to confine a respondent to a discussion on
issues with which he seeks conversance. Such interviews are used in the
development of hypothesis and constitute a major type of unstructured
interviews.
Clinical Interview is concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations
or with the course of individual‟s life experience. The method of deriving
information is generally left to the interviewer‟s discretion.
Non directive interview is where the interviewer‟s function is simply to
encourage the respondent to talk about the given topic with a bare minimum
of direct questioning. The interviewer often acts as a catalyst to a
comprehensive expression of the respondent‟s feelings and beliefs.
4.9.4 Merits of Personal Interview
 The ability to let the interviewee see, feel and / or taste a product
 The ability to find the target population. For example, one can find number of
people who have seen a film more easily outside a theatre in which it is
playing rather than by calling or mailing random sample of people.
 Longer interviews are sometimes tolerated. Respondents may be willing to
talk longer face- to-face than to someone on the phone.
4.9.5 Demerits of Personal Interview Method
Personal interviews usually cost more per interview than other research
methods. This is particularly true for in-home interviews, where travel time is a
major factor.
4.9.6 Telephonic Interview
In this type of interview the respondent is caught on telephone. Telephonic

interviews are conducted by employers for the hiring purpose. This saves the
employer‟s time and money. Reporters too conduct telephonic interviews to
conduct investigative journalism.
It is not a very widely used method. It plays a dominant part in industrial
surveys, mainly in developed areas.
4.9.7 Merits of Telephonic Interview
 It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.

 It is faster than other methods, i.e. it is a quick way of obtaining
BA (JMC) 303 111

information.
 It is cheaper than Personal Interview which means that cost per response
is relatively less.
 Recall is easy; call backs are simple and economical.
 Non – response error is very low.
 Replies can be recorded.
 Interviewer can explain requirements more easily.
 No field staff is required.
 Representative and wider distribution of samples is possible.
4.9.8 Demerits of Telephonic Interview
 Little time is given to the respondents for considered answers.

 Limited time for questioning in most cases.
 Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone facility.
 Not suitable for intensive survey.
 Extensive geographical coverage may be restricted because of expense
consideration.
 Possibility of bias of the interviewer is more
 Questions have to be short and to the point. Probe is difficult to handle.
4.9.9 Interview through e-mails
In today‟s internet driven world, sometimes researchers use an e – mail

method to contact the respondents. The researcher sends the questions to
the respondents on their e-mail i.ds. This method is primarily used when the
researcher has large sample size and very limited time.
4.9.10 Merits of using e-mails for Interviewing
 It is time efficient
 It is cost effective
 Numerous respondents can be sent the same mail.
 Pictures and audio files can also be attached.
4.9.11 Demerits of using e-mails for Interviewing
 A list of e-mail addresses must be prepared in advance which is a tedious

task.
 Many people dislike unsolicited mails and may ignore it.
 E-mail surveys cannot automatically skip or randomize questions.
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4.10 Focused Group Discussion Method
When group interviewing is done for understanding respondent‟s behaviour in

a holistic manner and other research tools such as schedule are used. It is
regarded as a research method.
In this research method group discussion is conducted by the researcher with

the respondents on a research problem. It is a common research procedure in
electronic media research such as format and programming changes,
personalities, station images, and lifestyle characteristics of the respondents.
There is also an extended focus group procedure used by professional
researchers, in which respondents are required to complete a written
questionnaire before the group discussion begins. This procedure is taken
into practice to eliminate one major problem created by group, namely the
person who does not wish to offer an opinion because (s)he is in a minority.
4.10.1 Characteristics of Focused Groups:
 Gathering preliminary information on the research topic.

 Developing questionnaire as a tool for further research like survey
research etc.
 Understanding the reason behind a phenomenon or event.
 Filling the gaps in knowledge regarding perception, attitudes, feelings etc.
 Detection of ideas that will be investigated further using research methods
and techniques.
4.10.2 Merits and Demerits of Focused Groups:
MERITS
 It is the time saving research method for conducting a research study.

 It is generally less expensive.
 Flexibility in designing schedule and follow-up can be conveniently done in
focus group research method.
 It provides complete and less introverted response from the respondent in
comparison to individual interview.
 It is very good method for gathering qualitative information.
DEMERITS
 Some of the participant in the group monopolise the discussion and

impose his opinion on others. This lead to a fabricated conclusion of the
discussion.
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 One should not use focus group method as it is inappropriate technique in

gathering quantitative data if quantification is significant for the research
study.
 Good communication skills are an essentiality for a researcher in holding a
focus group study. But, it is not always possible for a person to have the
ability to gain fruitful interaction and maintain healthy conversation with the
group of people involved in a discussion.
 The validity of data produced depends on the true representatives of the
population. If a small group of sample is taken usually of volunteers the
discussion would not be that reliable.
4.11 Summing up
Data collection is one of the most important steps in research process. Every
researcher has to collect data to analyse it and test the hypothesis. Data is
the raw material collected, which once processed becomes information. Data
is of two type viz. Primary Data and Secondary Data.
Primary data is the first time collected data by the researcher. It involves field
work by the researcher. Secondary data on the other hand is the data which is
already available. The researcher uses books, internet, case studies, journals,
periodicals which are already available to do the research work.
To collect the data there are certain to collect the data from the respondents
i.e. questionnaire method, schedule method, interview method and focused
group method.
A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a

definite order on a form or set of forms. The questionnaire is mailed to
respondents who are expected to read and understand the questions and
write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the questionnaire
itself. Schedule is a set of questions which are then filled by a trained
middleman called the enumerator on behalf of the respondent.
Interview method establishes a direct or indirect contact between the

researcher and the respondent. It gives an opportunity to generate instant
questions which may add to the knowledge of the researcher.
Focused group discussion is conducted by the researcher with the
respondents on a research problem. It is a common research procedure in
electronic media research such as format and programming changes,
personalities, station images, and lifestyle characteristics of the respondents.
4.12 Assignments
Class Assignment: What is Questionnaire?
Home Assignment: What is Observation method?
114 BA (JMC) 303

1. ____________ method establishes a direct or indirect contact between the

researcher and the respondent.
2. If the observation takes place in the natural setting, it is called __________

observation.
What are the various types of observation methods?
1. Interview Method
2. Uncontrolled
4.16 Keywords
 Data: Data is the raw material collected, which once processed becomes
information.
 Primary data: Primary data is the first time collected data by the
researcher directly from the respondents through questionnaire or
schedule or interview etc.
 Secondary data: Secondary data is already available to the researcher
such as books, internet, journals, periodicals, audio-video clippings etc.
 Questionnaire: A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed
or typed in a definite order on a form.
 Schedule: Schedule is a set of questions which are filled by a trained
middleman called the enumerator on behalf of the respondent.

Publication
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___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
Data Analysis and Report Writing

___________________________________________________________________
LESSON 1 117
Processing of Data: Editing, Coding, Classification, Tabulation
LESSON 2 130
Measures of Central Tendency: Mean, Median and Mode
LESSON 3 136
Analysis and Interpretation of Data
LESSON 4 143
Report Writing/ Abstract/ Proposal/ Synopsis
BA (JMC) 303 116

___________________________________________________________________
LESSON 1 Processing of Data: Editing, Coding, Classification,
Tabulation
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
STRUCTURE
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Editing
1.3 Coding
1.4 Classification
1.5 Sample of a coded and classified Questionnaire
1.6 Tabulation
1.7 Sample of Tabulation
1.8 Problem in Data Processing
1.9 Summing up
1.10 Assignments
1.14 Keywords
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1. Processing of Data: Editing, Coding,

Classification, Tabulation
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
In Unit IV of the course „Media Research‟ we shall discuss the processing of data
including steps involved i.e. editing, coding, classification and tabulation; measures
of central tendency i.e. mean, median and mode; analysing and interpretation of data
and writing of report, abstract, proposal and synopsis.
In the present lesson we shall study the processing of data including steps involved
i.e. editing, coding, classification and tabulation.
___________________________________________________________________
1.0 Objectives
 describe data processing

 describe the steps involved in data processing
 enumerate the problems in data processing
___________________________________________________________________
1.1 Introduction
After collection, the data has to be analyzed in accordance with the outline
laid down for the purpose at the time of developing the research plan. This is
essential for a scientific study and for ensuring that the data collected is
relevant for making contemplated comparisons and analysis. Processing of
data refers to editing, coding, classification and tabulation of collected data so
that they are amenable for analysis.
1.2 Editing
It is a process of examining the collected data to detect errors and omissions

and to correct these when possible. As a matter of fact, editing involves a
careful scrutiny of the completed questionnaires or schedules. Editing is done
to assure that the data are accurate, consistent with other facts gathered,
uniformly entered, as much completed as possible and have been well
arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation.
BA (JMC) 303 118

Field editing consists of the review of reporting forms by the investigator for
completing (translating/ rewriting what the latter has written in abbreviated
and/or illegible) form at the time of recording the respondents‟ responses. This
type of editing is necessary in view of the fact that individual writing styles
often can be difficult for others to decipher. This sort of editing should be done
as soon as possible after the interview, preferably on the same day.
Central editing should take place when all forms or schedules have been
completed and returned to the office. This type of editing implies that all forms
should get a thorough editing done by a single editor in case of a small study
and by a team of editors in case of a large enquiry. Editor may correct the
obvious errors such as an entry in the wrong place, entry recorded in months
when it should have been recorded in weeks, and the like. In case of missing
replies, the editors can sometimes determine the proper answers by reviewing
the other information in the schedules. At times the respondent can be
contacted for clarification. All the wrong answers, which are quite obvious,
must be dropped from the final results, especially in the content of mail
surveys.
Points to be remembered by the Editor
 Should be familiar with instructions give to the interviewers and coders
as well as with the editing instructions supplied to them for the purpose.
 While crossing out an original entry for one reason or another, they
should just draw a single line on it so that the same may remain legible.
 They must make entries (if any) on the form in some distinctive colour
and that too in a standardized form.
 They should initial all answers which they change or supply.
 Editor‟s initials and the date of editing should be placed on each
completed form.
1.3 Coding
Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to

answers so that responses can be put into a limited number of categories or
classes. Such classes should be appropriate to the research problem under
consideration. They must also possess the characteristics of exhaustiveness (
i.e. there must be a class for every data item) and also that of mutual
exclusiveness which means that a specific answer can be placed in one and
only one cell in a given category set.
Another rule to be observed is that of uni-dimensionality by which is meant
that every class is defined in terms of only one concept.
BA (JMC) 303 119

Coding is necessary for efficient analysis and through it several replies may
be reduced to a small number of classes which contain the critical information
required for analysis.
One standard method is to code in the margin with a coloured pencil. Coding
errors should altogether be eliminated or reduced to the minimum level.
1.4 Classification
Classification means to arrange data in groups or classes on the basis of

common characteristics. Data having common characteristics are placed in
one class and in this way the entire data gets divided into a number of groups
or classes.
Classification can be one of the following two types:
(a) Classification according to Attributes
Data can be classified on the basis of common characteristics which can
either be descriptive (such as literacy, sex, honesty etc) or numerical (such as
weight, height, income etc). Descriptive characteristics refer to qualitative
phenomenon which cannot be measured quantitatively only their presence or
absence in an individual item can be noticed. Data obtained on the basis of
certain attributes are known as statistics of attributes.
(b) Classification according to Class – intervals
Unlike descriptive characteristics, the numerical characteristics refer to
quantitative phenomenon which can be measured through some statistical
units. Data related to income, production, age, weight etc come under this
category. Such data are known as statistics of variables and are classified on
the basis of class intervals.
1.5 Sample of a Coded and Classified Questionnaire
In the questionnaire given below, the questions are coded as A,B,C……R. These
codes represent the questions. Each code has separate information to deliver.
Age (Variable): ____________ Sex: M / F

Profession: __________________ Email Id: _____________________
Carefully read the following questions and mark the answers.
Q1. Have you ever bought or downloaded any pirated content (films/tv shows/books/
video games/music)? (A)
Yes No
Q2. Have you noticed an increase in your consumption of content, (Films, TV Shows,
Music, Books and Video Games) since it started freely floating over the internet and
120 BA (JMC) 303

becoming cheaply available in the market?(B)

A. Yes No
Q3. Piracy can be used as an excellent content distribution network. Do you agree?(C)
A. Yes No Can‟t Say
If Yes, then how?

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Q4. Do you agree that piracy does little to hurt the industry, and it may even help the
producers in gaining returns for their products/services?(D)
Q5. Do you agree that the losses claimed by the bosses in the entertainment industry due
to piracy is much inflated and wrongly calculated?(E)
Q6. Producers tend to ignore the profits made by them via online streaming, surfing,
downloading, purchase of merchandise, purchase of concert tickets and positive
word of mouth, while calculating the loss incurred due to piracy. Do you agree?(F)
A. Yes No
Q7. Do you agree that in a world where piracy is nonexistent, content would still be
consumed at the same rate as it is being consumed now?(G)
A. Yes No
Q8. In a world where piracy is nonexistent, would you be willing to buy original copies of
all the pirated content that you have bought, downloaded or borrowed till now?(H)
A. Yes No
If no, then why?___________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________
Q9. Have you ever discovered/sampled any content through piracy that you liked to the
extent that you went on to purchase its original copy?(I)
A. Yes No
Q.10. Have you ever discovered any artist or content producer through piracy and later
recommended them to your friends to sample/follow their work?(J)
A. Yes No
Q11. Have you ever discovered any artist or content producer or any content through
BA (JMC) 303 121

piracy and liked it to the extent that you spent money on its future works and/or on
purchasing related complimentary products like concert tickets or merchandise?(K)
A. Yes No
Q12. Have you as a content producer, ever used piracy to your advantage?(L)
A. Yes No
B
If yes, then how?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Q13. Which type of content do you think are the biggest losers to piracy?(M)
A. Commercial, Mainstream Smaller, Lesser Known,
Content (Books, Movies, Independent Content
Music, Video Games) (Books, Movies, Music, Video Games)
Q14. Do you agree that smaller content producers usually benefit from piracy?(N)
A. Yes No
Q.15. The entertainment industry as a whole (Music, Movies, Books and Video Games)
loses nothing to piracy, as the losses made by big commercial projects due to piracy
are evened out by the profits made by the small projects. Do you agree?(O)
A. Yes No
If yes, then _____________________________________________________________
Q.16. Do you agree that the entertainment industry should legalize piracy, keeping in mind
the profits made by the industry as a whole, while ignoring an individual producer‟s
losses?(P)
A. Yes No
v v
Q.17. Would content producers gain back the money that they claim to be losing to piracy,
if the practice of piracy is completely eliminated?(Q)
A. Yes No
v
v
Q.18. v
In the content industry money lost to piracy is technically money not lost and is equal
to the operational/running costs or spillage costs of other industries. As even if piracy was
non-existent in our world, consumers would have found some alternate means
to consume and share content for free. Do you agree?(R)
A. Yes No v
v
v v
v v
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The following list comprises of classifications of various coded questions. The

sub classifications are represented as A1, A2 etc.
A1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25), who have bought or
downloaded pirated content.
A2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50), who have bought or
downloaded pirated content.
B1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25), who have noticed an
increase in their consumption of content.
B2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50), who have noticed an
increase in their consumption of content.
C1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25), who think piracy can be
used as an excellent content distribution network.
C2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50), who think piracy can be
used as an excellent content distribution network.
D1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25),who agree that piracy does
little to hurt the industry, and may even help the producers in gaining returns
for their products/services.
D2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50),who agree that piracy does
little to hurt the industry, and may even help the producers in gaining returns
for their products/services.
E1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25),who agree that the losses
claimed by the bosses in the entertainment industry due to piracy are much
inflated and wrongly calculated.
E2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50),who agree that the losses
claimed by the bosses in the entertainment industry due to piracy are much
inflated and wrongly calculated.
F1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25),who agree that producers
tend to ignore the profits made by them via online streaming, surfing,
downloading, purchase of merchandise, purchase of concert tickets and
positive word of mouth, while calculating the loss incurred due to piracy.
F2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50),who agree that producers
tend to ignore the profits made by them via online streaming, surfing,
downloading, purchase of merchandise, purchase of concert tickets and
positive word of mouth, while calculating the loss incurred due to piracy.
G1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25),who agree that in a world
where piracy is non-existent, content would still be consumed at the same
rate as it is being consumed now.
BA (JMC) 303 123

G2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50),who agree that in a world
where piracy is non-existent, content would still be consumed at the same
rate as it is being consumed now.
H1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25),who would be willing to buy
original copies of all the pirated content that they have bought, downloaded or
borrowed till now.
H2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50),who would be willing to buy
original copies of all the pirated content that they have bought, downloaded or
borrowed till now.
I1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25),who have
discovered/sampled content through piracy that they liked to the extent to
purchase its original copy.
I2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50),who have
discovered/sampled content through piracy that they liked to the extent to
purchase its original copy.
J1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25), who have discovered
artists/content producers through piracy whom they later recommended to
their friends to sample or follow.
J2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50), who have discovered
artists/content producers through piracy whom they later recommended to
their friends to sample or follow.
K1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25),who have discovered
artists/content producers or content through piracy and liked it to the extent to
spend money on their future works and/or on purchasing related
complimentary products like concert tickets or merchandise.
K2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50),who have discovered
artists/content producers or content through piracy and liked it to the extent to
spend money on their future works and/or on purchasing related
complimentary products like concert tickets or merchandise.
L1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25), who as content producers,
have used piracy to their advantage.
L2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50), who as content producers,
have used piracy to their advantage.
M1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25),who think that Commercial,
Mainstream content is the biggest loser to piracy.
M2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50),who think that Commercial,
Mainstream content is the biggest loser to piracy.
M3= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25),who think that Smaller,
Independent content is the biggest loser to piracy.
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M4= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50),who think that Smaller,
Independent content is the biggest loser to piracy.
N1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25),who agree that smaller
content producers usually benefit from piracy.
N2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50), who agree that smaller
content producers usually benefit from piracy.
O1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25), who agree that the
entertainment industry as a whole loses nothing to piracy.
O2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50), who agree that the
entertainment industry as a whole loses nothing to piracy.
P1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25),who agree that the
entertainment industry should legalize piracy, keeping in mind the profits
made by the industry as a whole, while ignoring an individual producer‟s
losses.
P2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50),who agree that the
entertainment industry should legalize piracy, keeping in mind the profits
made by the industry as a whole, while ignoring an individual producer‟s
losses.
Q1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25),who agree that content
producers would gain back the money that they claim to be losing to piracy, if
the practice of piracy is completely eliminated.
Q2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50),who agree that content
producers would gain back the money that they claim to be losing to piracy, if
the practice of piracy is completely eliminated.
R1= No. of respondents in the age group (18-25),who agree that in the
content industry money lost to piracy is technically money not lost and is
equal to the operational/running costs or spillage costs of other industries. As
even if piracy was non-existent in our world, consumers would have found
some alternate means to consume and share content for free.
R2= No. of respondents in the age group (26-50),who agree that in the
content industry money lost to piracy is technically money not lost and is
equal to the operational/running costs or spillage costs of other industries. As
even if piracy was non-existent in our world, consumers would have found
some alternate means to consume and share content for free.
1.6 Tabulation
When a mass of data has been assembled, it becomes necessary for the
researcher to arrange the same in some kind of concise and logical order.
This process is called tabulation. Tabulation is the process of summarizing
raw data and displaying the same in compact form for further analysis.
BA (JMC) 303 125

Tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data in columns and rows. Tabulation

is essential because of the following reasons:
 It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to
a minimum. It facilitates the process of comparison.
 It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of error and
omissions.
 It provides a basis for various statistical comparisons.
 Tabulation can be done manually or mechanically. The choice depends on
the size and type of study, cost considerations, time pressures and the
availability of tabulating machines or computers. In large inquiries, we may
use mechanical or computer tabulation if other factors are favourable and
necessary facilities are available. Hand tabulation is usually preferred in
case of small inquiries where the number of questionnaires is small and
they are of relatively short length. Hand tabulation may be done using the
direct tally, the list or tally or the card sort and count methods.
 Tabulation may also be classified as simple and complex tabulation.
Simple tabulation gives information about one or more groups of
independent questions, whereas the complex tabulation shows the
divisions of data in 2 or more sets of inter – related questions.
Principles of Tabulation
 Every table should have a clear, concise and adequate title and the title
must be placed just above the table.
 Every table must be given a distinct number to facilitate easy reference.
 The column headings and the row headings must always be clear and
brief.
 The units of measurement under each heading or sub – heading must
always be indicated.
 Exploratory footnotes, if any, concerning the table should be placed
directly beneath the table.
 Sources from where the data in the table have been obtained must be
indicated just below the table.
 Columns should be separated by lines.
 Columns must be numbered to facilitate reference.
 Abbreviations should be avoided and ditto marks should not be used.
 Miscellaneous items, if any, should be usually placed in the last row of the
table.
 Table should be made as logical, clear, accurate and simple as possible.
 The arrangement of the categories in a table may be chronological,
geographical, alphabetical or according to magnitude to facilitate
comparison.
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1.7 Sample of Tabulation

The sample explains how tabulation is done for every coded & classified
question. The variable used is age. The researcher has to first represent the
number of respondents who agree to have bought or downloaded pirated
content. In the statistical representation the researcher must denote each ‘yes’
in a line and count five in one set. All the sets are then counted to generate the
total number. In case of even number, like 14, the stand alone number must
also be counted. After the statistical representation, the researcher then gives
the numerical value. This data is then represented through graphs and charts.
Code A: Table 1: No. of respondents who have bought or downloaded pirated
content
S. No. Age Statistical Numerical

Representation
Yes No
1. 18-25 |||| |||| |||| |||| 20 0
2. 26-50 |||| |||| |||| 14 2
1.8 Problem in Data Processing
The problem concerning DK Response “don‟t know” responses: While

processing the data, the researcher often comes across some responses that
are difficult to handle. One category of such responses may be “don‟t know
response” or simply DK Response. When the DK Response group is small, it
is of little significance. But when it is relatively big, it becomes a matter of
major concern in which case the question arises: is the question which elicited
DK Response useless? The answer depends upon two points i.e. the
respondent actually may not know the answer or the researcher may fail in
obtaining the appropriate information. In the 1 st case, the concerned question
is said to be alright and DK Response is taken as legitimate DK Response.
But in the second case, DK Response is more likely to be a failure of the
questioning process.
The researcher must design better type of questions to deal with DK
Responses. Good rapport of the interviewer with the respondents will result in
minimizing DK responses. To tackle DK Responses which have already taken
place is to estimate the allocation of DK answers from other data in the
questionnaire. The other way is to keep DK Responses as a separate
category in tabulation where we can consider it as a separate reply category if
DK Responses happen to be legitimate, otherwise we should let the reader
make his own decision. Another way is to assume that DK Responses occur
BA (JMC) 303 127

more or less randomly and as such we may distribute them among the other
answers in the ratio in which the latter have occurred. Similar results will be
achieved if all DK Replies are excluded from tabulation and that too without
inflating the actual number of other responses.
1.9 Summing up
After collecting the data, it is important for the researcher to filter out incorrect
and unwanted material. For this purpose, the data is processed. Data
processing involves four steps; editing, coding, classification and tabulation. It
is important for the researcher to process the data. Only when the data is
processed, is the information obtained. Raw data cannot be understood by all
and it is important to process the data so that conclusion can be obtained.
1.10 Assignments
Class Assignment: Describe points to be remembered while editing of data.

Home Assignment: Describe the principles of tabulation.
1. Processing refers to editing, coding, classification and ______________of

collected data so that they are amenable to analysis.
2. ____________ editing is necessary in view of the fact that individual
writing styles often can be difficult for others to decipher.
3. While editing the researcher should initial all answers which they change
or supply. Is it true?
4. ______________means to arrange data in groups or classes on the basis
of common characteristics.
5. _____________is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying the
same in compact form for further analysis.
6. In tabulation abbreviations should be avoided and ditto marks should not
be used. Is it true?
7. When the Don‟t Know Response group is small, it is of little significance. Is
it true?
1. What are the steps involved in data processing?

2. Differentiate between coding and Classification with the help of an
example.
128 BA (JMC) 303

1. Tabulation
2. Field
3. True
4. Classification
5. Tabulation
6. True
7. True
1.14 Keywords
 Editing is a process of examining the collected data to detect errors and

omissions and to correct these when possible.
 Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to
answers so that responses can be put into a limited number of categories
or classes.
 Classification means to arrange data in groups or classes on the basis of
common characteristics.
 Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying the
same in compact form for further analysis.

Publication
BA (JMC) 303 129

__________________________________________________________________
LESSON 2 Measures of Central Tendency: Mean, Median and
Mode
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
STRUCTURE
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Role of Statistics in Research
2.3 Mean
2.4 Median
2.5 Mode
2.6 Summing up
2.7 Assignments
2.11 Keywords
BA (JMC) 303 130

2. Measures of Central Tendency: Mean,

Median and Mode
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
In the last lesson we had discussed the four steps involved in data processing;
editing, coding, classification and tabulation.
In this lesson we shall focus on measure of central tendency i.e. Mean, Median and
Mode.
___________________________________________________________________
2.0 Objectives
 describe mean, median and mode

___________________________________________________________________
2.1 Introduction
A measure of central tendency tells us where the middle of a bunch of data

lies. The three most common measures of central tendency are the mean, the
median, and the mode. Different measures of central tendency are defined
below.
2.2 Role of Statistics in Research
The role of statistics in research is to function as a tool in designing research,

analyzing its data and drawing conclusions. Most research studies result in
large volume of raw data which must be suitably reduced so that the same
can be read easily and can be used for further analysis. Clearly the science of
statistics cannot be ignored by any research worker; even though he may not
have had occasion to use statistical methods in all their details and
ramifications.
There are two major areas of statistics viz., descriptive and inferential
statistics. Descriptive statistics is concerned with the development of certain
indices from the raw data, whereas inferential statistics is concerned with the
process of generalizations. Inferential statistics is also known as sampling
statistics and are mainly concerned with two major problems:
131 BA (JMC) 303

1. The estimation of population parameters
2. The testing of statistical hypothesis
Among the measures of central tendency, the three most important ones are
the arithmetic average or mean, median and mode.
2.3 Mean
Mean is the most common measure of central tendency. It is simply the sum
of the numbers divided by the number of numbers in a set of data. This is also
known as average.
The mean of a sample or a population is computed by adding all of the
observations and dividing by the number of observations. Returning to the
example of the five women, the mean weight would equal (100 + 100 + 130 +
140 + 150)/5 = 620/5 = 124 kg.
Mean is what most people commonly refer to as an average. Mean refers to

the number you obtain when you sum up a given set of numbers and then
divide this sum by the total number in the set. Mean is also referred to more
correctly as arithmetic mean.
Given a set of n elements from a1 to an
The mean is found by adding up all the a's and then dividing by the total
number, n
This can be generalized by the formula below:
2.4 Median
Median is the number present in the middle when the numbers in a set of data
are arranged in ascending or descending order. If the number of numbers in a
data set is even, then the median is the mean of the two middle numbers.
132 BA (JMC) 303

To find the median, we arrange the observations in order from smallest to

largest value. If there is an odd number of an observation, the median is the
middle value. If there is an even number of observations, the median is the
average of the two middle values. Thus, in the sample of five women, the
median value would be 130 pounds; since 130 pounds is the middle weight.
The median is defined as the number in the middle of a given set of numbers
arranged in order of increasing magnitude. When given a set of numbers, the
median is the number positioned in the exact middle of the list when you
arrange the numbers from the lowest to the highest. The median is also a
measure of average. In higher level statistics, median is used as a measure of
dispersion. The median is important because it describes the behavior of the
entire set of numbers.
Example
Find the median in the set of numbers given below
Solution
From the definition of median, we should be able to tell that the first step is to
rearrange the given set of numbers in order of increasing or decreasing
magnitude, i.e. from the lowest to the highest or highest to lowest.
Then we inspect the set to find that number which lies in the exact middle.
2.5 Mode
Mode is the value that occurs most frequently in a set of data. The mode is
the most frequently appearing value in the population or sample. Suppose we
draw a sample of five women and measure their weights. They weigh 100
pounds, 100 pounds, 130 pounds, 140 pounds, and 150 pounds. Since more
women weigh 100 pounds than any other weight, the mode would equal 100
pounds.
The mode is defined as the element that appears most frequently in a given
set of elements. Using the definition of frequency given above, mode can also
be defined as the element with the largest frequency in a given data set.
For a given data set, there can be more than one mode. As long as those
elements all have the same frequency and that frequency is the highest, they
are all the mode elements of the data set.
BA (JMC) 303 133

Example
Find the Mode of the following data set.
Solution
Mode = 3 and 15
2.6 Summing Up
A measure of central tendency is necessary in experiment research. Mean is

the most common measure of central tendency. Median is the number
present in the middle when the numbers in a set of data are arranged in
ascending or descending order. Mode is the value that occurs most frequently
in a set of data.
2.7 Assignments
Class Assignment: Describe mean.

Home Assignment: Describe Mode.
1. ________is the value that occurs most frequently in a set of data.

2. _________is the number present in the middle when the numbers in a set
of data are arranged in ascending or descending order.
3. ________is the most common measure of central tendency.
1. Explain central tendency.

2. Differentiate between mean, median and mode.
1. Mode
2. Median
3. Mean
134 BA (JMC) 303

2.11 Keywords
Statistics it is the practice or science of collecting and analysing numerical

data in large quantities, especially for the purpose of inferring proportions in a
whole from those in a representative sample.
1. C.R. Kothari, Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques,

Wishwa Parkashan, New Delhi
Publications
BA (JMC) 303 135

___________________________________________________________________
LESSON 3 Analysis and Interpretation of Data
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
STRUCTURE
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Element/Types of Analysis
3.3 Data Interpretation
3.4 Techniques of Interpretation involves the following steps
3.5 Precautions to be taken for correct interpretation
3.6 Summing up
3.7 Assignments
3.11 Keywords
136 BA (JMC) 303

3. Analysis and Interpretation of Data

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
In the last lesson we had discussed the measures of central tendency and role of
statistics in research.
In the present lesson we shall discuss what analysis, the type of analysis is and data
interpretation.
___________________________________________________________________
3.0 Objectives
 describe the meaning and types of analysis
 describe data interpretation
 describe the techniques of data interpretation
 enumerate the precautions to be taken during data interpretation

___________________________________________________________________
3.1 Introduction:
Analysis, particularly in case of survey or experimental data, involves

estimating the values of unknown parameters of the population and testing of
hypothesis for drawing inferences. Data Interpretation refers to the task of
drawing inferences from the collected facts after an analytical or experimental
study.
3.2 Elements/Types of Analysis
Analysis means the computation of certain indices or measures along with

searching for patterns of relationship that exist among the data groups.
Analysis, particularly in case of survey or experimental data, involves
estimating the values of unknown parameters of the population and testing of
hypothesis for drawing inferences. Analysis may therefore, be categorized as
descriptive and inferential analysis.
Descriptive analysis is largely a study of distribution of one variable. This

study provides us with profiles of companies, workgroups, persons and other
subjects on any of a multiple of characteristics such as size.
BA (JMC) 303 137

This sort of analysis may be in respect of one variable (uni-dimensional

analysis), or in respect of two variables (bi-variate analysis) or in respect of
more than two variables (multi-variate analysis). In this context we work out
various measures that show the size and shape of a distribution along with
the study of measuring relationship between two or more variables.
1. Co-relation Analysis studies the joint variation of two or more variables

for determining the amount of correlation between two or more variables.
2. Causal Analysis is concerned with the study of how one or more variables
affect change in another variable. It is thus a study of functional relationships
existing between two or more variables. This analysis can be termed as
regression analysis. Causal analysis is considered more important in
experimental researches, whereas in most social and business researches
our interest lies in understanding and controlling relationship between
variables than with determining causes.
The following analysis is involved when we make a reference of multi variate

analysis.
3. Multiple Regression Analysis: This analysis is adopted when the

researcher has one dependent variable which is presumed to be a function of
two or more independent variables. The objective of this analysis is to make a
prediction about the dependent variable based on its co variants with all the
concerned independent variables.
4. Multiple Dscriminant Analysis: This analysis is when a researcher has a

single dependent variable that cannot be measured, but can be classified into
two or more groups on the basis of some attributes. The objective of this
analysis happens to be to predict an entity‟s possibility of belonging to a
particular group on several predictor variables.
4.2.5 Multi Variate Analysis of Variants: In this analysis the ratio of among
group variants to within group variants is worked out on a set of variables.
4.2.6 Canonical Analysis: This analysis can be used in case of both

measureable and non-measureable analysis, for the purpose of
simultaneously predicting a set of dependent variables from their joint co-
variants with a set of independent variables.
3.3 Data Interpretation
Data Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected
facts after an analytical or experimental study. It is a search for broader
meaning of research findings. The task of interpretation has two major
aspects:
138 BA (JMC) 303

 The effort to establish continuity in research through linking the results

of a given study with those of another.
 The establishment of some explanatory concepts.
Interpretation is concerned with relationships within the collected data,

partially overlapping analysis. Interpretation is the device through which the
factors that seem to explain what has been observed by researcher in the
course of the study can be better understood and it also provides a theoretical
conception which can serve as a guide for further researches. Interpretation is
essential because of the following reasons:
 It is through interpretation that the researcher can well understand the

abstract principle that works beneath the findings.
 Interpretation leads to the establishment of explanatory concepts that

can serve as a guide for future research studies. It opens new avenues
of intellectual adventure and stimulates the quest for more knowledge.
 Researcher can better appreciate only through interpretation why his

findings are what they are and can make others to understand the real
significance of his research findings.
 The interpretation of the findings of explanatory research studies often

results into hypothesis for experimental research and as such
interpretation is involved in the transition from exploratory to
experimental research.
3.4 Technique of Interpretation involves the following Steps
 Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he

has found and he must interpret the lines of relationships in terms of the
underlying processes and must try to find out the thread of uniformity that
lies under the surface layer of his diversified research findings.
 Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered

while interpreting the final results of research study, for it may prove to be
a key factor in understanding the problem under consideration.
 It is advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation, to consult

someone having insight into the study and who is frank and honest and
will not hesitate to point out omissions and errors in logical argumentation.
Such a consultation will result in correct interpretation and thus, will
enhance the utility of research results.
BA (JMC) 303 139

 Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after

considering all relevant factors affecting the problems to avoid false
generalizations.
3.5 Precautions to be taken for correct Interpretation
 At the outset, researcher must invariably satisfy himself that (a) the data
are appropriate, trustworthy and adequate for drawing inferences; (b) the
data reflect good homogeneity; (c) proper analysis has been done through
statistical methods.
 The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that can possibly
arise in the process of interpreting results. Errors can arise due to false
generalization and /or due to wrong interpretation of statistical measures
such as the application of findings beyond the range of observations,
identification of correlation with causation and the like.
 He must always keep in view that the task of interpretation is very much
intertwined with analysis and cannot be distinctly separated.
 He must never lose sight of the fact that his task is not only to make
sensitive observation of relevant occurrences, but also to identify and
disengage the factors that are initially hidden to the eye.
 The researcher must remember that “ideally in the course of a research

study, there should be constant interaction between initial hypothesis,
empirical observation and theoretical conceptions.
3.6 Summing up
After processing the data, the researcher interprets the received information
and draws inferences. This assists in testing the hypothesis. Interpretation
helps in drawing conclusions and proving the assumptions. Researcher
justifies the research findings through interpretation. Interpretation also helps
in finding more unproven facts and hidden truth which can be researched
upon by future researchers.
3.7 Assignments
Class Assignment: Describe the techniques of interpretation.

Home Assignment: Describe the precautions to be undertaken while data
interpretation.
140 BA (JMC) 303

1. Analysis, particularly in case of survey or experimental data, involves

estimating the values of unknown parameters of the population and
testing of hypothesis for drawing inferences. True or False
2. Data Interpretation refers to the task of drawing ____________ from
the collected facts after an analytical or experimental study.
3 ______________ is the device through which the factors that seem to
explain what has been observed by researcher in the course of the
study can be better understood.
4 __________________, if collected during the study, must be
considered while interpreting the final results of research study, for it
may prove to be a key factor in understanding the problem under
consideration.
1. What is Analysis and what are the various types of Analysis?

2. What is Data Interpretation?
1. True
2. Inferences
3. Interpretation
4. Extraneous information
3.11 Keywords
Co-relation Analysis studies the joint variation of two or more variables for
determining the amount of correlation between two or more variables.
Causal Analysis is concerned with the study of how one or more variables
affect change in another variable.
Multiple Regression Analysis is adopted when the researcher has one

dependent variable which is presumed to be a function of two or more
independent variables.
Multiple Discriminant Analysis is when a researcher has a single

dependent variable that cannot be measured, but can be classified into two or
more groups on the basis of some attributes.
BA (JMC) 303 141

Multi Variate Analysis of Variants is the ratio among group variants to within
group variants is worked out on a set of variables.
Canonical analysis can be used in case of both measureable and non-

measureable analysis,
Data Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected
facts after an analytical or experimental study.
1. C.R. Kothari, Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques, Wishwa

3. G.R. Basotia & K.K. Sharma, Research Methodology, Mangal Deep Publications
4. Dr. S. Munjal, Research Methodology, Raj Publishing House, Jaipur.
Publishing House Mumbai
142 BA (JMC) 303

___________________________________________________________________
LESSON 4 Report Writing/ Abstract/ Proposal/ Synopsis
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
STRUCTURE
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Report Writing
4.3 Mechanics of Writing a Research Report
4.4 Types of Report Writing
4.5 Steps in Writing a Report
4.6 Essentials of Good/Effective Report Writing
4.7 Research Proposal
4.8 Synopsis
4.9 Abstract
4.10 Introduction to Research Topic
4.11 Literature Review
4.12 Summing up
4.13 Assignments
4.17 Keywords
143 BA (JMC) 303

4. Report Writing/Abstract/Proposal/Synopsis
__________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
In the last lesson we had discussed types of analysis and data interpretation. The
purpose of research is not well served unless the findings are made known to others.
Research results must invariably enter the general store of knowledge.
In the present lesson we shall discuss the process of writing a research report.
___________________________________________________________________
4.0 Objectives
 describe a research report

 describe the steps involved in writing a research report
___________________________________________________________________
4.1 Introduction
Research report is considered a major component of the research study for

the research task remains incomplete till the report has been presented
and/or written. The purpose of research is not well served unless the findings
are made known to others. Research results must invariably enter the general
store of knowledge. Even the most brilliant hypothesis, highly well designed
and conducted research study and the most striking generalizations and
findings are of little value unless they are effectively communicated to others.
4.2 Report Writing
There are various steps in writing a research report. The researcher must
follow the steps listed below:
4.2.1 Logical analysis of the subject matter
It is the first step which is primarily concerned with the development of a

subject. There are two ways in which to develop a subject (a) logically and (b)
chronologically. The logical development is made on the basis of mental
connections and associations between the one thing and another by means of
analysis. Logical treatment often consists in developing the material from the
144 BA (JMC) 303

simple possible to the most complex structures. Chronological development

is based on a connection or sequence in time or occurrence. The direction for
doing or making something usually follows the chronological order.
4.2.2 Preparation of the Final Outline
It is the next step in writing the research report. “outlines are the framework
upon which long written works are constructed. They are an aid to the logical
organization of the material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the
report.
4.2.3 Preparation of the Rough Draft
This follows the logical analysis of the subject and the preparation of the final
outline. Such a step is of utmost importance for the researcher now sits to
write down what he has done in the context of his research study. He will write
down the procedure adopted by him in collecting the material for his study
along with various limitations faced by him, the technique of analysis adopted
by him, the broad findings and generalizations and the various suggestions he
wants to offer regarding the problem concerned.
4.2.4 Rewriting and polishing of the Rough Draft
This step happens to be the most difficult part of all formal writing. The careful
revision makes the difference between a mediocre and a good piece of
writing. While writing and polishing one should check the report for
weaknesses in logical development or presentation. The researcher should
also see whether or not the material, as it is presented, has unity and
cohesion and does the report stand upright and firm and exhibit a definite
pattern. He should check the mechanics of writing – grammar, spelling and
usage.
4.2.5 Preparation of the Final Bibliography
The bibliography, which is generally appended to the research report, is a list

of books in some way pertinent to the research which has been done. It
should contain all those works which the researcher has consulted. The
bibliography should be arranged alphabetically and may be divided into two
parts: the first part contains the names of the books and pamphlets and the
second part may contain the names of magazines and newspaper articles.
For Books
Name of the author, last name first
Title, underlined to indicate italics
Place, publisher and date of publishing
Number of volumes
BA (JMC) 303 145

For Magazines
Name of the author, last name first
Title of article, in quotation marks
Name of the periodical, underlined to indicate italics
The volume or volume and number
The date of the issue
The pagination
4.2.6 Writing the Final Draft
The final draft should be written in a concise and objective style and in simple
language, avoiding vague expressions such as “it seems”, “there may be” etc.
While writing the final draft, the researcher must avoid abstract terminology
and technical jargon. A research must not be dull, but must enthuse people
and, maintain interest and must show originality. It must be remembered that
every report should be an attempt to solve some intellectual problem and
must contribute to the solution of a problem and must add to the knowledge of
both researcher and the reader.
4.3 Mechanics of Writing a Research Report
A report can be defined as a testimonial or account of some happening. It is

purely based on observation and analysis. A report gives an explanation of
any circumstance. In today‟s corporate world, reports play a crucial role. They
are a strong base for planning and control in an organization, i.e., reports give
information which can be utilized by the management team in an organization
for making plans and for solving complex issues in the organization.
A report is an official document that is written to serve the range of purpose in

the engineering and business disciplines; sciences and social sciences.
Therefore, it needs to be clear-cut and accurate. Good report writing calls for--
- professionalism, profound knowledge of the subject, attentiveness, and
outstanding writing proficiency.
A report discusses a particular problem in detail. It brings significant and

reliable information to the limelight of top management in an organization.
Hence, on the basis of such information, the management can make strong
decisions. Reports are required for judging the performances of various
departments in an organization.
4.4 Types of Report Writing
There are various types of Report Writing used by the researchers to present
their findings.
146 BA (JMC) 303

4.4.1 Research Report Writing
To presents the tangible proof of the conducted research is the major

intention of the academic assignment. When writing on research report, you
must ponder over clarity, organization, and content. Research reports are all
the more same to technical reports, lab reports, formal reports and scientific
papers which comprise a consistent format that will facilitate you to put your
information noticeably, making it crystal clear.
4.4.2 Business Report Writing
In business milieu, Business report writing happens to be an indispensable

part of the communication process. Executive summary is written in a non-
technical manner. By and large, audience for business reports will consist of
upper level manager, for that reason you should take the audience needs in
consideration. Go on with the introduction to articulate the problem and
determine the scope of the research. To attain the desired results, don‟t fail to
state about the precise quantitative tools.
4.4.3 Science Report Writing
Parallel to a business report, science report writing also corresponds with the
line of investigation. To report upon an empirical investigation, these reports
make use of standard scientific report format, portraying technique, fallout and
conclusions. As an assignment in undergraduate papers within the scientific
disciplines, it is required frequently.
The main objective of the Science report is to highlight an aim, the technique
which enlightens how the project has been analyzed, the outcomes which
present the findings and the conclusion. This embraces advance research
suggestions and your own biased opinion on the topic which has been talked
about.
When writing a science report, do not fail to remember to use heading and
subheadings in order to direct a reader through your work. In the form of
tables and graphs, Statistical evidence should be incorporated in appendices.
Than refer to it in the body of your scientific report.
Reports are a common form of writing because of the inclusion of

recommendations which are helpful in implementing the decision.
4.5 Steps in Writing a Report
 Determine the objective of the report, i.e., identify the problem.

 Collect the required material (facts) for the report.
 Study and examine the facts gathered.
BA (JMC) 303 147

 Plan the facts for the report.

 Prepare an outline for the report, i.e., draft the report.
 Edit the drafted report.
 Distribute the draft report to the advisory team and ask for feedback and
recommendations.
4.6 Essentials of Good/Effective Report Writing
 Know your objective, i.e., be focused.

 Analyze the niche audience, i.e., make an analysis of the target audience,
the purpose for which audience requires the report, kind of data audience
is looking for in the report, the implications of report reading, etc.
 Decide the length of report.
 Disclose correct and true information in a report.
 Discuss all sides of the problem reasonably and impartially. Include all
relevant facts in a report.
 Concentrate on the report structure and matter. Pre-decide the report
writing style. Use vivid structure of sentences.
 The report should be neatly presented and should be carefully
documented.
 Highlight and recap the main message in a report.
 Encourage feedback on the report from the critics. The feedback, if
negative, might be useful if properly supported with reasons by the critics.
The report can be modified based on such feedback.
 Use graphs, pie-charts, etc to show the numerical data records over years.
 Decide on the margins of a report. Ideally, the top and the side margins
should be the same (minimum 1 inch broad), but the lower/bottom margins
can be one and a half times as broad as others.
 Attempt to generate reader‟s interest by making appropriate paragraphs,
giving bold headings for each paragraph, using bullets wherever required,
etc.
4.7 Research Proposal
A research proposal is a document written by the researcher that provides a

detailed description of the proposed programme. It is basically the outline of
the research which gives the summary of the research work. A research
proposal is written in future tense and has different points of emphasis. A
research proposal may include preliminary results. After reading the research
proposal, any governmental or non-profit organizations may express the
desire to fund the project. Therefore, the more authentic, simple and accurate
the research proposal is, the more chances of getting funds are there.
148 BA (JMC) 303

A research proposal is intended to convince others that the research project is

worth deliberation and that the researcher has the competence and the work-
plan to complete it. Generally, a research proposal should contain all the key
elements involved in the research process and include sufficient information
for the readers to evaluate the proposed study.
Regardless of the research area and the methodology selected, all research
proposals must address the following questions: what does the researcher
plan to accomplish, why there is the need for research and how will it be
carried out.
The proposal should have sufficient information to convince the readers that
the research idea is important, that the researcher possesses a good grasp of
the relevant literature and the major issues and that the research
methodology adapted is sound.
The quality of the research proposal depends not only on the quality of the
proposed project, but also on the quality of proposal writing. A good research
project may run the risk of rejection simply because the proposal is poorly
written. Therefore, it pays if the writing is coherent, clear and compelling.
4.8 Synopsis
A synopsis is a brief summary of the major points of a written work, either as

prose or as a table; an abridgment or condensation of a work.
4.9 Abstract
It is a brief summary of approximately 300 words. It should include the

research question, the rationale for the study, the hypothesis (if any), the
method and the main findings. Descriptions of the method may include the
design, procedures, the sample and any instruments that will be used.
4.10 Introduction to Research Topic
The main purpose of the introduction is to provide the necessary background

or context for the research problem. How to frame the research problem is
perhaps the biggest problem in proposal writing.
If the research problem is framed in the context of a general, rambling

literature review, then the research question may appear trivial and
uninteresting. However, if the same question is placed in the context of a very
focused and current research area, its significance will become evident.
Unfortunately, there are no hard and fast rules on how to frame the research
question just as there is no prescription on how to write an interesting and
BA (JMC) 303 149

informative opening paragraph. A lot depends on the creativity, ability to think

clearly and the depth of understanding of problem areas.
However, it is important to place the research question in the context of either

a current "hot" area, or an older area that remains viable. Secondly, the
researcher needs to provide a brief but appropriate historical backdrop.
Thirdly, the researcher must provide the contemporary context in which the
proposed research question occupies the central stage. Finally, the
researcher must identify "key players" and refer to the most relevant and
representative publications. In short, the researcher must try to paint the
research question in broad brushes and at the same time bring out its
significance.
The introduction typically begins with a general statement of the problem

area, with a focus on a specific research problem, to be followed by the
rational or justification for the proposed study. The introduction generally
covers the following elements:
1. State the research problem, which is often referred to as the purpose of

the study.
2. Provide the context and set the stage for the research question in such
a way as to show its necessity and importance.
3. Present the rationale of the proposed study and clearly indicate why it
is worth doing.
4. Briefly describe the major issues and sub-problems to be addressed by
the research.
5. Identify the key independent and dependent variables of the
experiment. Alternatively, specify the phenomenon you want to study.
6. State the hypothesis or theory, if any. For exploratory or
phenomenological research, there may not be any hypotheses. (Please
do not confuse the hypothesis with the statistical null hypothesis.)
7. Set the delimitation or boundaries of the proposed research in order to
provide a clear focus.
8. Provide definitions of key concepts. (This is optional.)
4.11 Literature Review
Sometimes the literature review is incorporated into the introduction section.

However, most academicians prefer a separate section, which allows a more
thorough review of the literature.
The literature review serves several important functions:
1. Ensures that you are not "reinventing the wheel".
150 BA (JMC) 303

2. Gives credits to those who have laid the groundwork for your research.
3. Demonstrates your knowledge of the research problem.
4. Demonstrates your understanding of the theoretical and research

issues related to your research question.
5. Shows your ability to critically evaluate relevant literature information.
6. Indicates your ability to integrate and synthesize the existing literature.
7. Provides new theoretical insights or develops a new model as the

conceptual framework for your research.
8. Convinces your reader that your proposed research will make a

significant and substantial contribution to the literature (i.e., resolving
an important theoretical issue or filling a major gap in the literature).
4.12 Summing up
No research is complete until it is presented well. It is important to write an

impressive introduction to the research. Crisp and precise synopsis is
important to explain the idea behind the research. An abstract of the entire
research work including the methodology must be mentioned. The title of the
research must also be explained and justified. It is important for the
researcher to collect adequate literature survey. An extensive literature survey
which includes both conceptual and empirical literature helps in adding
credibility to the research idea.
4.13 Assignments
Class Assignment: Describe Abstract.
Home Assignment: Describe the criterion for writing a good research report.
1. A synopsis is a brief ___________ of the major points of a written

work, either as prose or as a table; an abridgment or condensation of a
work.
2. The quality of your research proposal depends not only on the quality
of the proposed project, but also on the quality of the proposal writing.
Is it true?
3. It is a brief summary of approximately ____ words.
BA (JMC) 303 151

4. Review of literature gives credits to those who have laid the

groundwork for the research. Is it true?
5. Review of literature does not provide new theoretical insights or

develops a new model as the conceptual framework for your research.
Is it true?
1. Discuss the importance of introduction in research.
1. Summary
2. True
3. 300
4. True
4.17 Keywords
 Health communication profession focuses primarily on spreading

information to the public that can have an overall impact on the health and
wellbeing of the population. They also help others understand more about
medical treatment, healthy lifestyle choices, disease prevention, and more.
1. C.R. Kothari, Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques, Wishwa

Publications
152 BA (JMC) 303

Action research – occurs when researchers design a field experiment, collect the data, and feed it
back to the activists (i.e. participants) both as feedback and as a way of modeling the next stage of
the experiment
Case study: an in depth study of a case or cases (a „case‟ can be a program, an event, an activity,
an individual), studied over time using multiple sources of information (e.g. observations, documents,
archival data, interviews). Can be exploratory, explanatory, or descriptive, or a combination of these.
Content analysis – a form of analysis which usually counts and reports the frequency of
concepts/words/behaviors held within the data. The researcher develops brief descriptions of the
themes or meanings, called codes.
Field notes: a collective term for records of observation, talk, interview transcripts, or documentary
sources.
Graphs (or charts) -are the simplest method for describing data. A pie graph presents the distribution
of cases in the form of a circle, in which the relative size of each slice of the pie is equal to the
proportion of cases within the category represented by the slice. Bar graphs and histograms
emphasize the frequency of cases in each category relative to each other.
Methodology- relates to the broader principles and philosophies governing research. Methods are
the means of gathering and analyzing qualitative and quantitative research data.
Measures of central tendency- indicate the average value for a distribution. There are three
common measures of central tendency: mode, mean and median. The mode is the value in a
distribution that has the highest frequency. The mean is the sum of all scores in a distribution divided
by the total number of cases. An alternative measure of central tendency is the median, which is the
score in the middle of a given sequence of numbers.
Participant observation- involves gathering data through observing, interacting with and listening to
the human subjects under study.
Sampling – the process of selecting participants to take part in the research on the basis that they
can provide detailed information that is relevant to the enquiry.
Scales - come in various forms and are used as a level of measurement. A nominal scale classifies
cases into categories that have no quantitative ordering. An ordinal scale enables cases to be ranked
according to their quantity or intensity. An interval/ratio scale (sometimes called a metric scale) allows
the differences (or intervals) between cases to be measured.
Survey - is a method for collecting data based on a set of characteristics, analyzing the similarities
and differences and, in certain circumstances, identifying the causal factors to explain the findings.
Validity- refers to the „truthfulness‟ or accuracy of research findings. Face validity refers to the
relevance of the outcome measure or finding to the study questions. Content validity is the outcome
measure or finding that includes the range of issues considered important by participants and experts
in the field.
Variable The observable or measurable counterpart of a construct describing how a researcher will
measure the construct. It has a set of values assigned to it and can be either quantitative or
qualitative.
153 BA (JMC) 303

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Media Research

UNIT 1 Introduction to Research

LESSON-1 Research: Meaning, Definition and Objectives 02

LESSON-2 Types of Research 08

LESSON-3 Approaches to Research: Qualitative and Quantitative 13

LESSON-4 Media Research: Meaning and Scope 18

UNIT 2 Survey in Media Research

LESSON-1 Survey, Public Opinion Surveys, TRPs, TeleWeb Survey 27

LESSON-2 Readership Survey & IRS 38

LESSON-3 Election Related Survey: Opinion Poll and Exit Poll 42

LESSON-4 Media Research Agencies: BARC, ABC, MAP, RAM 48

UNIT 3 Research Design

LESSON-1 Research Design: Meaning and different Types, Hypotheses/

LESSON-2 Research Methods: Survey, Content Analysis and Case Study 71

LESSON-3 Sampling &Selecting a sample, Types of sampling: Probability and

LESSON-4 Data Collection Tools: Primary and Secondary, Observation,

UNIT 4 Data Analysis and Report Writing

LESSON-1 Processing of data – editing, coding, classification, tabulation 117

LESSON-2 Measures of Central Tendency: Mean, Median and Mode 130

LESSON-3 Analysis and Interpretation of Data 136

LESSON-4 Report Writing/ Abstract/ Proposal/ Synopsis 143

UNIT 1 BA (JMC) 303 L: 12

1.2 Research: Meaning and Definition

1.3 Objectives of Research

1.4 Criteria of Good Research

1.7 Self-check questions

1.8 Terminal questions

1.9 Possible answers of self-check questions

1.11 Suggested further readings

1. Research: Meaning, Definition and

In Unit 1 of the course „Media Research‟ we shall consider the introduction to

• describe meaning and definition of research

Research is an insight into something which is not known. It is a logical and

Like an explorer, a researcher must try to bring out the undiscovered or

1.2 Research: Meaning and Definition

It is basically a systematic and objective identification, collection, analysis,

Research is a diligent inquiry in seeking facts. It is a laborious and continued

It is a journey of discovery which enables the researcher to travel from the

1.3 Objectives of Research

1.4 Criteria of Good Research

1.7 Self-check questions

1.8 Terminal Questions

Describe the objectives of research.

1.9 Possible answers of self-check questions

1.11 Suggested further readings

2.2 Types of Research

2.2.1 Exploratory Research

2.2.2 Descriptive Research

2.2.3 Applied Research

2.2.4 Fundamental Research

2.2.5 Quantitative Research

2.2.6 Qualitative Research

2.2.7 Explanatory Research

2.2.8 Co-relational Research

2.5 Self-check questions

2.6 Terminal questions

2.7 Possible answers of self-check questions

2.9 Suggested further readings

In the present session we will study the various types of research.