Research Methodology: An Introduction 1

1
Research Methodology:
An Introduction

MEANING OF RESEARCH
Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define research as
a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an
art of scientific investigation. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays down the
meaning of research as “a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in
any branch of knowledge.”1 Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized effort to gain
new knowledge.”2 Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to
the unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness
for, when the unknown confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain
full and fuller understanding of the unknown. This inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and
the method, which man employs for obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown, can be
termed as research.
Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense.
According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating
hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data; making deductions and
reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the
formulating hypothesis. D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences
define research as “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalising to
extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the
practice of an art.”3 Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge
making for its advancement. It is the persuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison
and experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of
finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach concerning generalisation and the
formulation of a theory is also research. As such the term ‘research’ refers to the systematic method
1
The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English, Oxford, 1952, p. 1069.
2
L.V. Redman and A.V.H. Mory, The Romance of Research, 1923, p.10.
3
The Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, Vol. IX, MacMillan, 1930.
 2 Research Methodology

consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analysing
the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions(s) towards the concerned
problem or in certain generalisations for some theoretical formulation.

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been
discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of
research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research
studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).

MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The
possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies.
Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about new
things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like may as
well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.

TYPES OF RESEARCH
The basic types of research are as follows:
(i) Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries
of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of
affairs as it exists at present. In social science and business research we quite often use
Research Methodology: An Introduction 3

the term Ex post facto research for descriptive research studies. The main characteristic
of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report
what has happened or what is happening. Most ex post facto research projects are used
for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example,
frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. Ex post facto studies also
include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they cannot control the
variables. The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of
all kinds, including comparative and correlational methods. In analytical research, on the
other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze
these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
(ii) Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or
fundamental (to basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an
immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organisation, whereas fundamental
research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a theory.
“Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.”4 Research
concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of
fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human behaviour carried on
with a view to make generalisations about human behaviour, are also examples of
fundamental research, but research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a
concrete social or business problem is an example of applied research. Research to identify
social, economic or political trends that may affect a particular institution or the copy research
(research to find out whether certain communications will be read and understood) or the
marketing research or evaluation research are examples of applied research. Thus, the
central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problem,
whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of
applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.
(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity
or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in
investigating the reasons for human behaviour (i.e., why people think or do certain things),
we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of qualitative research.
This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth
interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are word association tests,
sentence completion tests, story completion tests and similar other projective techniques.
Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or what
they think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research. Qualitative
research is specially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the
underlying motives of human behaviour. Through such research we can analyse the various
factors which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make people like
or dislike a particular thing. It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research in

4
Pauline V. Young, Scientific Social Surveys and Research, p. 30.
4 Research Methodology

practice is relatively a difficult job and therefore, while doing such research, one should
seek guidance from experimental psychologists.
(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or
theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to
reinterpret existing ones. On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or
observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research,
coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment.
We can also call it as experimental type of research. In such a research it is necessary to
get at facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about doing certain things to
stimulate the production of desired information. In such a research, the researcher must
first provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then
works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up
experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the materials concerned
so as to bring forth the desired information. Such research is thus characterised by the
experimenter’s control over the variables under study and his deliberate manipulation of
one of them to study its effects. Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that
certain variables affect other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments
or empirical studies is today considered to be the most powerful support possible for a
given hypothesis.
(v) Some Other Types of Research: All other types of research are variations of one or more
of the above stated approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the time
required to accomplish research, on the environment in which research is done, or on the
basis of some other similar factor. Form the point of view of time, we can think of research
either as one-time research or longitudinal research. In the former case the research is
confined to a single time-period, whereas in the latter case the research is carried on over
several time-periods. Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or
simulation research, depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried out.
Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such research
follow case-study methods or indepth approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such
studies usually go deep into the causes of things or events that interest us, using very small
samples and very deep probing data gathering devices. The research may be exploratory
or it may be formalized. The objective of exploratory research is the development of
hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized research studies are those with
substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested. Historical research is that
which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to study events or ideas of
the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point of time. Research
can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented. While doing conclusion-
oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as he
proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-oriented research is
always for the need of a decision maker and the researcher in this case is not free to
embark upon research according to his own inclination. Operations research is an example
of decision oriented research since it is a scientific method of providing executive departments
with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations under their control.