UNIT 4 – CELL DIVISION AND REPRODUCTION

Wednesday, January 5, 2022

4.1 - Cell Division and Genetic Material (pg. 160-167)

Genetics is the field of biology that involves the study of how Genetic Information is passed
from one generation of organisms or cells to the next.

Cell processes
The cell theory created in the 1800’s states
1. All living things are composed of one or more cells.
2. Cells are the smallest units of living organisms.
3. New cells come only from pre-existing cells by cell division.
Therefore, traits must be passed from a Parent cell to new Daughter Cells.

The Cell Cycle

A Somatic cell is a plant or animal cell found in the body of an organism. (Includes everything
but sex cells)

These Somatic cells go through cell cycles

Once one cell completes a cycle it becomes two cells (the duration of the cell cycle depends on
the cell type and the organism).

For most Healthy, Actively Dividing animal cells, the cycle lasts 12 to 24 hours.
Specific checkpoints in the cell cycle monitor growth to ensure the cycle continues when it
should and stops when it should.

Stages of the Cell Cycle

The three main stages of the cell cycle are
1. Interphase: growth and intense cell activity. During Interphase, the cell carries out
its normal functions(+growing). Once its reached maturity, it will make a copy of its
Genetic Information. There are 3 steps in interphase
a. Growth 1 (G1)
i. G1 is the major period of growth
b. Synthesis (S)
i. S phase is when DNA is replicated
c. Growth 2 (G2)
i. G2 involves further growth and molecule synthesis
2. Mitosis: cell’s nucleus and genetic material divide. (before dividing the cell
undergoes mitosis)
a. Prophase
i. During Prophase Chromosomes condense into identical sister
chromatids
ii. Nuclear Membrane disintegrates and the nucleolus disappears
 iii. Spindle Fibers Begin to Form (made of microtubules)
b. Metaphase
i. During Metaphase chromosomes align at the metaphase plate at
the equator of the cell
ii. Here the centromere aka the kinetochores attach to the spindle
fibers ( kinetochore microtubule )
c. Anaphase
d. Telophase
i. During Telophase chromosomes reach poles, polar microtubules
continue to elongate,
ii. Nuclear membrane forms, Nucleoli appear& chromosomes
decondense
3. Cytokinesis: division of the cell cytoplasm and creation of new cell
a. Cytokinesis begins with a furrow that pinches the cell and eventually splits
the two cells apart.

Cytokinesis – Animals Vs Plants

Prokaryotic cells complete cell division

with binary fission since they

lack a nucleus. DNA is pulled apart,

and the cell separates into

two prokaryotic cells.

The structure of Genetic material
DNA is comprised of nucleotides, each of which is made up of a sugar (deoxyribose), a
phosphate group, and a base.

There are Four Bases

1. Adenine (A)
2. Guanine (G)
3. Cytosine (C)
4. Thymine (T)

Across the middle of the helix, A pairs with T, and C pairs with G. and this is known as
Complimentary Base Pairing.
DNA is shaped like a long, spiraling double helix.

DNA replication
- When DNA is replicated during interphase, the double helix Unwinds
- Each strand of DNA serves as a Template for a New Strand.
- Each new double helix contains One Original strand and one New Strand.

Chromosomes
- The number of chromosomes does not determine the organism’s complexity
- Every human has two sets of 23 Chromosomes in the somatic cells
- Out of the total 23 pairs, one of the pairs of human chromosomes is called the sex
chromosomes (determine the sex of the individual)
o The two chromosomes, called X and Y, are in fact not homologous, XX-F, XY-M
 - One set from the Father (sperm) and one set from the Mother (egg).
- The sets are Homologous; they contain the same sequence of genes (traits).
- They also have the same length, location of the centromere, and stain banding pattern.
- However, they can contain different Alleles (forms) of a gene.

Homologous Chromosomes are pairs of chromosomes that appear similar in terms of

Genes
1. Length
2. Centromere Location
3. Banding Pattern – Location of Genes
Both Chromosomes have all the same genes in the same locations ( represented with coloured
strips )

Homologous Chromosomes can have

Different versions of the same genes and
are represented by the different shades
and are known as Alleles

- Genes are sections of DNA that

contain genetic information for the
inheritance for specific traits
- A Gene is a specific set of
instruction that codes for protein
formation.
- The created proteins govern all
processes in the human body. (ex
hair colour)

A Karyotype is a person’s particular set of chromosomes, specific to the individual!

The chromosome pairs are arranged and numbered in order of their length, from longest to
shortest
The sex chromosomes are placed last in a karyotype.

Definitions
Genetics: the study of heredity and variation of living organisms and the genetic information is
passed from one generation to the next.
Somatic cell: a plant or animal cell that forms the body of the organisms; excludes reproductive
cells.
Chromosomes: a structure in the nucleus that contains DNA.
Sister chromatid: one of two chromosomes that are genetically identical and held together at the
centromere.
Centromere: the region where two sister chromatids are held together in a chromosome.
Spindle fiber: a microtubule structure that facilitates the movement of chromosomes within a
cell.
Centrosome: a structure that helps to form the spindle fibers.
Genome: the complete DNA sequence of an organism.
Sex chromosomes: an X of Y chromosome, which determines the genetic sex of an organism.
Autosome: a chromosome that is not involved in determining the sex of an organism.
Homologous chromosome: a chromosome that contains the same sequence of genes as another
chromosome.
Gene: a part of a chromosome that governs the expression of a trait and is passed on to offspring;
it has specific DNA sequence.
Allele: a different form of the same gene.
Karyotype: a photograph of pairs of homologous chromosomes in a cell.
 Thursday, January 6, 2022
4.2 – Sexual Reproduction (pg. 169-176)

The zygote has the same number of chromosomes as a somatic cell (46)
To achieve this, each gamete only carries one set of homologous chromosomes (23)
A cell with one set is haploid (n); a cell with two sets is diploid (2n). The human diploid number
is 2n = 46
 
 

Meiosis
When you reach puberty the production of sex cells (gametes) begins.
The process that produces gametes with a haploid ( 1n ) number of chromosomes is called
Meiosis.

Meiosis Has Two Outcomes:

1. Genetic Reduction: a form of cell division that produces daughter cells with half the
number of chromosomes of the parent cell
2. Genetic Recombination: the products of meiosis have different combinations of Alleles

Genetic Recombination gives rise to offspring that are genetically different from one another and
their parents

Like Mitosis, Meiosis involves a precise sequence of events that can be grouped into
Four distinct phases:
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase

Meiosis, however, involves Two Complete Cycles of the four phases, called Meiosis I and
Meiosis II.
Meiosis in depth
Each cell contains some chromosomes from the mother (yellow), some chromosomes from the
father (blue)

Some chromosomes have segments that have been exchanged (yellow and blue via
recombination)

Anaphase II
Spindle Fibers contract and
Sister Chromatids split and
move towards opposite poles
 Gamete Formation in Animals Spermatogenesis

In most male animals, meiosis takes place in the Testes

The process of spermatogenesis begins with a diploid cell
called a spermatogonium

Once puberty hits, the spermatogonia (2n) reproduce by

mitosis and then meiosis (1n), starting at puberty.

Therefore 1 spermatogonia will produce 4 sperm!

Spermatogenesis is the process that produces sperm in male

animals; oogenesis produces eggs in females.

Gamete Formation in Animals

In females, meiosis takes place in the ovaries.

Oogenesis starts with a diploid cell called an Oogonium. The oogonia (2n) reproduce by mitosis
before birth. They begin meiosis but stop at prophase I.

Each month after puberty, one cell will continue at

prophase 1 and finally completes meiosis to become
haploid (1n).

However, during meiosis, the Cytoplasm is

unequally distributed,

Only the cell with the majority of the cytoplasm will mature into a mature egg and only one cell
matures, not four. The rest form Polar Bodies which degenerate.

Zygote
Genetic Variation
During meiosis, genetic variation is ensured in two ways: Independent Assortment and Crossing
Over.

During Metaphase 1, chromosomes are randomly arranged in their Homologous Pairs along the
equator of the cell

In a process called Independent Assortment, gametes are created that carry different
combinations of Maternal and Paternal chromosomes.

This alone can produce over 8 million different chromosome combinations.

In a process called crossing over (genetic recombination), genetic material between maternal and
paternal chromosomes is exchanged.
This occurs during Prophase I in which non-sister chromatids of homologous pairs
exchange genetic material in multiple sections.

Errors in chromosome structures

During crossover (Prophase 1 of Meiosis), chemical bonds within the DNA strands are broken
When chemical bonds are re-formed after crossover has completed, errors can occur that can
result in the following:
- Deletion
- Duplication
- Inversion
- Translocation

Errors in chromosome number

Sometimes, homologous chromosome pairs or sister chromatids do not separate to opposite poles
as they should during meiosis
This phenomenon known as non-disjunction.

This can occur during anaphase I (A) or anaphase II (B) of meiosis

Non-Disjunction
Non-disjunction produces gametes that have too many or too few chromosomes.

Monosomy is the term used for a condition in

which one chromosome is lost due to non-
disjunction a.k.a single chromosome copy error.

In this case, the gamete is missing one chromosome

of a homologous pair.
- Example? Turner Syndrome involves a
missing X chromosome and have only a
single sex chromosome = X

Trisomy 21 (or three copies of chromosome 21) is a different type of non-disjunction.

Trisomy often occurs in chromosomes 21, 18 and 13 and in the sex chromosomes
In this type of non-disjunction, an extra chromosome is gained giving the individual a total of
47 chromosomes ( normal number is 46 )
- This results in Down Syndrome.

Prenatal genetic testing

Pregnant women of all ages may request or be referred
for prenatal genetic testing. If referred, procedures are
covered by the Ontario Health Insurance Plan.

Deciding to have prenatal testing can be a difficult

decision since there are many factors
to consider, including the possibility of pregnancy termination with some procedures.

Definitions:
Asexual reproduction: reproduction that requires only one parent and produces genetically
identical offspring.
Sexual reproduction: reproduction that requires two parents and produces genetically distinct
offspring.
Gamete: a male or female reproductive cell.
Zygote: a cell formed by the fusion of two gametes.
Fertilization: in humans, the joining of male and female haploid gametes.
Haploid: a cell that contains half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
Diploid: a cell that contains pairs of homologous chromosomes.
Meiosis: the cellular process that produces cells containing half the number of chromosomes as
the parent cell.
Synopsis: the lining of homologous chromosomes during prophase 1 in meiosis 1.
Spermatogenesis: the process of producing male gametes in in (sperm) in mammals.
Oogenesis: the process of producing female gametes (eggs) in mammals.
Crossing over: the exchange of chromosomal segments between a pair of homologous
chromosomes.
Non-disjunction: the failure of homologous chromosomes pairs or or sister chromatids to
separate during meiosis.
Monosomy: the loss of a chromosome as a result of non-disjunction
Trisomy: the gain of an extra chromosome as result of non-disjunction

Friday, January 5, 2022

4.3 – Reproductive Strategies and Technologies (182-188)

Methods used in Agriculture

Selective breeding: the process of breeding plants and animals for desirable traits.
While sometimes imprecise, this strategy has produced many varieties of plants and animals.

1. Artificial Insemination
 - The transfer of (often processed) semen into a female’s reproductive tract.
o Humans do this if there is problems with sperm (count/function), breeders do this
if there are high quality sperm that can be chosen that have desirable traits, and
humans do this for sperm banks

2. Embryo Transfer
- Fertilizing an egg artificially and then transferring it into a recipient female.
o Embryos are easier shipped then animals
o Animals born and raised in their native environment do better than those imported

Assistive Reproductive Technologies for Humans:

1. In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)

Immature eggs are retrieved, joined with sperm in the lab, and embryos are inserted into
the woman’s uterus.
o This is an option for women with blocked Fallopian tubes.
o It is for those who cannot conceive on their own, 1.5 million born since 1978!

2. Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis

As an additional step to IVF, one of the cells of an embryo is removed and tested for
specific genetic disorders before it is implanted in the uterus.

3. Cloning
Cloning includes the process that produces identical copies of:
1. Genes
2. Cells
3. Whole Organisms.

a. Gene cloning
This process Involves manipulating the DNA to produce multiple copies of a gene
or another Segment of DNA in foreign cells. We use this to for many reasons:
i. The cloned DNA can be used for further study, or for mass production of
the Protein the Gene Codes for
ii. Proteins produced this way have plenty of commercial and medical
applications
iii. It can also harvest insulin

How Gene cloning is done.

1. Isolate the insulin gene segment.
2. Choose an appropriate Vector, such as a bacterial plasmid. Why? (Vector = carriers of the
DNA to be cloned)
3. Create Recombinant DNA by inserting the insulin gene into the vector, using molecular
agents to cut and join pieces together.
 4. Treat the bacterial cells so that they take in the recombinant DNA in a process called
Transformation. Cells now make many copies of the gene and thus produce a large
amount of the protein.
5. Harvest the insulin $$$$$$$$

Cloning: Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer

2 types of cloning exist. Therapeutic and Reproductive cloning involve inserting the nucleus
from a somatic cell of the donor into an egg cell that has had its nucleus removed.
1. Therapeutic Cloning
- Therapeutic cloning involves producing genetically identical cells that are used to treat
various diseases.
o The cloned cells are then used to grow new tissues and organs.
- This process is achieved through a process called Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT).
o In this technique, an egg cell’s nucleus is removed ( leaving an empty egg ) and
then replaced with the nucleus of a Somatic Cell
o This new cell will develop into an embryo then blastocyst
o At this point, stem cells from within are removed and cells are directed to grow
into tissue type of interest
2. Reproductive Cloning
- Is performed with the express intent of creating another entire organism
- The produced organism is the exact duplicate of one that already exists or has existed in
the past (genetically identical organism)
o This cloning is done to repopulate endangered species

Cloning Controversy
Controversy surrounds both therapeutic and reproductive cloning as people are unsure how the
processes will be applied.(Generate organs , very expensive only rich can buy)
Two issues arise with the process of therapeutic cloning (somatic cell nuclear transfer or SCNT)
because:
- the process produces stem cells that could potentially be used to create a human clone
- in some cases, the original cells used are embryonic stem cells

Transgenic Application
A Transgenic Organism, or genetically modified organism (GMO), has had DNA from another
species inserted into its genetic material.
Transgenic Plant Application
- There are many applications for this technique in the plant kingdom:
o Strawberries that taste like pineapples
o Grapes that taste like cotton candy
Transgenic Animal Applications
- Milk-producing animals can be modified!
o Human Genes that are responsible for producing hormones can be transferred into
an animal’s genome. It results in milk for commercial use.
- Transgenic milk-producing animals can produce medical proteins like Human Growth
Hormone
 o Transgenic animals could also successfully serve as organ donors for humans!

GMO Concerns
- Creation of super-weeds as species cross-reproduce, due to their herbicide genes
- Herbicide-resistant plants could encourage the use of stronger herbicides
- Not enough is known about the long-term effects of human consumption of transgenic
foods and medicine
- The amount of money spent may be greater than the overall benefit

Definitions:
Selective breeding: the process of breeding plants and animals for desirable traits.
Artificial insemination: the process by which sperm are collected and concentrated before being
in introduced into the female’s reproductive system.
Embryo transfer: the process by which an egg that has been fertilized artificially is transferred
into a recipient females’ uterus.
In vitro fertilization: the technique used to fertilize eggs outside the female’s body.
Cloning: a process that produces identical copies of genes, cells, or organizations.
Gene cloning: the use of DNA manipulation techniques to produce multiple copies of a single
gene or segment of DNA.
Recombinant DNA: a molecule of DNA that includes genetic material from different sources.
Therapeutic cloning: the process of replacing an egg cell’s nucleus with a nucleus from a
somatic donor cell to produce a cell line of genetically identical cells.
Reproductive cloning: the process of producing genetically identical organisms.
Stem cell: an undifferentiated cell that can develop and become specialized into different cell
types of the body.