MOLLUSCA 3 Gastropoda
MOLLUSCA 3 Gastropoda
MOLLUSCA 3 Gastropoda
Gastropoda
(Redirected from Gastropod)
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coiled in the adult stage—though in some, the coiling may Apogastropoda - alternate
not be very visible, for example in cowries. In a number of
representation of Gastropoda
families of species, such as all the various limpets, the
shell is coiled only in the larval stage, and is a simple Psilogastropoda - represented
conical structure after that. as Gastropoda
Etymology
In the scientific literature, gastropods were described as "gasteropodes" by Georges Cuvier in
1795.[2] The word gastropod comes from Greek γαστήρ (gastḗr 'stomach') and πούς (poús 'foot'),
a reference to the fact that the animal's "foot" is positioned below its guts.[7]
The earlier name "univalve" means one valve (or shell), in contrast to bivalves, such as clams,
which have two valves or shells.
Diversity
At all taxonomic levels, gastropods are second only to the insects in terms of their diversity.[8]
Gastropods have the greatest numbers of named mollusc species. However, estimates of the total
number of gastropod species vary widely, depending on cited sources. The number of gastropod
species can be ascertained from estimates of the number of described species of Mollusca with
accepted names: about 85,000 (minimum 50,000, maximum 120,000).[9] But an estimate of the
total number of Mollusca, including undescribed species, is about 240,000 species.[10] The
estimate of 85,000 molluscs includes 24,000 described species of terrestrial gastropods.[9]
Different estimates for aquatic gastropods (based on different sources) give about 30,000 species
of marine gastropods, and about 5,000 species of freshwater and brackish gastropods. Many deep-
sea species remain to be discovered, as only 0.0001% of the deep-sea floor has been studied
biologically.[11][12] The total number of living species of freshwater snails is about 4,000.[13]
Recently extinct species of gastropods (extinct since 1500) number 444, 18 species are now extinct
in the wild (but still exist in captivity), and 69 species are "possibly extinct".[14]
In marine habitats, the continental slope and the continental rise are home to the highest diversity,
while the continental shelf and abyssal depths have a low diversity of marine gastropods.[16]
Habitat
Some of the more familiar and better-known gastropods are terrestrial gastropods (the land snails
and slugs). Some live in fresh water, but most named species of gastropods live in a marine
environment.
Gastropods have a worldwide distribution, from the near Arctic and Antarctic zones to the tropics.
They have become adapted to almost every kind of existence on earth, having colonized nearly
every available medium.
In habitats where not enough calcium carbonate is available to build a really solid shell, such as on
some acidic soils on land, various species of slugs occur, and also some snails with thin,
translucent shells, mostly or entirely composed of the protein conchiolin.
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However, this "rotation hypothesis" is being challenged by the "asymmetry hypothesis" in which
the gastropod mantle cavity originated from one side only of a bilateral set of mantle cavities.[20]
Gastropods typically have a well-defined head with two or four sensory tentacles with eyes, and a
ventral foot, which gives them their name (Greek gaster, stomach, and pous, foot). The foremost
division of the foot is called the propodium. Its function is to push away sediment as the snail
crawls. The larval shell of a gastropod is called a protoconch.
The principal characteristic of the Gastropoda is the asymmetry of their principal organs. The
essential feature of this asymmetry is that the anus generally lies to one side of the median plane.;
The ctenidium (gill-combs), the osphradium (olfactory organs), the hypobranchial gland (or pallial
mucous gland), and the auricle of the heart are single or at least are more developed on one side of
the body than the other ; Furthermore, there is only one genital orifice, which lies on the same side
of the body as the anus.[21]
Shell
Most shelled gastropods have a one piece shell (with exceptional bivalved gastropods), typically
coiled or spiraled, at least in the larval stage. This coiled shell usually opens on the right-hand side
(as viewed with the shell apex pointing upward). Numerous species have an operculum, which in
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Some gastropods have adult shells which are bottom heavy due
to the presence of a thick, often broad, convex ventral callus
deposit on the inner lip and adapical to the aperture which may
be important for gravitational stability.[22]
Body wall
The shell of Zonitoides nitidus, a
small land snail, has dextral coiling,
Some sea slugs are very brightly colored. This serves either as a
which is typical (but not universal) of
warning, when they are poisonous or contain stinging cells, or gastropod shells.
to camouflage them on the brightly colored hydroids, sponges
and seaweeds on which many of the species are found.
Lateral outgrowths on the body of nudibranchs are called cerata. These contain an outpocketing of
digestive gland called the diverticula.
The majority of gastropods have simple visual organs, eye The upper pair of tentacles on the
spots either at the tip or base of the tentacles. However, "eyes" head of Helix pomatia have eye
in gastropods range from simple ocelli that only distinguish spots, but the main sensory organs
light and dark, to more complex pit eyes, and even to lens of the snail are sensory receptors
eyes.[24] In land snails and slugs, vision is not the most for olfaction, situated in the
important sense, because they are mainly nocturnal epithelium of the tentacles.
animals.[23]
The nervous system of gastropods includes the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous
system. The central nervous system consists of ganglia connected by nerve cells. It includes paired
ganglia: the cerebral ganglia, pedal ganglia, osphradial ganglia, pleural ganglia, parietal ganglia
and the visceral ganglia. There are sometimes also buccal ganglia.[23]
Digestive system
The radula of a gastropod is usually adapted to the food that a species eats. The simplest
gastropods are the limpets and abalones, herbivores that use their hard radula to rasp at seaweeds
on rocks.
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Many marine gastropods are burrowers, and have a siphon that extends out from the mantle edge.
Sometimes the shell has a siphonal canal to accommodate this structure. A siphon enables the
animal to draw water into their mantle cavity and over the gill. They use the siphon primarily to
"taste" the water to detect prey from a distance. Gastropods with siphons tend to be either
predators or scavengers.
Respiratory system
Almost all marine gastropods breathe with a gill, but many freshwater species, and the majority of
terrestrial species, have a pallial lung. The respiratory protein in almost all gastropods is
hemocyanin, but one freshwater pulmonate family, the Planorbidae, have hemoglobin as the
respiratory protein.
In one large group of sea slugs, the gills are arranged as a rosette of feathery plumes on their backs,
which gives rise to their other name, nudibranchs. Some nudibranchs have smooth or warty backs
with no visible gill mechanism, such that respiration may likely take place directly through the
skin.
Circulatory system
Gastropods have open circulatory system and the transport fluid is hemolymph. Hemocyanin is
present in the hemolymph as the respiratory pigment.
Excretory system
The primary organs of excretion in gastropods are nephridia, which produce either ammonia or
uric acid as a waste product. The nephridium also plays an important role in maintaining water
balance in freshwater and terrestrial species. Additional organs of excretion, at least in some
species, include pericardial glands in the body cavity, and digestive glands opening into the
stomach.
Reproductive system
Life cycle
Courtship is a part of the behavior of mating gastropods with some pulmonate families of land
snails creating and utilizing love darts, the throwing of which have been identified as a form of
sexual selection.[25]
Feeding behavior
The diet of gastropods differs according to the group
considered. Marine gastropods include some that are
herbivores, detritus feeders, predatory carnivores, scavengers,
parasites, and also a few ciliary feeders, in which the radula is
reduced or absent. Land-dwelling species can chew up leaves,
bark, fruit and decomposing animals while marine species can
scrape algae off the rocks on the seafloor. Certain species such
as the Archaeogastropda (https://www.britannica.com/anima
l/gastropod/Food-and-feeding) maintain horizontal rows of
slender marginal teeth. In some species that have evolved into A Pomacea maculata floating and
endoparasites, such as the eulimid Thyonicola doglieli, many eating a carrot
of the standard gastropod features are strongly reduced or
absent.
A few sea slugs are herbivores and some are carnivores. The carnivorous habit is due to
specialisation. Many gastropods have distinct dietary preferences and regularly occur in close
association with their food species.
Some predatory carnivorous gastropods include, for example: Cone shells, Testacella,
Daudebardia, Turrids, Ghost slug and others.
Genetics
Gastropods exhibit an important degree of variation in mitochondrial gene organization when
compared to other animals.[26] Main events of gene rearrangement occurred at the origin of
Patellogastropoda and Heterobranchia, whereas fewer changes occurred between the ancestors of
Vetigastropoda (only tRNAs D, C and N) and Caenogastropoda (a large single inversion, and
translocations of the tRNAs D and N).[26] Within Heterobranchia, gene order seems relatively
conserved, and gene rearrangements are mostly related with transposition of tRNA genes.[26]
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As such, it's not until the Ordovician that the first crown-group
members arise.[29] By the Ordovician period the gastropods
were a varied group present in a range of aquatic habitats.
Commonly, fossil gastropods from the rocks of the early
Palaeozoic era are too poorly preserved for accurate
identification. Still, the Silurian genus Poleumita contains
fifteen identified species. Fossil gastropods were less common
during the Palaeozoic era than bivalves.[29]
Trochonema sp., an early gastropod
Most of the gastropods of the Palaeozoic era belong to from the Middle Ordovician of the
primitive groups, a few of which still survive. By the Galena Group of Minnesota.
Carboniferous period many of the shapes seen in living
gastropods can be matched in the fossil record, but despite
these similarities in appearance the majority of these older
forms are not directly related to living forms. It was during the
Mesozoic era that the ancestors of many of the living
gastropods evolved.[29]
Rocks of the Cenozoic era yield very large numbers of gastropod fossils, many of these fossils being
closely related to modern living forms. The diversity of the gastropods increased markedly at the
beginning of this era, along with that of the bivalves.[29]
Certain trail-like markings preserved in ancient sedimentary rocks are thought to have been made
by gastropods crawling over the soft mud and sand. Although these trace fossils are of debatable
origin, some of them do resemble the trails made by living gastropods today.[29]
Gastropod fossils may sometimes be confused with ammonites or other shelled cephalopods. An
example of this is Bellerophon from the limestones of the Carboniferous period in Europe, the
shell of which is planispirally coiled and can be mistaken for the shell of a cephalopod.
Gastropods are one of the groups that record the changes in fauna caused by the advance and
retreat of the Ice Sheets during the Pleistocene epoch.
Cladogram
Gastropoda
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Panpulmonata ►
Euopisthobranchia ►
Nudipleura ►
Caenogastropoda
Neritimorpha
Vetigastropoda
Patellogastropoda ►
Cocculiniformia, Neomphalina and Lower Heterobranchia are not included in the above
cladogram.
Taxonomy
Since Darwin, biological taxonomy has attempted to reflect the phylogeny of organisms, i.e., the
tree of life. The classifications used in taxonomy attempt to represent the precise interrelatedness
of the various taxa. However, the taxonomy of the Gastropoda is constantly being revised and so
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Convergent evolution, which appears to exist at especially high frequency in gastropods, may
account for the observed differences between the older phylogenies, which were based on
morphological data, and more recent gene-sequencing studies.
Bouchet & Rocroi (2005)[3][33] made sweeping changes in the systematics, resulting in a taxonomy
that is a step closer to the evolutionary history of the phylum. The Bouchet & Rocroi classification
system is based partly on the older systems of classification, and partly on new cladistic research.
In the past, the taxonomy of gastropods was largely based on phenetic morphological characters of
the taxa. The recent advances are more based on molecular characters from DNA[34] and RNA
research. This has made the taxonomical ranks and their hierarchy controversial. The debate
about these issues is not likely to end soon.
In the Bouchet, Rocroi et al. taxonomy, the authors have used unranked clades for taxa above the
rank of superfamily (replacing the ranks suborder, order, superorder and subclass), while using
the traditional Linnaean approach for all taxa below the rank of superfamily. Whenever
monophyly has not been tested, or is known to be paraphyletic or polyphyletic, the term "group" or
"informal group" has been used. The classification of families into subfamilies is often not well
resolved, and should be regarded as the best possible hypothesis.
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In 2004, Brian Simison and David R. Lindberg showed possible diphyletic origins of the
Gastropoda based on mitochondrial gene order and amino acid sequence analyses of complete
genes.[35]
In the 2017 issue of the Malacologia journal (available online from 4 January 2018), a significantly
updated version of the 2005 "Bouchet & Rocroi" taxonomy was published in the paper "Revised
Classification, Nomenclator and Typification of Gastropod and Monoplacophoran Families".[36]
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External links
Gastropods portal
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