The Joy of Chemistry

A Quick Study Guide for Kids and Beginners

to Learn Chemistry Using Fun Analogies and
Examples
 

by
Nervana Elkhadragy, PhD
 
© Copyright Nervana Elkhadragy 2021 - All rights reserved.

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 Table of Contents

Introduction
Chapter 1
How Are Particles Similar to People?
Chapter 2
Movement Behavior of Particles: They Are Just Like Us
Chapter 3
The Atomic Structure and Its Similarity With the Solar
System
Chapter 4
Scientists Grouped Elements Similar to How We Group Kids, a
Theater, or a City
Chapter 5
What Is the Ultimate Goal of Each Atom?
Chapter 6
Why Are Some Elements More Energetic (More Reactive)
Than Others?
Chapter 7
Once an Atom Attains Its Goal, Then What?
Chapter 8
How Atoms Make Deals
Chapter 9
Don’t Splash Those Chemicals!
Conclusion
Resources

 
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 INTRODUCTION
Chemistry is the study of everything that makes us – and
the world around us – tick. More specifically, it is studying what
everything is made of and how those components interact. The
tiny particles that are our building blocks and make up air we
breathe all involve chemicals. The study of those chemicals is
what chemistry is all about. We need to know how all these
things are made and how they interact because they teach us
about ourselves and how we can live healthier, smarter, and
longer lives.

We study many forms of science, but did you know that

chemistry is a part of almost all of them? Doctors, astronauts,
and even chefs must study chemistry for their jobs. Upset your
ice cream melted and dripped on your favorite jeans? That's a
change in the state of matter, which we can learn about in
chemistry. How the detergent cleans it off your pants in the
washing machine is also chemistry. Chemistry is a part of
everyday life, and we experience it all the time.

It seems like a lot, I know, but there is an easy way to learn

chemistry basics. These chemicals, the components that make
everything, are just like us. Although we won’t discuss how
detergents work in this book, we’re going to understand the
basics.

The small parts that make up the world are very similar to
people. Those small particles have unique characteristics and
different goals. They all strive to achieve those goals, but some
achieve them fast, and some just don’t seem to have the
enthusiasm. Some are lazy, and some are active. They may
interact and work together in an efficient way to achieve their
goals. It’s so much fun to learn chemistry while pretending
particles are people!

This book will teach you how the particles and chemicals in
chemistry act and interact. The best part is that you don't need
to memorize information to understand chemistry basics. We'll
learn the fundamentals of chemistry in a fun way, as well as some
terms to help us carry on conversations about chemistry just like
the pros do.

At the end of each chapter is a "Knowledge Check" to help

you see what you understood from the chapter. Remember, these
are just for fun, so feel free to do them at the end of each
chapter or after you've read the whole book.
 CHAPTER 1
How Are Particles Similar to People?

As I mentioned before, chemistry is the study of the

world's components and everything in it. More specifically, it is
the study of matter. Matter is just the stuff you touch and the
air you breathe: it's all around us. Matter is anything that weighs
some mass. Although you might argue that some things don't
seem to weigh anything, in reality, they do. The air you breathe
is transparent, but it’s made up of matter. It's just that air is a
gas, which means that the particles are very far apart – to the
point that we can wave our hands through this gas.

You probably know that not everything is gas; some things

are in liquid form. You can still kind of wave your hands through
the water, but it’s not as easy. This is because water particles
are much closer to each other than gas particles. On the other
hand, solids are much harder; you couldn't wave your hands
through them.

Imagine sitting in the tub taking a bath. Now wave your

hands through the air. It's so easy, right? Now wave your hands
through the water. It's possible, but you feel like the water is
resisting the movement a bit. Now try to put your hands inside
the wall next to your tub. Now that's impossible!

I just described the three states of matter: solid, liquid,

and gas. These three states determine how stuff looks from the
outside and the inside. The way particles are arranged in
different forms will be different. In solids, particles are tightly
packed and arranged very close to each other. That's why you
can't put your hands through them. In liquid, particles are close
to each other, but not as tightly packed together as they are in
solids. That's why you can put your hands in water or any other
liquid, such as juice, soup, soda or oil.

The three states of matter are very similar to people. I

know that sounds strange, but hear me out. Some adults are
always sitting on their chairs, working on a computer, or sitting in
a meeting room. Maybe they’re moving their hands and rolling
chairs, but they’re not moving much from their places. In solids,
like adults, particles stick close to one spot. They don't move.
They vibrate, but they're sitting in their positions and never
exploring other places.

Imagine you’re at a barbecue. You’ll notice that adults will

sit at tables, talk, eat, and laugh. They all sit next to each other,
but with very little energy. It's also hard to grab an adult from
their place, right? Did you ever notice that the last thing
parents want to do is get up? It's hard to separate them. It’s
the same story with particles in a solid state. It's hard to
separate particles from each other. Now, if you’re an adult
reading this book, please don’t be offended. Come on, admit it…
we do sit a lot.

The second type of people are teenagers and children. They

move a lot. They will spend hours in a mall walking from store to
store. They don’t seem to ever stop moving. In liquids, as in young
teenagers and children, particles are actively moving all the time.
But they don't move too far apart. They still stay together. At a
party, teenagers will walk together, and they have more energy,
which keeps them moving – but they're not running. It's a bit
easier to grab one of the kids to help set up the table for the
party. This is like the liquid state: particles are close together,
but they’re moving. They have some energy, and it's easier for
them to move further apart.

Then there's the third type. Those are the toddlers.

They’re all over the place! As adults, we call them “the terrible
twos” because they can be a challenge. We can’t keep up with the
speed they move at. In gases, as in toddlers, particles are
speeding; they have lots of energy and are all over the place,
getting into everything unless you're careful. Little children are
going to be scattered across the park at the barbecue. They
have so much energy. Similarly, gas particles have a lot of
energy: they're everywhere, and it's easy for particles to spread
even further.

See? People and matter are similar. Imagine you, your

family, and half a dozen other families went out for a barbecue.
Where would each person sit? And what would they do?

Next time you go to the park, just quietly observe what

people do. The next chapter will just blow your mind about how
much like us particles really are! But before we move into
Chapter Two, let’s check your understanding of the concepts
explained in Chapter One.

Knowledge Check:

In which state of matter are particles most energetic?

______________________________
 That's right! Gas particles have so much energy, and as a
result, they move very fast in all directions.

In which state of matter are particles only vibrating
but not moving?

______________________________

Super! It's solid particles. They don't have much energy, so

they only vibrate.

In which state(s) of matter can you put your hands
through? Why?

______________________________

Great job! Gases and liquids! You can use jazz hands, and
nothing will stop you. You can wave them in a liquid, but you’ll get
a little bit of resistance. You can also do jazz hands in a gas, and
there won't be any resistance. This is because liquid particles
are not tightly packed, but they are still wandering around close
to each other.
 CHAPTER 2
Movement Behavior of Particles:
They Are Just Like Us

We just talked about how particles in a solid state are

packed next to each other and can’t move much. They do,
however, vibrate all the time because they still do have some
amount of energy. Particles in a liquid or gas state, on the other
hand, move all the time. Of course, in gases, particles are much
faster because they're much more energetic.

Now that you know that particles move all the time, and if
they’re not moving (as in a solid state), they're vibrating, what
do you think would help particles to move faster?

Did you guess it? It's heat.

When those particles are provided with heat, they gain all
the energy they can, and they use it to move faster and faster.
If they’re in a solid state, particles vibrate more strongly.
They’re like little toddlers: after you feed them, they get more
energy to move faster and play with more life, joy, and
enthusiasm.

What if there were several different-sized particles?

Would one move faster? You bet! It's the smaller particles that
will move faster. Imagine a race with several participants, all
with different weights. One guy looks thin and light, and the
other looks heavy. The heavy guy will move, but he'll struggle.
It's going to take him some time to arrive at the finish line.
 You see how particles move the same way that people move?
Particles also behave the same way people behave in a busy
grocery store. Suppose you went to the store for grocery
shopping with your parents. You’re done shopping, and head for
the checkout. There’s a long line that looks crowded, but you just
have to take your spot at the end of this line and wait. After a
few minutes, another checkout opens, and the clerk invites
people to form a new line. What do you think will happen? Of
course, people will move from this long, crowded line to the
empty one. But until what point are people going to move?
They're going to continue moving from the more crowded queue
to the less crowded one until both queues are pretty equal. At
this point, it won’t matter, and people will choose the line at
random.

Figure 1: Illustration to explain the concept of diffusion. Shoppers move from busy areas to less busy areas.
Particles too move from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration.
 This is how particles behave: they move from a more
crowded area to a less crowded area. Does this happen at home
in our everyday lives? It does. Remember the last time you used
watercolors? When you dip your brush filled with red dye into
the cup of water, you'll see the water turning red at the surface.
Wait a few minutes, and you'll see the red color spreading
throughout the water. Eventually, all the water becomes red.
What happened here? Well, the red particles at the surface of
the water saw that they were crowded, and they realized
there's a whole space ahead of them that is much less crowded,
so they started spreading out. At one point, they became evenly
distributed. They had no preference in moving from one area to
another, and just went back to moving randomly in all directions.
You can try this out yourself: it's easy to observe if the
substance diffusing is colored paint: you can see the color
spreading through a colorless fluid, such as water.

Figure 2: This example illustrates diffusion of a liquid through another liquid. Colored particles diffuse through
the water fluid until it is evenly distributed.

What we've discussed is a liquid diffusing through another

fluid. But as you can imagine, diffusion can also happen in gases.
Have you ever attended a wedding in which colored smoke was
released? What happens after the smoke is out of the
container? That's right: the smoke spreads, and particles
diffuse through the air looking for less crowded places. By the
time the wedding is over, you won't see the colored fumes
because the particles have spread all over.

Another example of the diffusion of a gas is the smell of

delicious food. How come you can smell the yummy burgers
several feet away from the fast-food restaurant? It's because
the particles responsible for the smell have diffused through
the air. They moved from the crowded kitchen to the
surrounding air. Similarly, perfume spreads throughout a whole
room because particles of the scent are dispersed from an area
with a high perfume concentration to lower concentration areas.

Particles are like individuals. They think and make wise

decisions. And like people, there can be different kinds. Some
people have blue eyes, and some have green; similarly, particles
are of different types, some are atoms, others are ions, and
some are molecules.

In the next chapter, we will look at the structure of atoms.

But before we go, let’s see how well you absorbed the new
information in Chapter Two.

Knowledge Check:

Water particles move all the time. You put a cup of
water in the refrigerator and another cup on the kitchen
counter. In which cup of water are the particles moving faster?
Why?

______________________________
 You got it! The water in the cup placed on the kitchen
counter is at room temperature – much warmer than the water in
the refrigerator. Those particles in the warmer place have more
energy, and thus will move faster.

What's the difference between particles' movement in
a hot saucepan and the movement of those in a cool saucepan?

______________________________

Great job! Particles in the hot saucepan are vibrating much

more; those in the cool one are vibrating like usual.

Which one is easier to smell from a distance, hot or
iced coffee?

______________________________

Smart thinking! Diffusion occurs faster at a warmer

temperature because particles have more kinetic energy, and
thus move faster. That's why we all enjoy the smell of freshly
brewed coffee.
 CHAPTER 3
The Atomic Structure and
Its Similarity With the Solar System

Atoms are remarkably like the solar system. There's a

heavy nucleus in the middle, and lighter particles orbiting this
nucleus. Remember the solar system from second grade? The sun
is in the middle, just like the nucleus of an atom, and the sun is
heavier than all other objects. Similarly, an atom's nucleus is
much heavier than the particles orbiting around it. The nucleus
contains two kinds of particles mixed together. One type is
called “protons”, and the other is called “neutrons”. In the solar
system, planets are smaller, and they orbit the sun. Similarly, in
atoms, electrons are tiny particles that orbit the nucleus at a
very high speed.

There’s one more similarity between the atom and the solar
system. Like the solar system, most of the atom is space; the
nucleus only takes up a tiny area of the whole atom.

We know that our solar system has eight planets orbiting

the sun, and each planet has its orbit and is moving in its path.
Electrons are slightly different: there can be several electrons
in the same orbit. Except we don't say that they’re in orbit: we
say they’re in “shells” when we’re referring to electrons.

So how many electrons are there in each shell? And how

many total electrons are there? Well, a general rule is that
electrons like to orbit in the shell closest to the nucleus. If
there are many electrons, some will occupy the first shell, and
others will just have to move to further shells. There is a
maximum of seven possible shells that we know of, which would
only be occupied if there were over a hundred electrons. The
number of electrons depends on the element: some have few, and
some have many.

For example, hydrogen only has one electron, which

naturally sits in that first shell. Well, it doesn't sit; it orbits the
nucleus at high speed.

What happens if there are more electrons? Some will sit in

the first shell, and if there are more electrons, others will have
to settle for the second. For example, lithium has three
electrons, but the first shell is tiny. The first shell can only hold
two electrons, so the third electron occupies the second shell.

As you can imagine, these shells are not all equal in size.
Naturally, the first shell is small because it is closest to the
nucleus. That's why it can only accommodate two electrons. The
second shell is a bit bigger, accommodating up to eight electrons.
If there are more than eight, then it's time for the extra
electrons to occupy the third shell.

Now back to the solar system. Planets are attracted to the

sun by the force we call gravity. Similarly, electrons are
attracted to the nucleus, but not by gravity. Instead, it's a force
we call "electrostatic" force. The meaning of electrostatic is
that two opposite charges are attracted to each other. The
nucleus is positively charged, and electrons are negatively
charged; therefore, they are attracted to each other. This is
similar how magnets attract. The north pole is strongly attracted
to the south pole because they are opposite.
 A critical concept of chemistry that you'll deal with as long
as you study science is the charge of a particle. Some particles
are neutral and some are charged – and they behave very
differently. Earlier, I mentioned the three types of particles:
atoms, ions and molecules. Ions are charged particles. The other
two types are neutral.

Atoms have an overall neutral charge. The reason is that

the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons.
Hence, the positive and the negative charges cancel each other.
For example, an atom of copper has 29 protons and 29 electrons.
Remember: protons are positively charged, and electrons are
negatively charged, so they cancel each other. By the way, your
phone has many copper strips in it, and most electric wires are
made of this super-important element.

So, in an atom, the number of protons is always equal to the

number of electrons. If they're not equal, we don't call it an
atom. We call it an ion.

When there are many atoms of the same kind hanging out
together, we call them an "element". For example, copper wire is
simply the element copper because it consists only of copper
atoms and no other type of atoms. A cooking utensil made of
aluminium is the element aluminium because there are only
aluminium atoms. There are no hydrogen atoms or iron atoms or
carbon atoms.

Now that you know what an element is, you are ready to
learn about the periodic table. But before we go, let’s think
about the following questions.

Knowledge Check:

Atoms have many particles. How are these particles
arranged?

______________________________

That’s right, particles are arranged like the solar system,

with a nucleus in the middle and electrons moving around the
nucleus.

What do we call the orbits occupied by electrons?

______________________________

Super! They’re called shells. You’re doing great! Now think

about this next question.

How are atoms like the solar system?

______________________________

That’s right: each atom has a heavy nucleus in the middle

and many electrons revolving around it. There’s also much empty
space in the atom, similar to the solar system.

What does the nucleus of an atom contain?

______________________________

Good memory! The nucleus contains two types of particles:

protons and neutrons.

Why is an atom neutral?

______________________________

Good thinking! The number of positive protons is equal to

the number of negative electrons. The opposite charges cancel
each other.

In your own words, describe what an element is, and
give an example.

______________________________

Nice explanation! An element is a substance consisting of

only one type of atom. Examples include the element hydrogen,
the element oxygen, and the element gold.

 
 CHAPTER 4
Scientists Grouped Elements Similar to How We Group Kids, a
Theater, or a City

Many elements surround us at home and at school. For

example, you'll find in your kitchen several items that are made
of aluminium, such as aluminium foil, food containers, and
saucepans. The car you ride has many parts made of the element
iron. Birthday balloons are filled with the element helium. Your
pencils are made from the element carbon. And if your mom is
fond of jewelry, you'll find much gold and silver in your house.
However, many of the items around your house are not pure
elements. They're more like a mixture of several elements or
compounds, in which two or more elements decide to make a deal,
hold a contract, and stay together.

Scientists have discovered 118 elements, most of which are

naturally occurring in our universe, but some were created in a
chemical lab. If a chemist discovers an element, they get to
choose its name. Imagine if you discovered a new element. Would
you name it after yourself? Or would you give it a funky name?
Well, that’s up to you: you're the boss.

So, 118 elements. That's a large number, and chemists had

to develop an intelligent way to organize them. So they arranged
them in a table and called it “the periodic table”. Some element
names are long, so scientists decided to give each element a
unique nickname. They gave them a one or two-letter nickname.
In chemistry, we don't call them nicknames. We call them
symbols, but they are essentially the same concept.
 For example, chlorine received the symbol Cl. Magnesium's
symbol is Mg. Remember that just as you write your name with
the first letter upper case and keep all other letters lowercase,
symbols have the same rule. The first letter is always
capitalized, and if there's a second letter, it's going to be
lowercase.

Some symbols are a bit harder to figure out. For example,

potassium's symbol is K, and sodium's symbol is Na. Isn't that
strange? Why in the world would scientists make our lives more
difficult? When I was a student, I always thought that Na must
be nitrogen or nickel. So, what happened here? Remember when I
told you that whoever discovers the element gets to choose its
name? Well, that's what happened. Humphry Davy, who
discovered potassium and sodium, has given them those names
(Davy H, 1807).

After Davy's discovery, a German scientist, Ludwig Wilhelm

Gilbert, translated Humphry Davy's discovery, but named
potassium “kalium” and sodium “natronium”. That led the German
people to follow Gilbert. In contrast, English and French people
just called these elements potassium and sodium, as Davy named
them. That worked well, and was okay until scientists decided to
make the periodic table look simpler and not too busy and
overwhelming by giving each element a symbol.

The Swedish chemist Jacob Berzelius oversaw the creation

of those symbols, and put the periodic table together (Marshall,
JL & Marshall, VR). He initially gave the symbol Po to potassium
and So to sodium, which made sense. However, he later gave the
symbol K for potassium, following the German name kalium, and
Na for sodium, following the German name natronium. Why did he
do that? Berzelius didn't want Davy to get the credit or fame.

When you become a famous scientist, please give

appropriate credit to those who deserve it and be humble. Keep
it about the science, not about you or your colleagues!

So how did they organize the periodic table? Scientists

organized the elements in increasing order of their proton
numbers. So the element with only one proton, which is hydrogen,
takes the first place. The element with two protons, which is
helium, takes the second place, and so on. But you cannot just
arrange all 118 elements in one row – that would be very long.

Imagine if you were in charge of setting out seats in a

theater. Would you just place all the chairs next to each other?
No, right? You would arrange the seats in several rows. Similarly,
elements were arranged in seven rows, one below the other. Now
we don't really call them rows. We call them “Periods”.

Figure 3: It is challenging to arrange 118 chairs all in one row, it’s best to create several rows. Similarly,
scientists arranged the 118 elements in seven rows.

Arranging elements in rows naturally creates columns –

scientists called them “groups”. Chemists did a brilliant thing:
when they arranged the elements in rows, they made sure that
all elements in the same group had something in common. That
was the number of electrons in the outermost shell. Remember
how electrons are arranged in an atom? The first two electrons
go to the first shell because the first shell is small and cannot
take any more. Electrons then fill the second, then the third
shell, and so on. The number of electrons in the last shell can
range anywhere from one to a maximum of eight.

Scientists made sure that all the elements in the same

group have the same number of electrons in the outermost shell.
This common characteristic was an intelligent choice because
elements with the same number of electrons in the outer shell
behave very similarly. It's like arranging all kids who like
basketball in one camp, kids who like music in another camp, and
kids who enjoy reading in a third camp. This way, if you’re a
parent and want to find your child's camp, you know where to go.
If your child plays the violin, you will find your child in the
second camp. Similarly, all elements with one outermost electron
are placed in the first group. Elements that have two outer
electrons are placed in Group II. Those with three outer
electrons are placed in Group III, and so on. And since the
maximum number of outer electrons is eight, we ended up with
eight groups.
 Figure 4: Scientists arranged elements in groups. Elements in each group have
certain similarities.

There is also another excellent way to think of the periodic

table. The periodic table is not just an intelligent arrangement of
all elements: it groups elements according to their
characteristics. This is like a city.

In a city, you have different neighborhoods, and each

neighborhood has its own style. People in each neighborhood look
similar and behave similarly. In one neighborhood, people are
active – they are always biking, hiking and jogging. In another
neighborhood, people are less active, so they use cars for
transportation. You don't see anyone walking or jogging on the
sidewalk. In a third neighborhood, named the “royal
neighborhood”, people live in castles and never deal with ordinary
people. Finally, there's this one colorful neighborhood. People are
close to each other, are heavy, and are generally lazier than
those in the active neighborhood. They are also charming people,
and they connect people from different neighborhoods. Stay
with me, I’m going to explain this analogy.

In the periodic table, you have different groups. Elements

in each group have chemical and physical similarities, and behave
in the same way. The chemists who made these arrangements are
brilliant people. They wanted similar elements to be arranged in a
way that makes it easy for us to predict chemical behavior. All
Group I elements do the same exact thing: they all react with
water. So, if you see an element placed in Group I that you have
never heard of, you know for sure that it reacts with water.
Group I are those active people who are constantly cycling and
moving. We call them “reactive”. Other elements are generally
less reactive than Group I. Those are the people who are usually
slower. Some elements do not react at all. I'm referring here to
Group VIII. They are royalty, and do not react with other
elements.

The colorful neighborhood… what was that all about? These

are the elements with no group number. There are 38 elements
placed between Group II and Group III. What's up with those
elements? Well, they have unique attributes. We call those
transition elements. They didn't get a group number assigned to
them because determining the number of electrons to be
involved in a reaction was quite challenging. However, they still
follow the rule of having many things in common. They are all
metals, and all metals are similar in many ways. They all conduct
heat and electricity. They're shiny, and are generally solid at
room temperature.

Transition metals have some unique properties in addition to

the typical metallic properties. The most exciting attribute is
that they form colored compounds. They also help reactions go
faster. When they do that, we call them “catalysts”, which is
just a fancy name for connectors or speeders.

Transition metals are a bit lazier than other elements; they

are less eager to attain their goals. Wait, what? Do elements
have goals? They do indeed! That’s what we’re going to talk about
in the next chapter. But first, let’s review what we’ve learned so
far.

Knowledge Check:

How are elements arranged in the periodic table?

______________________________

Great memory! They’re arranged according to the number

of protons they have.

What do we call rows in the periodic table?

______________________________

That’s right: they’re called periods.

What do we call columns in the periodic table?

______________________________

Spot on! They’re called groups.

Carbon is in Group IV. How many electrons would carbon
have in its outermost shell?

______________________________

You’re right! Carbon has four electrons.

Chlorine has seven electrons in its outermost shell. In
which group would you find chlorine in the periodic table?

______________________________

You’re great at figuring things out! Yes, chlorine is in Group

VII.

 
 CHAPTER 5
What Is the Ultimate Goal of Each Atom?

Just like people, elements have goals. What is the goal that
all atoms have?

You probably know that people usually have goals. It could

be to score high on the final science exam or win the next soccer
game. Adults typically plan to earn extra money or get promoted
in their jobs. Similarly, elements have a vital goal to achieve. Like
people, some elements are good at achieving their goals quickly,
and other elements seem not to care very much.

A few elements don’t even need to achieve this goal because

they already have it. They are like royalties, who already have
the social status, the power, and the money. So, they don't need
to hustle or make any deals with regular people. These are the
group VIII elements. I'll tell you why they don't have goals soon.

So, what is this essential goal? It is to have full outer shell

electrons? What does that mean?

With a few exceptions, this means that each atom would

like to have eight electrons in its outer shell. The eight outer
shell electrons make the atom happy. In chemistry, we call it
“stable” rather than happy. We know from the atomic structure
that most elements have fewer than eight electrons. For
example, Group I only has one electron in the outer shell, and
elements in Group VI have six electrons in the outer shell.
 For atoms to achieve this goal of eight outer electrons,
they use several different strategies.

Let's start with those atoms in Group VII – those are the
easiest to grasp. These atoms have seven outer electrons, and
they would like to have eight, so that’s an easy goal. All they
need to do is gain an electron, and voila! They’re now happy and
stable. At this point, they’re not atoms anymore. They’re ions.
Why? Because they’re negatively charged.

Now let's think about Group VI. These have six electrons in
the outer shell, right? Now, what should they do to achieve the
goal of eight electrons? You guessed it: they will try to gain two
electrons. Similarly, atoms in Group V will try to obtain three
electrons.

A goal to gain one electron is not the same as a goal to gain

three electrons. Just like with people, some dreams are harder
to achieve. A goal of earning an A on an exam is not the same as
earning a B. For Group VII elements, the goal is straightforward
and easy to achieve because it's just one electron. It's a bit
harder for Group VI because they want to gain two electrons,
and of course, good luck to group V: they need three electrons.

When that goal is challenging, you'll see that these

elements do not react easily. If the goal was easy to attain, you’d
find that these elements are highly reactive, sometimes even
explosive.

What we've discussed so far is the goals for nonmetals

(Groups V, VI and VII are generally nonmetals). That's what
nonmetals do to achieve their goals: they gain electrons. When
they do so, they become negatively charged ions. Group VII will
become a negative one ion, Group VI will be a negative two, and
Group V will be negative three.

Figure 5: Elements have goals, just like people. Non metals have the goal of gaining electrons.

Metals, which are generally in Groups I, II and III, are a

bit trickier. They don't follow the same strategy as nonmetals.
Why is that? Well, as you know by now, elements in Group I have
only one electron in the outer shell – imagine if they set a goal of
gaining seven electrons. That would be a monumental goal, and
would take forever to attain.

Instead, they use another strategy: they donate their one

outer shell electron. That's right – they ditch the outer electron
(or electrons, in the case of Groups II and III). When metals do
this, the next inner shell becomes the new outer shell. For
metals, that eight-shell electron exists. It's just not the outer
shell. What it needs to do is discard that outer shell with a few
electrons bothering it. Metals in Group II and III follow the
same strategy. They give away those two or three outer
electrons, respectively, and voila! They now have a shiny polished
outer shell with eight fast electrons.
Figure 6: Metals have a few outer electrons. For example, Group I metals have one outer electron, its goal is to
lose that electron to attain an outer shell with eight (full) electrons.

At this point, you may be wondering about Group IV. I

always get this question – what would Group IV do? Well, these
folks are in a challenging position. If they set a goal of gaining
four electrons, that's a lot, and very hard to attain. If they set
a goal of donating four electrons, that's also tough, so they
neither lose nor gain electrons. They share electrons with other
nonmetals. We'll dive into sharing electrons later.

We have mentioned Group VIII in several areas of the

book. This is the royal group. They already have the biggest
desire of all elements. They already have eight outermost
electrons. So why would they set a goal? They don’t, and that's
why they don’t want to react at all. We call these elements
“Noble gases”. One exception you may have noticed is helium:
helium has two electrons, sitting in the first shell and making it
full. It’s full because the first shell can only accommodate two
electrons. So for helium, those two electrons are making it happy
and stable.

Let’s review the most important concept in chemistry – i.e.

attaining the ultimate goal.

Knowledge Check:

What is the goal of most elements?

______________________________

That’s right: with few exceptions, they want to have eight

electrons in the outer shell

Why do some elements not have any goals?

______________________________

You got it! Those are elements in Group VIII. They already
have eight electrons in the outer shell, so they don’t really need
to do anything. They’re happy with their structure.

What strategy do nonmetals use to achieve their goals?

______________________________

That’s right! They gain electrons.

When nonmetals achieve their goal, they’re no longer
neutral. What are they now?

______________________________
 Nice thinking! They’re negatively charged ions.

What strategy do metals use to achieve their goals?

______________________________

I think you’re getting it now! They lose electrons

When metals achieve their goal, they’re no longer
neutral. What are they now?

______________________________

Spot on! They’re positively charged ions.

Why are elements in group VIII nonreactive?

______________________________

That’s right: they don’t need to gain or lose any electrons.

They already have eight outermost electrons.

 
 CHAPTER 6
Why Are Some Elements More Energetic (More Reactive)
Than Others?

Some people are more productive and energetic than

others, and they quickly achieve their goals. Elements behave
similarly… but why?

All metals want to lose those electrons in the outermost

shell. They're bothering them. Metals want to be stable and look
more like that fancy noble gas sitting on the periodic table's
right-hand side. So metals would love to lose those outer
electrons. But they aren't all capable of doing this quickly. Some
only have one electron in the outer shell, so that's an easy kick.
It's just one electron, so boom! You're out. Now, if that electron
is far from the nucleus, that's even easier.

When the one outer electron is far from the nucleus – for
example, if it was in the fifth or sixth shell, there's little
attraction between the nucleus and this outer electron, so this
electron is lost in a millisecond. We call these metals “very
reactive”. In fact, some react explosively. But if this electron is
in the second shell, then the nucleus has more power to keep this
outer electron in its orbit. So this metal is much slower at
reacting. So, in Group I, metal becomes more and more reactive
further down the group. The more shells they have, the more
reactive they become.

What about having two or three electrons in the outer

shell? Losing two electrons is more challenging than losing one,
and losing three is harder than losing two. That's why Group I
metals are the most reactive, followed by metals in Group II,
followed by metals in Group III.

What about nonmetals? Well, let's think about it.

Nonmetals would like to gain an electron. Would it be easier to
attract an electron into the second shell or the fifth shell?

You got it! If the nonmetal is in Group VII and has two
shells, it will need to gain an electron to add it to the second
shell of seven electrons and make it eight. Now, the second shell
is close to the nucleus, so getting this eighth electron into its
orbit can happen quickly. So this nonmetal is very reactive, and
again, it can be very explosive.

Suppose the nonmetal in Group VII has five shells. In that

case, it will need to attract an electron to join the seven
electrons and be the eighth electron in that fifth shell. Now the
fifth shell is further away from the nucleus, so the nucleus
doesn't have much power to attract this eighth electron into its
orbit, so it's less reactive.

Let's discuss nonmetals in other groups. Nonmetals in Group

VI need to attract two electrons to have a stable outer shell.
That's why Group VI nonmetals are less reactive than the ones in
Group VII. Group V is even lazier because it must attract three
electrons.

Now let’s check your understanding.

Knowledge Check:

Rubidium is a metal in Group I; aluminium is a metal in
Group III. Predict which metal would be more reactive.

______________________________

That’s right: rubidium! It will need to lose one outermost

electron, which is super easy. But when aluminium reacts, it will
need to lose three electrons. That’s a much harder goal to attain.

Both lithium and potassium are metals in Group I.
Electrons in lithium occupy two shells. However, in potassium,
there are four shells. Which metal is more reactive, and why?

______________________________

Smart thinking! It’s potassium. It will lose the electron in

the fourth shell, which is an easy task because it’s not super
attracted by the positively charged nucleus. However, in lithium
the outermost electron is only in the second shell. Thus, it is
strongly attracted to the nucleus, and it will be hard to lose that
electron.

Chlorine is a nonmetal in Group VII, and phosphorous is
a nonmetal in Group V. Predict which nonmetal will be more
reactive.

______________________________

It’s chlorine! It only needs to gain one electron, a simple

endeavor. Phosphorous, on the other hand, needs to gain three
electrons – much harder.

Both fluorine and iodine are in Group VII. Electrons in
fluorine occupy two shells. However, in iodine, there are five
shells. Which nonmetal is more reactive, and why?

______________________________

Spot on! Fluorine is more reactive. It will attract an

electron into the second shell, which is close to the nucleus. In
iodine, the electron will be gained in the fifth shell, too far for
the nucleus to easily pull this electron.

 
 CHAPTER 7
Once an Atom Attains Its Goal, Then What?

Remember when we said that there are three types of

particles? Atoms, ions and molecules? We’ve looked at atoms; the
second type are called ions. Ions are simply atoms that have
attained their goals. They either lost or gained electrons to
become stable and happy.

For example, a sodium atom has 11 protons and 11 electrons,

making it neutral. However, sodium has a strong tendency to lose
one electron. This electron is bothering the sodium and making it
unstable, so sodium loses this outer electron. When it loses an
electron, it will now still have 11 protons, but only 10 electrons.
There are now 11 positive particles (protons) and 10 negative
particles (electrons). They don't cancel each other anymore:
there's one more positive particle than there are negative
particles. This makes the sodium ion positively charged. We now
give it a positive one sign.

All metals behave the same way: they lose the few
electrons they have in the outer shell and become positively
charged ions.

What about nonmetals? Nonmetals are generally in Groups

IV to VIII. Of course, Group VIII doesn't form ions because
they're already happy and don't need to attain a full outer shell.
As we've discussed before, Group IV generally does not form
ions because losing or gaining four electrons requires a lot of
work. So, we're left with nonmetals in Groups V, VI and VII.
 Elements in Group VII tend to gain electrons. They have
seven electrons in the outer shell, so to be happy, they need to
gain an electron somehow, making them negatively charged. When
an element is negatively charged, we call it an ion. Having one
more negatively charged particle makes the atom not neutral
anymore, it becomes negative, so we give it a negative one sign. I
know what you’re thinking at this point: where does it get that
extra electron from? Well, we’re going to discuss that in the
next chapter when we talk about deals.

Similar to group VII, atoms belonging to Group VI aim to

gain electrons. When they do, they become negatively charged
ions, and we give them a negative two sign. Those in Group V aim
to gain three electrons, becoming negative three ions.

Chemists came up with a rule. When metal atoms become

metal ions, we add the word “ion”. For example, when sodium
loses an electron and becomes positively charged, we call it
“sodium ion”.

Nonmetals, on the other hand, are a bit different. We still

add the word ion, but the name of the element itself is changed.
We remove the letter "e" at the end (if there is one), and
instead add the letters "-ide." Bromine becomes bromide, oxygen
becomes oxide; nitrogen becomes nitride, and so on.

Ions are very different from atoms. Because they are

charged particles, they are very soluble in water. Why is that?
It is because water molecules have slightly positively charged
areas and other slightly negatively charged areas. These
molecules have polarity – i.e. they have a positive pole and a
negative pole.
 The positively charged areas in a water molecule attract
negatively charged ions. The negatively charged parts in a water
molecule attract positively charged ions. Because water dissolves
many chemicals, it is one of the best solvents.

Figure 7: Water is a great solvent. This is because water is polar, i.e. it has a positively charged area and a
negatively charged area. Thereby, attracting oppositely charged ions.

Many of the ions dissolved in water are common in our food,

our drinks, and inside our bodies. For example, milk contains
calcium ions, bananas contain potassium ions, and blood has
sodium ions.

Let’s check how you’ve advanced in chemistry so far.

Knowledge Check:

Barium is a metal in Group II. When barium achieves its
goal, what will it become?

______________________________

Right! It will become a positive ion, and will have a positive

two sign. We now call it barium ion.

Sulfur is a nonmetal in Group VI. When sulfur achieves
its goal, what will it become?

______________________________

Great job! It will become a negative ion, and it will have a

negative two sign. It will now be called sulfide ion.

Why is water a super solvent substance?

______________________________

That’s right: water is a polar substance, so it has a positive

pole, which attracts negative ions, and a negative pole, which
attracts positive ions.

Did you figure out all the answers? Fantastic! You’re doing
great! Keep reading!

 
 CHAPTER 8
How Atoms Make Deals

So far, we've discussed two types of particles: atoms and

ions. There's a third type, and we call them molecules. These are
simply the combination of two or more atoms. This happens when
those two or more decide that they would benefit from staying
together. When they combine, they form a “bond”.

This bond is like a contract that keeps two people working

together on the same project for a long time – sometimes
forever. Sometimes this contract is huge, and that's when they
form a “double bond” or even a “triple bond”. The number of
bonds depends on the deal: the more significant the commitment,
the greater the number of bonds.

So what exactly happens in the deal? This deal can either

occur between a metal and a nonmetal, forming a compound, or it
can occur between two or more nonmetals, forming a molecule.

Let's start with the type of deal between a metal and a

nonmetal. Previously, we discussed that metals, such as sodium,
would love to lose the electron in the outer shell because this
one electron is bothering them and making them unstable. We
also said that nonmetals, such as chlorine, would love to gain an
electron to complete their outer shell. What do you think
happens when sodium and chlorine meet? They feel elated: they
are so happy to meet each other because the sodium has finally
found someone who will happily accept that outer electron that’s
been bothering it. And chlorine has finally found someone who
will happily donate an electron to complete its outer shell. The
sodium will transfer this one outer electron and give it to
chlorine. Sodium becomes a happy positively charged ion, and
chlorine becomes a happy negatively charged ion.

Figure 8: Ionic bonding is like a contract between two people. The metal atom donates its outermost electron,
while the nonmetal accepts this electron.

This deal is called “ionic bonding” because both particles

became ions upon agreeing on this deal. The sodium ions and the
chloride ions will now be called “sodium chloride compound”. This
is simply the table salt we use on our dining table. It is a white
powder, and it is very soluble in water. As we mentioned in
Chapter Seven, ionic compounds dissolve easily in water because
of how polar the water is.

Salt is not just one sodium ion and one chloride ion, though.
There are millions of ions. After the deal is made and the
contract is signed, sodium and chloride ions do not part ways.
They've made a deal, so they stay together, forming a “lattice”
(this is a term that describes particles arranged in millions of
layers over each other). The reason they stick together is the
oppositely charged ions, which are strongly attracted together.
This strong attraction is why all ionic salts are solids at room
temperature.

A tremendous amount of heat and energy is required to

separate ions from each other and change their state from solid
to liquid. The other way to separate these ions is by dissolving
them in the water. In this case, the water's strong polarity will
pull out each ion separately.

What if the nonmetal doesn't see any metals? After all,

metals are willing to donate electrons. But nonmetals can still
make a deal with each other without metals. For example,
chlorine has seven electrons in the outer shell. It needs the
eighth electron to become stable. Remember that elements are
not atoms in isolation: they're in millions and billions of atoms.
So, each chlorine atom is surrounded by many other chlorine
atoms. All are in the same predicament of needing to gain an
electron.

Imagine if you’re a student of statistics, and the statistics

book you need for your studies costs $200, and you can’t afford
it. But you know that your classmate Kyle also needs this book.
So, you make a deal with Kyle: each of you will contribute $100
towards the book's cost, and you’ll share it. The book will belong
to both of you. You pretend it's yours, Kyle acts like the book is
his, and you’re both happy. Even though no one donated a book to
either you or Kyle, you still managed to make a successful deal.

Nonmetals, such as chlorine, similarly share one of the

seven outer electrons among each other. Because they're both
called chlorine, let’s name them Chlorine #1 and Chlorine #2 to
refer to the two atoms. Chlorine #1 will not donate an electron
to Chlorine #2. It will instead share it with Chlorine #2. Chlorine
#2 will also contribute one of its outer electrons and share it
with Chlorine #1. Just as you and Kyle each contributed equal
amounts of money, Chlorine #1 and Chlorine #2 will share the
same number of electrons.

In this case, each will donate only one electron because

that's all it needs: just one. Upon making this deal, each chlorine
will pretend to have eight total electrons in its outer shell,
making each chlorine happy and stable. That's why the two atoms
stay together all the time, and we no longer call them two atoms.
We call them one molecule because they've become one particle.

Many other elements also exist in pairs. We call those pairs

“diatomic molecules”, meaning there are two atoms in each
molecule. The deal between the two atoms involves sharing a
single electron from each atom. We call this deal “covalent
bonding”, specifically, a “single covalent bond”, because it
involved sharing only one pair of electrons.

Some elements won't be satisfied by sharing just a single

electron pair. For example, oxygen is in Group VI; it has six outer
electrons, and so it needs two more to be stable. Suppose fellow
oxygen atoms are only surrounded by oxygen. In that case, they
have no choice but to make a deal with another oxygen atom.
Each oxygen atom must contribute two of its outer electrons.
One is not enough. This deal is more important, and it’s a more
significant commitment – two electrons from each atom will be
shared. We call such agreement a “double bond”.
 Similarly, because nitrogen is in Group V and needs three
more electrons, two nitrogen atoms make a deal together. Each
atom contributes three electrons. Therefore, in this case, they
form a "triple bond".

What about elements in group IV, such as carbon? Carbon

has four outer electrons. Thus, it needs to share with four other
nonmetals to pretend to have this nice full outer shell. It can
make a deal, for example, with four other chlorine atoms, or four
other bromine atoms.

Of course, Group VIII won't be making any deals – they're

royal!

Metals make deals with nonmetals by donating those

annoying electrons in the outer shell. That is the only type of
deal metals can make. We call this “ionic bonding”. On the other
hand, nonmetals have two options for deals. They can accept
electrons from metals, and make ionic bonds, or share electrons
with other nonmetals, and make covalent bonds.

Hydrogen has just one electron, and of course, this electron

occupies the first shell. We know that the first shell can hold up
to two electrons, and if it does, it is considered a full shell. For
hydrogen, the goal is to gain another electron to join this first
and only shell. Hydrogen is very special in many ways. First, it has
one outer electron, but it doesn't behave like Group I metals.
Hydrogen is a nonmetal. Second, hydrogen can achieve happiness
in two ways. It may opt-in to gain an electron and become a
negatively charged ion, or it can lose that single electron and
become a positively charged ion. Very strange, right? This is the
only nonmetal that can form a positively charged ion. However,
like all other nonmetals, hydrogen can make a deal with a metal,
forming an ionic compound. But, much more commonly, it shares
its single electron with other nonmetals to form covalent
molecules.

For example, a hydrogen atom can deal with another

hydrogen atom and form a hydrogen molecule. This hydrogen
molecule is a dangerous one: it catches fire quickly and just isn’t
an easy-to-handle chemical. Hydrogen can also form a covalent
bond with many other nonmetals. The options are endless.

Hydrogen can make a deal with oxygen. But this one is

different. Oxygen is in Group VII, so it needs two more
electrons. To make a deal with hydrogen, it will request the
participation of two hydrogen atoms, and not just one. One atom
of hydrogen will make oxygen only have seven outer electrons.
That's not enough, so we need two hydrogens.

Similarly, hydrogen can also make a deal with nitrogen. But

this time, nitrogen will demand the participation of three
hydrogen atoms, because nitrogen is in Group V, and it needs
three electrons to make the magic eight. What about carbon?
Carbon just does the same kind of deal as other nonmetals. It’s
in group IV, so it will make a deal with four hydrogen atoms.

Making deals is like a game: the options are endless, but

they’re fun.

Let’s check how you’re doing.

Knowledge Check:

Calcium is a metal in Group II, oxygen is a nonmetal in
Group VI. They find each other… what do you think they’ll do?

______________________________

Good thinking! They are happy to see each other, and make
a deal together. Calcium has two outer electrons, which it would
love to donate. Oxygen has six outer electrons, and needs to gain
two electrons. Calcium will happily transfer the two electrons to
oxygen, and they’ll both be happy.

Bromine is a nonmetal in Group VII, and there aren’t any
metals around. How can bromine make a deal so it achieves its
goal?

______________________________

That’s right. Bromine will pair up with another bromine;

each of the two atoms will share one of its outer electrons,
forming a single bond. That’s why bromine exists in pairs called
diatomic molecules.

Carbon is in Group IV; chlorine is in Group VII. If
carbon decides to make a deal with the element chlorine, how will
the contract look?

______________________________

Good job! Carbon has four outer electrons, so it needs four

other electrons. Chlorine can only share one electron because it
requires one electron to complete its outer shell. So carbon will
demand the participation of four chlorine atoms.

Nitrogen is in Group V; fluorine is in Group VII. If
nitrogen decides to deal with the element fluorine, how will the
contract look?

______________________________

That’s it! Nitrogen has five outer electrons, so it needs

three more. Fluorine only needs to share one, so nitrogen will
demand the participation of three fluorine atoms.

 
 CHAPTER 9
Don’t Splash Those Chemicals!

Now that you've learned how atoms make deals and form an
unlimited number of chemicals, I'd like to warn you that not all
substances are friendly.

Many compounds around our homes are benign. Water, for

example, made from one atom of oxygen and two atoms of
hydrogen combined by covalent bonding, is a very friendly
compound. It's essential for life. Sodium chloride, the table salt
we add to our food, is also safe, and makes our burgers tasty. All
the food we eat and the beverages we drink contain friendly
compounds. But not all chemical compounds are that nice.

For example, hydrogen chloride, or HCI, is harsh. We don't

see those harsh chemicals around our houses for obvious
reasons. These chemicals belong to the laboratories. One day,
you may visit such a lab and get to see those chemicals, but you
must take some precautions before you do so.

You cannot enter a lab unprepared. There are rules to

protect you: you must wear a lab coat, goggles, and gloves. These
are to protect your body and eyes in case of an accidental splash
of a harsh chemical. If you have long hair, you should also put
your hair up. You don't want your hair to touch a corrosive
chemical or catch fire (no one wants a bad hair day!) You should
also handle any chemical apparatus with care, ensuring that it is
not facing another student.
 Figure 9: There are safety measures to enter a chemical laboratory. You must wear your lab coat, gloves,
goggles, and put your hair up.

What are chemical apparatus? Chemical apparatus are

pieces of equipment used in a chemistry lab. They are usually
glassware. For example, a beaker is like a glass cup. It is used for
holding and mixing chemicals. However, if you mix something in a
beaker or pour a chemical in a beaker, it might splash because it
has a wide opening. So scientists came up with another piece of
apparatus to solve this problem. They called it a "conical flask".
You can imagine that it is shaped like a cone-shaped cup from its
name. This gives it a narrow top, preventing splashing while you
mix chemicals.

Another piece of apparatus you need to handle with care is

the burette. This is a rather tall and thin piece of glassware. It
is used to measure the volume of a liquid, and at the same time
deliver a liquid drop by drop. But it's too narrow… how are you
supposed to pour a liquid into it? You might have guessed it, and
if you did, kudos! I'm proud of you! Yes, you use a funnel – but
you still need to be careful while you’re pouring.
 Figure 10: In the lab, you will encounter several apparatus. From the left side: beaker, conical flask, burette,
and test tube.

Let’s check what you’ve learned about safety and apparatus.

Knowledge Check:

Before you enter a lab, what precautions should you
take?

______________________________

Absolutely! Cover your eyes with a pair of goggles, wear a

lab coat, wear gloves, and put your hair up.

If you’re mixing chemicals, which apparatus should you
use?

That’s right! A conical flask will prevent the chemicals from

splashing because of its narrow opening.

______________________________

 
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review.

I would really appreciate it if you could just take 60

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 CONCLUSION
See? Chemistry is fun! Don't be afraid to explore,
experiment, and observe the world around you armed with this
knowledge (if you do so in a safe way). Understanding the basics
you read in this book will help you start your path into any of the
sciences. Not only is chemistry the study of the building blocks
of the world and everything in it, but it is also the building block
of all sciences.

Now you know the basics of chemistry: the three states of

matter (solid, liquid and gas), the different types of particles
and how they react, move, and bond with one another, and the
arrangement of elements in the periodic table. The best part is
that we learned how they could relate to us and things in our
everyday lives!

Now, when you see the ice melt, you'll know that it's
because the heat gives particles energy, and they’re moving
faster, changing the form from a solid to a liquid. If you boil
water, you'll know that the particles are moving faster and
changing from a liquid to a gas. You also now know why salts are
very soluble in water. Understanding the chemical world around
(and inside) us is exciting and can teach us a lot about ourselves.
From now on, when you study chemistry, imagine that particles
are people. Now go out there and learn with fun!

 
 Just for you!

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 RESOURCES
Davy, H. (1807). I. The Bakerian Lecture, on some chemical
agencies of electricity. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London,
(97), 1-56.

Gallagher, R., & Ingram, P. (2015). Complete Chemistry for

Cambridge IGCSE®
. Oxford University Press-Children.

Marshall, J. L., & Marshall, V. R. JOns Jacob Berzelius.