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Gastropoda
(Redirected from Gastropod)

The gastropods (/ˈɡæstrəpɒdz/), commonly known as

slugs and snails, belong to a large taxonomic class of Gastropoda
invertebrates within the phylum Mollusca called Temporal range:
Gastropoda (/ɡæsˈtrɒpədə/).[5]

This class comprises snails and slugs from saltwater,

freshwater, and from land. There are many thousands of
species of sea snails and slugs, as well as freshwater
snails, freshwater limpets, and land snails and slugs.

The class Gastropoda contains a vast total of named

species, second only to the insects in overall number. The
fossil history of this class goes back to the Late Cambrian.
As of 2017, 721 families of gastropods are known, of Various gastropods from different types:
which 245 are extinct and appear only in the fossil record, Black slug (a slug), Haliotis asinina (an
while 476 are currently extant with or without a fossil
abalone), Cornu aspersum (a land snail),
record.[6]
Notarchus indicus (a seahare), Patella
Gastropoda (previously known as univalves and vulgata (a limpet), and Polycera
sometimes spelled "Gasteropoda") are a major part of the aurantiomarginata (a nudibranch).
phylum Mollusca, and are the most highly diversified
class in the phylum, with 65,000 to 80,000[3][4] living Scientific classification
snail and slug species. The anatomy, behavior, feeding, Kingdom: Animalia
and reproductive adaptations of gastropods vary
significantly from one clade or group to another, so Phylum: Mollusca
stating many generalities for all gastropods is difficult. Class: Gastropoda
The class Gastropoda has an extraordinary diversification Cuvier, 1795[2]
of habitats. Representatives live in gardens, woodland, Subclasses
deserts, and on mountains; in small ditches, great rivers,
and lakes; in estuaries, mudflats, the rocky intertidal, the Caenogastropoda
sandy subtidal, the abyssal depths of the oceans,
including the hydrothermal vents, and numerous other Heterobranchia
ecological niches, including parasitic ones. Neomphaliones
Although the name "snail" can be, and often is, applied to Neritimorpha
all the members of this class, commonly this word means
Patellogastropoda
only those species with an external shell big enough that
the soft parts can withdraw completely into it. Those Vetigastropoda
gastropods without a shell, and those with only a very
Diversity[3][4]
reduced or internal shell, are usually known as slugs;
those with a shell into which they can partly but not 65,000 to 80,000 species
completely withdraw are termed semislugs.
Synonyms[5]
The marine shelled species of gastropods include species
such as abalone, conches, periwinkles, whelks, and Angiogastropoda - represented
numerous other sea snails that produce seashells that are as Gastropoda

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coiled in the adult stage—though in some, the coiling may Apogastropoda - alternate
not be very visible, for example in cowries. In a number of
representation of Gastropoda
families of species, such as all the various limpets, the
shell is coiled only in the larval stage, and is a simple Psilogastropoda - represented
conical structure after that. as Gastropoda

Etymology
In the scientific literature, gastropods were described as "gasteropodes" by Georges Cuvier in
1795.[2] The word gastropod comes from Greek γαστήρ (gastḗr 'stomach') and πούς (poús 'foot'),
a reference to the fact that the animal's "foot" is positioned below its guts.[7]

The earlier name "univalve" means one valve (or shell), in contrast to bivalves, such as clams,
which have two valves or shells.

Diversity
At all taxonomic levels, gastropods are second only to the insects in terms of their diversity.[8]

Gastropods have the greatest numbers of named mollusc species. However, estimates of the total
number of gastropod species vary widely, depending on cited sources. The number of gastropod
species can be ascertained from estimates of the number of described species of Mollusca with
accepted names: about 85,000 (minimum 50,000, maximum 120,000).[9] But an estimate of the
total number of Mollusca, including undescribed species, is about 240,000 species.[10] The
estimate of 85,000 molluscs includes 24,000 described species of terrestrial gastropods.[9]

Different estimates for aquatic gastropods (based on different sources) give about 30,000 species
of marine gastropods, and about 5,000 species of freshwater and brackish gastropods. Many deep-
sea species remain to be discovered, as only 0.0001% of the deep-sea floor has been studied
biologically.[11][12] The total number of living species of freshwater snails is about 4,000.[13]

Recently extinct species of gastropods (extinct since 1500) number 444, 18 species are now extinct
in the wild (but still exist in captivity), and 69 species are "possibly extinct".[14]

The number of prehistoric (fossil) species of gastropods is at least 15,000 species.[15]

In marine habitats, the continental slope and the continental rise are home to the highest diversity,
while the continental shelf and abyssal depths have a low diversity of marine gastropods.[16]

Habitat
Some of the more familiar and better-known gastropods are terrestrial gastropods (the land snails
and slugs). Some live in fresh water, but most named species of gastropods live in a marine
environment.

Gastropods have a worldwide distribution, from the near Arctic and Antarctic zones to the tropics.
They have become adapted to almost every kind of existence on earth, having colonized nearly
every available medium.

In habitats where not enough calcium carbonate is available to build a really solid shell, such as on
some acidic soils on land, various species of slugs occur, and also some snails with thin,
translucent shells, mostly or entirely composed of the protein conchiolin.

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Snails such as Sphincterochila boissieri and Xerocrassa

seetzeni have adapted to desert conditions. Other snails have
adapted to an existence in ditches, near deepwater
hydrothermal vents, the pounding surf of rocky shores, caves,
and many other diverse areas.

Gastropods can be accidentally transferred from one habitat to

another by other animals, e.g. by birds.[17]

Anatomy Cepaea nemoralis: a European

pulmonate land snail, which has
Snails are distinguished by been introduced to many other
an anatomical process countries
known as torsion, where
the visceral mass of the
animal rotates 180° to one side during development, such that
the anus is situated more or less above the head. This process
The anatomy of a common air- is unrelated to the coiling of the shell, which is a separate
breathing land snail: much of this phenomenon. Torsion is present in all gastropods, but the
anatomy does not apply to opisthobranch gastropods are secondarily untorted to various
gastropods in other clades or
degrees.[18][19]
groups.
Torsion occurs in two stages. The first, mechanistic stage, is
muscular, and the second is mutagenetic. The effects of torsion
are primarily physiological; the organism develops an asymmetrical growth, with the majority
occurring on the left side. This leads to the loss of right-paired appendages (e.g., ctenidia (comb-
like respiratory apparatus), gonads, nephridia, etc.). Furthermore, the anus becomes redirected to
the same space as the head. This is speculated to have some evolutionary function, as prior to
torsion, when retracting into the shell, first the posterior end would get pulled in, and then the
anterior. Now, the front can be retracted more easily, perhaps suggesting a defensive purpose.

However, this "rotation hypothesis" is being challenged by the "asymmetry hypothesis" in which
the gastropod mantle cavity originated from one side only of a bilateral set of mantle cavities.[20]

Gastropods typically have a well-defined head with two or four sensory tentacles with eyes, and a
ventral foot, which gives them their name (Greek gaster, stomach, and pous, foot). The foremost
division of the foot is called the propodium. Its function is to push away sediment as the snail
crawls. The larval shell of a gastropod is called a protoconch.

The principal characteristic of the Gastropoda is the asymmetry of their principal organs. The
essential feature of this asymmetry is that the anus generally lies to one side of the median plane.;
The ctenidium (gill-combs), the osphradium (olfactory organs), the hypobranchial gland (or pallial
mucous gland), and the auricle of the heart are single or at least are more developed on one side of
the body than the other ; Furthermore, there is only one genital orifice, which lies on the same side
of the body as the anus.[21]

Shell

Most shelled gastropods have a one piece shell (with exceptional bivalved gastropods), typically
coiled or spiraled, at least in the larval stage. This coiled shell usually opens on the right-hand side
(as viewed with the shell apex pointing upward). Numerous species have an operculum, which in

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many species acts as a trapdoor to close the shell. This is

usually made of a horn-like material, but in some molluscs it is
calcareous. In the land slugs, the shell is reduced or absent,
and the body is streamlined.

Some gastropods have adult shells which are bottom heavy due
to the presence of a thick, often broad, convex ventral callus
deposit on the inner lip and adapical to the aperture which may
be important for gravitational stability.[22]

Body wall
The shell of Zonitoides nitidus, a
small land snail, has dextral coiling,
Some sea slugs are very brightly colored. This serves either as a
which is typical (but not universal) of
warning, when they are poisonous or contain stinging cells, or gastropod shells.
to camouflage them on the brightly colored hydroids, sponges
and seaweeds on which many of the species are found.

Lateral outgrowths on the body of nudibranchs are called cerata. These contain an outpocketing of
digestive gland called the diverticula.

Sensory organs and nervous system

The sensory organs of gastropods include olfactory organs,

eyes, statocysts and mechanoreceptors.[23] Gastropods have no
hearing.[23]

In terrestrial gastropods (land snails and slugs), the olfactory

organs, located on the tips of the four tentacles, are the most
important sensory organ.[23] The chemosensory organs of
opisthobranch marine gastropods are called rhinophores.

The majority of gastropods have simple visual organs, eye The upper pair of tentacles on the
spots either at the tip or base of the tentacles. However, "eyes" head of Helix pomatia have eye
in gastropods range from simple ocelli that only distinguish spots, but the main sensory organs
light and dark, to more complex pit eyes, and even to lens of the snail are sensory receptors
eyes.[24] In land snails and slugs, vision is not the most for olfaction, situated in the
important sense, because they are mainly nocturnal epithelium of the tentacles.
animals.[23]

The nervous system of gastropods includes the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous
system. The central nervous system consists of ganglia connected by nerve cells. It includes paired
ganglia: the cerebral ganglia, pedal ganglia, osphradial ganglia, pleural ganglia, parietal ganglia
and the visceral ganglia. There are sometimes also buccal ganglia.[23]

Digestive system

The radula of a gastropod is usually adapted to the food that a species eats. The simplest
gastropods are the limpets and abalones, herbivores that use their hard radula to rasp at seaweeds
on rocks.

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Many marine gastropods are burrowers, and have a siphon that extends out from the mantle edge.
Sometimes the shell has a siphonal canal to accommodate this structure. A siphon enables the
animal to draw water into their mantle cavity and over the gill. They use the siphon primarily to
"taste" the water to detect prey from a distance. Gastropods with siphons tend to be either
predators or scavengers.

Respiratory system

Almost all marine gastropods breathe with a gill, but many freshwater species, and the majority of
terrestrial species, have a pallial lung. The respiratory protein in almost all gastropods is
hemocyanin, but one freshwater pulmonate family, the Planorbidae, have hemoglobin as the
respiratory protein.

In one large group of sea slugs, the gills are arranged as a rosette of feathery plumes on their backs,
which gives rise to their other name, nudibranchs. Some nudibranchs have smooth or warty backs
with no visible gill mechanism, such that respiration may likely take place directly through the
skin.

Circulatory system

Gastropods have open circulatory system and the transport fluid is hemolymph. Hemocyanin is
present in the hemolymph as the respiratory pigment.

Excretory system

The primary organs of excretion in gastropods are nephridia, which produce either ammonia or
uric acid as a waste product. The nephridium also plays an important role in maintaining water
balance in freshwater and terrestrial species. Additional organs of excretion, at least in some
species, include pericardial glands in the body cavity, and digestive glands opening into the
stomach.

Reproductive system

Courtship is a part of mating behavior in some gastropods,

including some of the Helicidae. Again, in some land snails, an
unusual feature of the reproductive system of gastropods is the
presence and utilization of love darts.

In many marine gastropods other than the opisthobranchs,

there are separate sexes (dioecious/gonochoric); most land
gastropods, however, are hermaphrodites.
Mating behaviour of Elysia timida

Life cycle
Courtship is a part of the behavior of mating gastropods with some pulmonate families of land
snails creating and utilizing love darts, the throwing of which have been identified as a form of
sexual selection.[25]

The main aspects of the life cycle of gastropods include:

Egg laying and the eggs of gastropods

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The embryonic development of gastropods

The larvae or larval stadium: some gastropods may be
trochophore and/or veliger
Estivation and hibernation (each of these are present in
some gastropods only)
The growth of gastropods
Courtship and mating in gastropods: fertilization is internal
or external according to the species. External fertilization is
common in marine gastropods. Egg strings of an Aplysia species.

Feeding behavior
The diet of gastropods differs according to the group
considered. Marine gastropods include some that are
herbivores, detritus feeders, predatory carnivores, scavengers,
parasites, and also a few ciliary feeders, in which the radula is
reduced or absent. Land-dwelling species can chew up leaves,
bark, fruit and decomposing animals while marine species can
scrape algae off the rocks on the seafloor. Certain species such
as the Archaeogastropda (https://www.britannica.com/anima
l/gastropod/Food-and-feeding) maintain horizontal rows of
slender marginal teeth. In some species that have evolved into A Pomacea maculata floating and
endoparasites, such as the eulimid Thyonicola doglieli, many eating a carrot
of the standard gastropod features are strongly reduced or
absent.

A few sea slugs are herbivores and some are carnivores. The carnivorous habit is due to
specialisation. Many gastropods have distinct dietary preferences and regularly occur in close
association with their food species.

Some predatory carnivorous gastropods include, for example: Cone shells, Testacella,
Daudebardia, Turrids, Ghost slug and others.

Genetics
Gastropods exhibit an important degree of variation in mitochondrial gene organization when
compared to other animals.[26] Main events of gene rearrangement occurred at the origin of
Patellogastropoda and Heterobranchia, whereas fewer changes occurred between the ancestors of
Vetigastropoda (only tRNAs D, C and N) and Caenogastropoda (a large single inversion, and
translocations of the tRNAs D and N).[26] Within Heterobranchia, gene order seems relatively
conserved, and gene rearrangements are mostly related with transposition of tRNA genes.[26]

Geological history and evolution

The first gastropods were exclusively marine, with the earliest representatives of the group
appearing in the Late Cambrian (Chippewaella, Strepsodiscus),[27] though their only gastropod
character is a coiled shell, so they could lie in the stem lineage, if they are gastropods at all.[28]
Earliest Cambrian organisms like Helcionella, Barskovia and Scenella are no longer considered
gastropods, and the tiny coiled Aldanella of earliest Cambrian time is probably not even a mollusk.

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As such, it's not until the Ordovician that the first crown-group
members arise.[29] By the Ordovician period the gastropods
were a varied group present in a range of aquatic habitats.
Commonly, fossil gastropods from the rocks of the early
Palaeozoic era are too poorly preserved for accurate
identification. Still, the Silurian genus Poleumita contains
fifteen identified species. Fossil gastropods were less common
during the Palaeozoic era than bivalves.[29]
Trochonema sp., an early gastropod
Most of the gastropods of the Palaeozoic era belong to from the Middle Ordovician of the
primitive groups, a few of which still survive. By the Galena Group of Minnesota.
Carboniferous period many of the shapes seen in living
gastropods can be matched in the fossil record, but despite
these similarities in appearance the majority of these older
forms are not directly related to living forms. It was during the
Mesozoic era that the ancestors of many of the living
gastropods evolved.[29]

One of the earliest known terrestrial (land-dwelling)

gastropods is Anthracopupa (=Maturipupa),[30] which is
found in the Coal Measures of the Carboniferous period in
Europe, but relatives of the modern land snails are rare before
Fossil gastropod and attached
the Cretaceous period, when the familiar Helix first mytilid bivalves on a Jurassic
appeared.[29] limestone bedding plane of the
Matmor Formation in southern
In rocks of the Mesozoic era, gastropods are slightly more Israel.
common as fossils; their shells are often well preserved. Their
fossils occur in ancient beds deposited in both freshwater and
marine environments. The "Purbeck Marble" of the Jurassic period and the "Sussex Marble" of the
early Cretaceous period, which both occur in southern England, are limestones containing the
tightly packed remains of the pond snail Viviparus.[29]

Rocks of the Cenozoic era yield very large numbers of gastropod fossils, many of these fossils being
closely related to modern living forms. The diversity of the gastropods increased markedly at the
beginning of this era, along with that of the bivalves.[29]

Certain trail-like markings preserved in ancient sedimentary rocks are thought to have been made
by gastropods crawling over the soft mud and sand. Although these trace fossils are of debatable
origin, some of them do resemble the trails made by living gastropods today.[29]

Gastropod fossils may sometimes be confused with ammonites or other shelled cephalopods. An
example of this is Bellerophon from the limestones of the Carboniferous period in Europe, the
shell of which is planispirally coiled and can be mistaken for the shell of a cephalopod.

Gastropods are one of the groups that record the changes in fauna caused by the advance and
retreat of the Ice Sheets during the Pleistocene epoch.

Cladogram

A cladogram showing the phylogenic relationships of Gastropoda with example species:[31]

⁠Gastropoda ⁠ ⁠ ⁠ ⁠ ⁠ ⁠

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⁠ Panpulmonata ►

⁠Euopisthobranchia ►
⁠ ⁠

⁠Nudipleura ►
⁠
⁠

Caenogastropoda
⁠
⁠
⁠ ⁠

⁠Neritimorpha
⁠

⁠Vetigastropoda
⁠

⁠Patellogastropoda ►
⁠

Cocculiniformia, Neomphalina and Lower Heterobranchia are not included in the above
cladogram.

Taxonomy
Since Darwin, biological taxonomy has attempted to reflect the phylogeny of organisms, i.e., the
tree of life. The classifications used in taxonomy attempt to represent the precise interrelatedness
of the various taxa. However, the taxonomy of the Gastropoda is constantly being revised and so
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the versions shown in various texts can differ in major ways.

In the older classification of the gastropods, there were four

subclasses:[32]

Opisthobranchia (gills to the right and behind the heart).

Gymnomorpha (no shell)
Prosobranchia (gills in front of the heart).
Pulmonata (with a lung instead of gills)

The taxonomy of the Gastropoda is still under revision, and

more and more of the old taxonomy is being abandoned, as the A group of fossil shells of Turritella
results of DNA studies slowly become clearer. Nevertheless, a cingulifera from the Pliocene of
few of the older terms such as "opisthobranch" and Cyprus
"prosobranch" are still sometimes used in a descriptive way.

New insights based on

DNA sequencing of
gastropods have produced
some revolutionary new
taxonomic insights. In the
case of the Gastropoda, the
taxonomy is now gradually
being rewritten to embody
strictly monophyletic
Microphoto (35x) of Gastropoda sp. groups (only one lineage of
from Holocene sediments of Amuq gastropods in each group). Five views of a shell of a
Plain SSE Turkey Integrating new findings Fulguropsis species
into a working taxonomy
remain challenging.
Consistent ranks within the taxonomy at the level of subclass, superorder, order, and suborder
have already been abandoned as unworkable. Ongoing revisions of the higher taxonomic levels are
expected in the near future.

Convergent evolution, which appears to exist at especially high frequency in gastropods, may
account for the observed differences between the older phylogenies, which were based on
morphological data, and more recent gene-sequencing studies.

Bouchet & Rocroi (2005)[3][33] made sweeping changes in the systematics, resulting in a taxonomy
that is a step closer to the evolutionary history of the phylum. The Bouchet & Rocroi classification
system is based partly on the older systems of classification, and partly on new cladistic research.

In the past, the taxonomy of gastropods was largely based on phenetic morphological characters of
the taxa. The recent advances are more based on molecular characters from DNA[34] and RNA
research. This has made the taxonomical ranks and their hierarchy controversial. The debate
about these issues is not likely to end soon.

In the Bouchet, Rocroi et al. taxonomy, the authors have used unranked clades for taxa above the
rank of superfamily (replacing the ranks suborder, order, superorder and subclass), while using
the traditional Linnaean approach for all taxa below the rank of superfamily. Whenever
monophyly has not been tested, or is known to be paraphyletic or polyphyletic, the term "group" or
"informal group" has been used. The classification of families into subfamilies is often not well
resolved, and should be regarded as the best possible hypothesis.

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In 2004, Brian Simison and David R. Lindberg showed possible diphyletic origins of the
Gastropoda based on mitochondrial gene order and amino acid sequence analyses of complete
genes.[35]

In the 2017 issue of the Malacologia journal (available online from 4 January 2018), a significantly
updated version of the 2005 "Bouchet & Rocroi" taxonomy was published in the paper "Revised
Classification, Nomenclator and Typification of Gastropod and Monoplacophoran Families".[36]

References
This article incorporates CC-BY-2.0 text from the reference.[26]

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External links
Gastropods portal

Gastropod reproductive behavior (http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Gastropod_reproductive

_behavior)
2004 Linnean taxonomy of gastropods (http://www.manandmollusc.net/advanced_introduction/
gastropod_taxonomy_1.html)
Webster, S.; Fiorito, G. (2001). "Socially guided behaviour in non-insect invertebrates". Animal
Cognition. 4 (2): 69. doi:10.1007/s100710100108 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10071010010
8). S2CID 25373798 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:25373798). - An article about
social learning also in gastropods.
Gastropod photo gallery (https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeology/sets/72157647577987145),
mostly fossils, a few modern shells
A video of a crawling Garden Snail (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LKD5DZ4f6z0) (Cornu
aspersum), YouTube
Grove, S.J. (2018). A Guide to the Seashells and other Marine Molluscs of Tasmania: Molluscs
of Tasmania with images (https://molluscsoftasmania.org.au/)

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