Untitled

THE AFROCENTRIC PRAXIS OF
TEACHING FOR FREEDOM
A great book! Carefully thought out and developed. It will be easy for teachers to follow
and to learn.
Carl A. Grant, University of Wisconsin–Madison, USA
An important and foundational piece in the field, this book is impressive, timely, engag-
ing, and much needed. It is at once “deep” and understandable, advancing both theoret-
ical and practical understandings of Afrocentric praxis. I am smiling as I write this and
activated to use and build on this brilliant work.
Gloria Swindler Boutte, University of South Carolina, USA
King and Swartz demonstrate how to teach content based on Afrocentric theory and
African worldviews in ways that result in a more holistic and historically accurate pre-
sentation of people of African descent and related events. This will not only reconnect
African American children to their heritage knowledge, but will elevate and deepen all
students’ understanding of people of African descent.
Sandra Winn Tutwiler, Washburn University, USA
This book shows how an African worldview, as a platform for culture-based teaching
and learning, helps educators to retrieve African heritage and cultural knowledge
which have been historically discounted and decoupled from teaching and learning. It
exemplifies how the emancipatory pedagogies it delineates and demonstrates are sup-
ported by African worldview concepts and parallel knowledge and values. Making
African Diasporan cultural connections visible in the curriculum, the book provides
teachers with content drawn from Africa’s legacy to humanity as a model for locating
all students—and the cultures and groups they represent—as subjects in the curriculum
and pedagogy of schooling.
Joyce E. King holds the Benjamin E. Mays Endowed Chair for Urban Teaching,
Learning and Leadership at Georgia State University, USA.
Ellen E. Swartz is an independent scholar and education consultant in curriculum

development and the construction of culturally informed instructional materials for
K-12 teachers and students.
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THE AFROCENTRIC
PRAXIS OF TEACHING
FOR FREEDOM
Connecting Culture to Learning
Joyce E. King and Ellen E. Swartz

First published 2016
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2016 Taylor & Francis
The right of Joyce E. King and Ellen E. Swartz to be identified as the
authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with
sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced
or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
King, Joyce Elaine, 1947-
The Afrocentric praxis of teaching for freedom : connecting culture to
learning / Joyce E. King, Ellen E. Swartz.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. African Americans–Education. 2. African American schools–
Curricula. 3. Afrocentrism–Study and teaching–United States.
4. African American teachers–Training of. I. Swartz, Ellen. II. Title.
LC2771.K55 2016
371.829'96073–dc23 2015009015
ISBN: 978-1-138-90493-4 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-138-90494-1 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-69612-6 (ebk)
Typeset in Bembo
by Wearset Ltd, Boldon, Tyne and Wear
This book is dedicated to our grandchildren and their children’s
children, and to the teachers who assist them in pursuing academic and
cultural excellence, in coming to know that knowledge is inseparable
from wisdom, and that gaining knowledge is for the purpose of bringing
good into the world.
This page intentionally left blank
CONTENTS
A Note about the Cover Image viii

Foreword by Adelaide L. Hines Sanford ix
Preface as Prequel xi
Acknowledgments xvii
1 Introduction: “Re-membering” More 1
2 Culture Connects 28
3 Harriet Tubman: “Re-membering” Cultural

Continuities 64
4 “Re-membering” the Jeanes Teachers 87
5 “Re-membering” Cultural Concepts 112
6 Practicing Cultural Concepts and Continuity 134
About the Authors 157

Index 158
A NOTE ABOUT THE COVER
IMAGE
The symbol on the cover is an Adinkra symbol called Nsaa. Adinkra is an indi-
genous Akan (West African) script whose many symbols are epistemic expres-
sions of Akan philosophy, cosmology, values, and cultural concepts. Nsaa is a
symbol of excellence, genuineness, and authenticity. Chapter 2 provides more
information about the origin and meaning of this and other Adinkra symbols
and their relationship to emancipatory pedagogy.
FOREWORD
The freedom referred to in the title of this rich piece on pedagogy is available
to those in bondage and it is equally relevant to those who cling tenaciously to
their thinly disguised philosophical idiom. This group needing freedom has as
their role practitioners of bondage. The fetters of superiority and the myriad of
manifestations of its power have crippled both groups and have inhibited
humanities’ possibilities.
If there is truly the deep desire to alter and modify pedagogical practice and
enhance its richness, this volume makes it possible, practical, and it is within our
grasp. But is the cost too high? The fundamental question is: With all this
research and documentation, why is it that educational reformation is so
emphatically resisted? Why are educational systems so tenacious in resisting the
inclusion of undisputable truths that would liberate the oppressed groups in
whose intellectual development educators express such an interest? I know of
no accredited scholar who has refuted the details of this volume, nor of the
books and articles noted in its references, and index. The Afrocentric praxis of
Teaching for Freedom needs no explanation, defense, or enhancement. It is
impressive, persuasive, and lucid. It is for me to ponder the why.
Will it be read, received, and set aside as not universal in scope and applic-
ability and therefore dispensable to educators? Will it be marginalized or
obscured and ignored in the conversations as educational policy makers prepare
their agendas? Is the seminal question: How to humanize and actualize the
process of education or is the agenda the perpetuation of the myths and obscu-
rities of writers who seek to maintain their premise of superiority and entitle-
ment? Is the agenda also, while including some bits of accuracy of historical
events, to minimize the specific instances of cruelty and vicious indignities
under which African Americans have suffered, and are suffering, and sometimes
x Foreword
paralyzed? It is this exact specificity that gives clarity and meaning to the hor-
rific experiences that must be faced and revisited with their current residue. The
effort to protect the historical oppressor and to obscure the identity of his
progeny is an issue. It allows a soft and more palpable existence to those who
benefited from the past and seek to disassociate themselves from its most blatant
acts of inequity.
The New York State Board of Regents chose not to vote on the state-
sponsored documents on a “curriculum of inclusion” not because it was inaccu-
rate and sought to correct a damaging curriculum that promoted school failure
among four groups of children in the state. The members of the Board of
Regents set the document aside because the language was harsh and might
expose culpable groups. It was a self-serving decision. The children’s academic
acumen was secondary to the suppression of the comfort of the policy makers.
This is not a singular example of the duality between the needs of the children
and the protection of the oppressors. The repertoire of African American peda-
gogy is replete with similarities and frames too many experiences.
Let us not succumb. While the richness of the scholarship, the logical ana-
lysis, the beauty of the African-centered pedagogy, and its healing possibilities is
extraordinarily appealing, let us not minimize the abundance of examples of
why these findings are not at the core of educational dialogue when decisions,
publications, and professional requirements are being decided. Teaching for
Freedom promises a freedom that is universal and inclusive. It may liberate the
oppressor as well as determined African American scholars. Willingness to
recognize the value, the art, the fabric, the artifacts, the cogent beauty, and the
pithy examples of intelligence are not enough. We must be receptive to exam-
ining why the viciousness, ancient and continuous, of the various methods to
liberate and free people is not the primary agenda. We must not purify and
weaken the specific examples that will give us the ability to recognize their con-
stant existence.
Dr. Adelaide L. Hines Sanford
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
March 1, 2015
PREFACE AS PREQUEL
In early discussions related to this volume, we were thinking of it as a sequel to

our earlier publication, “Re-membering” History in Student and Teacher Learning:
An Afrocentric Culturally Informed Praxis (King & Swartz, 2014). After all, this
new work follows and expands upon the first volume’s treatment of emancip-
atory pedagogy and the connection between cultural concepts and school prac-
tices. However, as this volume began to take shape, we realized that the “story”
it tells actually precedes the earlier work—that the Afrocentric praxis of Teach-
ing for Freedom described herein existed long before “Re-membering” History in
Student and Teacher Learning was written. In fact, it had to.
In order to write about Teaching for Freedom, we had to observe—and in
some cases read about—PK-12 teachers and teacher educators who demon-
strated elements of this model. Likewise, we had to experience teachers who
engaged in historical recovery in their classrooms prior to writing about a praxis
of historical recovery and a process of “re-membering” (King & Swartz, 2014).
It is the work of these highly effective teachers that is the prequel to both
volumes. They had already eschewed standard eurocratic instructional materials
and assessments, found or written their own materials, reconnected the multiple
knowledge bases and experiences that shaped the past, centered students cultur-
ally and individually, invited parents to participate in curriculum and assessment,
and regularly engaged—both formally and informally—in critically examining
the outcomes of their practices (Bigelow, 1996, 2001; Campbell, 2014; Dean,
2008; Goodwin, 1996, 1998, 2004; Gutstein, 2001; Mbatha, 2012; Secret,
1998; Shakes, 1993, 2004; Smith, 1996, 2004, 2009).
What we have done in both volumes is use Afrocentric theory and culturally
informed principles to frame and write about our observations of these highly
effective teachers. Thus, we have written about improved student engagement
xii Preface as Prequel
and performance related to the use of culturally informed instructional materials,

because we observed it; we have written about the use of emancipatory peda-
gogies—what they are, the African cultural platforms that support them, and
what they can accomplish—because we observed teachers using these pedago-
gies in classrooms; and we have written about teachers engaging parents in cur-
riculum and assessment, because we have observed how the presence of family
members—and the community standards and cultural ideals they embody—
results in enthusiastic responses from students and more authentic curriculum
and assessment (Campbell, 2014; King, Goss, & McArthur, 2014). In other
words, it is PK-12 teachers who have consistently demonstrated these emancip-
atory practices that we have later named and described as praxis, process, and
model.
In the current volume, we explain how the Afrocentric praxis of Teaching
for Freedom educates children as a shared responsibility to enhance community
well-being and belonging. Our share of this responsibility is to make connec-
tions between practice and theory (in that order)—between the effective prac-
tices we observe in classrooms and what scholars of the Black intellectual
tradition have written about African Diasporan worldview, culture, and history
(Asante, 1987/1998, 2007a & b, 2011; Boykin, 1983, 1994; Dixon, 1971; Du
Bois, 1924, 1945; Franklin, 1992, 1995; Hilliard, 1997, 2003; Karenga, 1999,
2006a & b; King, 2006a & b; Lee, 1993, 2007; Nobles, 1985, 1991, 2006;
Perry, 2003; Smitherman, 1994, 2000; Woodson, 1919, 1928, 1933/1990;
Wynter, 1992, 2006; Wynter & McKittrick, 2015). Within an African Diaspo-
ran worldview—and from the perspective of its cultural concepts—freedom is
understood as inherent and as a shared human entitlement (Bennett, 1975; Fran-
klin, 1992; Gyekye, 1997; Harding, 1990; Ikuenobe, 2006; Karenga, 2006b).
Thus, to Teach for Freedom means that classroom teachers identify and imple-
ment those cultural concepts, culturally informed principles, and African-
informed emancipatory pedagogies that support the continuation of freedom
defined as the knowledge, consciousness, agency, and self-determination to
create and sustain communal well-being and belonging and goodness in the
world through just and right action (Abímbólá, 1976; Anyanwu, 1981; Gyekye,
1987; Nkulu-N’Sengha, 2005; Waghid, 2014). In so doing, the teachers we
have observed, and in some instances with whom we have collaborated, model
how to create community, encourage inquiry and agency, produce academic
and cultural excellence, and sustain cultural continuity—all instructional prac-
tices and outcomes that support the continuation of freedom understood as a
collective experience of well-being and belonging. What we add is the epi-
stemic authority that comes from theory-framing and naming our observations,
establishing an historical context with examples, and re-creating demonstrations
of emancipatory practices that already exist in classrooms. If our epistemic
authority is authentic, and we believe it is, this work will expand the ranks of
practitioners who Teach for Freedom.
Preface as Prequel xiii
For pre-service teachers, in-service teachers, and teacher educators who join
us and become practitioners of Teaching for Freedom, this model will assist you
to: (1) expand your heritage or cultural knowledge about the worldview,
experiences, and cultural productions of African Diasporan Peoples; (2) select
content and pedagogies that can strengthen your relationships with all students
and families; (3) transform the way you present topics and academic disciplines
to be more reflective of the cultures that inform them; (4) avoid omissions and
distortions about Africa and African and Indigenous Peoples that have histori-
cally been embedded in school knowledge at all levels; (5) widen the cultural
field by using cultural concepts from beyond the Anglosphere; (6) use demo-
cratized content and emancipatory pedagogies that sustain cultural continuity
across time and place; and (7) consider how people’s differing worldviews and
their attendant cultural concepts shape school policies and practices. In these
ways, PK-12 teachers and teacher educators share in the responsibility of devel-
oping the knowledge, facilitating consciousness, supporting agency, and
enabling the self-determination students need to participate in sustaining the
inherency of freedom for themselves, their families, and communities. This is a
pathway to human freedom in the larger world. Teachers who were already
engaged in these practices that we later bundled and described as Teaching for
Freedom have been our guides. Their work is without doubt the prequel to
what we have written in both volumes.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We acknowledge all those scholars, activists, and wisdom keepers whose work
has had a profound effect on our thinking over several decades. These women
and men have blazoned intellectual realms intimately tied to the pursuit of
freedom and to the identification and preservation of cultural integrity and
sovereignty. In particular, we wish to acknowledge Anna Julia Cooper, who
understood and embodied the relationship between women and freedom; Asa
Hilliard III, who demonstrated the role of historical knowledge in rethinking
hegemonic conceptions of African people; John Henrik Clarke, who taught us
the importance of Heritage Teaching as a way of passing on the African legacy
that makes a feeling of belonging to one’s people possible and essential; Adelaide
L. Hines Sanford, whose courageous and wise ways of struggle on behalf of all
children and families in general and African American children and families in
particular will stand the test of time; Molefi Kete Asante, who persists in the
refinement of the culturally centered ideas and practices of Afrocentricity upon
which our work is based; Susan Goodwin, whose deep understanding of the
connection between culture and learning informs the professional development
of teachers learning to teach for liberation, which in turn offers us opportunities
to observe such teaching; and Sylvia Wynter, whose analysis of the praxis of
being human throughout history points us toward non-complicity with the
limited bodies of knowledge—epistemes—that attempt to define us.
We thank James D. Anderson at the University of Illinois, Urbana–Champaign
and Randall K. Burkett and Pellom McDaniels III, Curators of African Amer-
ican Collections at Emory University’s Manuscript, Archives, & Rare Books
Library—for assistance with research sources on Carter G. Woodson, in par-
ticular. We also thank the staff of the Patron Services Interlibrary Loan Section
at the University of Rochester Libraries for their extraordinary efforts in providing
xviii Acknowledgments
requested research materials. Finally, we acknowledge teachers and students

whose work precedes and guides what we do, families and communities who
are essential to refashioning the eurocratic model of education we seek to
change, and the Routledge editorial and production staff, whose consistent
support throughout the process of preparing, finalizing, and publishing this
manuscript has carried us to our destination once again.
1
INTRODUCTION
“Re-membering” More
. . . the good of all determines the good of each. Seek the good of the com-
munity and you seek your own good. Seek your own good and you seek your
own destruction.
Kwame Gyekye, An Essay on African Philosophical Thought:
The Akan Conceptual Scheme, 1987, p. 20
One arrives at an understanding and rapprochement by accepting the agency
of the African person as the basic unit of analysis of social situations involving
African-descended people.
Molefi Kete Asante, An African Manifesto, 2007, p. 105
In a previous volume, “Re-membering” History in Student and Teacher Learning:

An Afrocentric Culturally Informed Praxis (King & Swartz, 2014), we presented
an approach to recovering historical content that entails “re-membering” or
reconnecting knowledge of the past that has been silenced or distorted. In the
current volume, we broaden this approach to include emancipatory pedagogy
in an expanded Afrocentric praxis called Teaching for Freedom. Developed
within the Black intellectual tradition, this freedom praxis combines “re-
membered” (democratized) historical content with emancipatory pedagogy
that has been “re-membered” or put back together with African worldview
and the cosmologies, philosophies, and cultural concepts and practices of
African and Diasporan Peoples (Abímbólá, 1976; Anyanwu, 1981; Karenga,
1999, 2005a & b, 2006a; Gyekye, 1987). By locating pedagogy within an
African cultural context, Teaching for Freedom views educating children as a
shared responsibility to enhance community well-being and belonging (King,
Goss, & McArthur, 2014). To explore this concept of shared responsibility,
we begin with African worldview—a framework that maintains the concepts,
2 Introduction: “Re-membering” More
ethical teachings, and cultural continuities upon which Teaching for Freedom
is built.
African Worldview
Worldview is a cultural framework shaped by specific ontological and epistemo-
logical orientations, axiological commitments, virtues, and principles that endure
across time, with each of these elements bearing influence on all phenomena
that people who share a cultural heritage produce. Culture—which is an integ-
rated pattern of knowledge, values, assumptions, and social practices—is situa-
tional, and differences exist among diverse African peoples—then and now,
including the Diaspora. However, the frequency of common concepts, values,
assumptions, and practices reflects the underlying unity among these groups and
suggests how cohesive cultural factors appear and have been retained across time
and geographical location (Anyanwu, 1981; Gyekye, 1987, 1997; Hazzard-
Donald, 2012; Idowu, 1973; Konadu, 2010; Mbiti, 1990; Nyang, 1980;
Obenga, 1989; Tedla, 1995). Thus, African Diasporan philosophies, cosmolo-
gies, and cultural concepts and practices that shape the Afrocentric praxis of
Teaching for Freedom are outcomes produced by people who share an African
worldview. For example, sharing responsibility for communal well-being and belong-
ing—as a cultural concept of educating children—is one of these outcomes. The
five elements of this African cultural framework are shown below in Figure 1.1,
with the following descriptions of each element.
1 Ontology is the study of being, of what existence and human relationships

look like in particular cultural contexts. In African ontology, the nature of
existence includes Collectivity (the well-being of the group supersedes the
needs of individuals who benefit because the group benefits), Cooperation,
Collective Responsibility (everyone contributes to the well-being of the
group), Wholeness (all life viewed as one interconnected phenomenon),
Harmony (a natural rhythm and movement that exists among all living
things), and Interdependence that together speak to the interconnectedness
of all forms of life as seen in commitments to human welfare and social,
spiritual, and planetary equilibrium (Anyanwu, 1981; Deng, 1973; Dixon,
1971; Karenga, 2006b; Myers, 2003; Nobles, 1985, 1991, 2006; Waghid,
2014).
2 Epistemology is the study of ways of knowing and conceptions of the nature
of knowledge that also vary across cultural contexts. Along with authority,
empiricism, logic, and revelation, African epistemology includes relational
knowing (learning from reciprocal interactions), empathy, intuition-reasoning
(learning from heart-mind knowledge, which are linked not separate), divi-
nation (a learned discipline of decision making based on integrated know-
ledge from the spiritual, scientific, and unseen worlds), and symbolic imagery
Introduction: “Re-membering” More 3
Elements of African Worldview*
Ontology Epistemology Axiology Virtues Principles
(ways of being, (ways of (nature and (standards of (concepts of

such as knowing, such types of excellence as human conduct
Collectivity, as intuition- values, such exemplified in exemplified in
Inter- reasoning, as right action, Maat, such as the Nguzo
dependence, empathy, community- Truth, Justice, Saba, such as
Survival of the relational mindedness, and Balance) Unity, Purpose,
Group, and knowing, and and equanimity) Faith, and
Harmony) symbolic Creativity)
imagery)
FIGURE 1.1 Elements of African Worldview.
Note
* Throughout this volume, ontological orientations, Maatian Virtues, and Nguzo Saba Principles are
capitalized, but epistemologies and values are not. The former have been identified by scholars
cited herein as “the” elements of specific sets of ontological orientations, virtues, and principles;
the latter are selected by the authors among many possible examples of epistemologies and values.
(use of proverbs, gestures, rhythms, metaphors, and affect) (Abímbólá, 1976;

Dixon, 1971, 1976; Gyekye, 1987; Ikuenobe, 2006; Nkulu-N’Sengha,
2005). Several of these epistemologies are seen in Diasporan expressions as
described in Wade Boykin’s (1983, 1994) African American Cultural Dimen-
sions (e.g., Spirituality, Orality, Verve, Movement, Communalism). In these
epistemologically informed cultural continuities, speaking and listening are
experienced as performance, cognitive and affective expressions are linked,
and sharing and lively interactions and interrelatedness characterize knowing
and being with others (Anyanwu, 1981; Boykin, 1983; King & Goodwin,
2006; Nkulu-N’Sengha, 2005; Senghor, 1964).
3 Axiology is the study of the nature and types of values—especially in eth-
ics—that also vary across cultural contexts. As seen in African and Diaspo-
ran oral and written literature, African axiology reflects commitments to
community mindedness, service to others, human welfare, right action,
equanimity, and the sacredness of both the spiritual and the material
(Anyanwu, 1981; Foster, 1997; Gyekye, 1987; Karenga, 1980, 2006b; King
et al., 2014; Sindima, 1995; Tedla, 1995).
4 Virtues refer to standards of excellence as exemplified by those found in the
Kemetic spiritual and ethical practice of Maat in which disciplined thought
of the heart-mind leads to right relations that bring good to family, com-
munity, and self through living by its Seven Cardinal Virtues of Truth,
Justice, Harmony, Balance, Order, Reciprocity, and Propriety (Asante,

2011; Ashanti, 2008; Karenga, 2006b).
5 Principles refer to comprehensive concepts and practices of human conduct,
such as those expressed in the Nguzo Saba or Kwanzaa Principles (Unity,
Self-Determination, Collective Work and Responsibility, Cooperative
Economics, Purpose, Creativity, and Faith). This body of Principles, which
are celebrated in the African American holiday Kwanzaa, were drawn from
consistent patterns of African thought and practice to affirm and guide the
development of African families and communities throughout the world
(Asante, 2009; Karenga, 1998, 2005a).
Heritage Knowledge and Cultural Knowledge

Heritage knowledge refers to group memory, a repository or heritable legacy
that makes a feeling of belonging to one’s people possible (Clarke, 1994; King,
2006). All cultures have heritage knowledge, which “holds” the cultural legacies
and patterns produced by worldview that inform what is taught and how it is
taught. For African Americans, this birthright is embodied in knowledge of
shared African Diasporan cultural continuities, such as mutuality, spirituality,
service to others, justice, and reciprocity. These cultural continuities can be seen
in past and present forms of community building that include, for example,
adaptive familial structures, mutual aid societies, churches, economic coopera-
tives, social movements, Freedom schools, and Kwanzaa; and in the relentless
collective pursuit of human freedom understood as inherent and present even
though denied (King & Goodwin, 2006; King & Swartz, 2014). The Afrocen-
tric praxis of Teaching for Freedom makes it possible for all students to experi-
ence belonging in continuity with their ancestral heritage by creating
instructional opportunities for them to build on and expand their heritage
knowledge. For students of African ancestry, this means that they can use
African Diasporan cultural continuities, such as communal responsibility and
service to others as contexts for learning.
Cultural knowledge is knowledge gained about the cultural legacies and pat-
terns in cultures other than one’s own. When teachers learn and use cultural
knowledge to plan and teach lessons in the social studies and other disciplines,
the content and pedagogies they select center students by drawing upon the
history and heritage of all students in general and the students they are teaching
in particular. For example, we show in Chapter 3 how Harriet Tubman’s
African understanding of freedom was at the core of her response to enslave-
ment. When teachers have this cultural knowledge, they can preserve the cul-
tural continuity that is typically severed when figures like Tubman are lifted out
of the context of their communities and cultures as special individuals who did
extraordinary things. Of course Harriet Tubman was special, but keeping
Tubman anchored in her cultural heritage and what it taught her explains so
much more about who she was and why she acted as she did. All students
benefit from this contextualized presentation of Tubman, and her story is a plat-
form on which students of African ancestry can stand to experience the con-
tinuity of their African Diasporan legacy. In terms of pedagogy, when teachers
know about the communal values and ways of being and knowing that African
people such as Tubman retained in the Diaspora, they understand the logic of
building a classroom community and authentic relationships with students and
parents, providing opportunities for collaboration and for oral and affective
expression, and building on what students know. In these ways, all students can
benefit from teachers’ access to cultural knowledge—from content and peda-
gogy that permit them to learn about diverse histories, legacies, and the world-
views that shape people’s assumptions, ideas, and actions. Both heritage
knowledge and cultural knowledge position students as subjects with agency at
the center of teaching and learning.
By using content and pedagogy that draw upon heritage knowledge—and
the worldviews students’ heritages reflect—we can provide comprehensive
instruction and locate students culturally. This is especially important for stu-
dents of African ancestry, since over several centuries a massive cultural assault
due to the Maafa (European enslavement of African people), colonialism, neo-
colonialism, and white supremacy racism, has denigrated all things African. This
denigration has occurred to such an extent that Africa’s cultural legacy and
African American students’ heritage knowledge must be identified and recuper-
ated, even if they exist and operate unconsciously (Akbar, 1984; Dixon, 1971;
Nkulu-N’Sengha, 2005). This is especially urgent today when the African con-
tinent remains marginalized geopolitically, Africa’s cultural legacy is omitted in
school knowledge, and only crises such as war, famine, drought, and disease in
Africa appear to be newsworthy.
It is important to emphasize here that this is a call for teachers at all levels to
learn about African worldview and incorporate their heritage knowledge or cul-
tural knowledge through accurate scholarship. In pre-colonial African societies,
abundant evidence of Africa’s cultural legacy existed in oral, written, and
material forms, some of which we provide in this volume. Scholarship in the
Black intellectual tradition continues to recover this legacy, thereby helping
educators to design and implement schools and liberating educational interven-
tions in service to students and parents of African ancestry and their com-
munities (Goodwin, 2003; King, 2006, 2008; Lee, 1993, 2007; Madhubuti &
Madhubuti, 1994; Maïga, 1995, 2005). The praxis of Teaching for Freedom
models the use of this scholarship to identify African heritage knowledge,
develop cultural knowledge, and consciously locate all students at the center of
the learning experience as actors who have the knowledge, skills, and agency to
produce academic and cultural excellence, develop good character, and bring
just and right action into the world (Karenga, 1999, 2006a & b; King, 2006;
Tedla, 1995). In this model, teachers and students are unfettered by coercive
pedagogies and limited knowledge that omit or distort diverse ways of knowing
and being; and they have opportunities to experience and implement African-
informed values, virtues, and principles, such as community mindedness, right
action, Reciprocity, and Collective Work and Responsibility.
Worldview and Freedom

The historical record provides further insight into the relationship between
African worldview and practices of freedom that undergird the Afrocentric praxis
of Teaching for Freedom. This relationship is seen in the experiences of freedom,
justice, and social responsibility practiced in Indigenous African Nations—a rela-
tionship that African people have continued in the Diaspora. (See King & Swartz,
2014, p. 53 for a detailed explanation of the use and capping of “Nations” and
“Peoples.”) From East to West Africa, justice, rightness, and ethical consciousness
have been guiding principles that define[d] and demonstrate[d] unity among
philosophies as exemplified in Ancient Kemet and in the Songhoy, Yoruba,
Dogon, Bambara, and Akan Nations to name only a few (Diop, 1959/1990,
1974; Obenga, 1989). The Kemetic practices of Maat, a spiritual and ethical ideal
and way of life, view humans as inherently and equally worthy and responsible for
demonstrating good character and excellence through action (Karenga, 2006b). In
the Songhoy Empire (Gandawey), there were practices of public accountability
and shared responsibility for decision making; the freedom to practice more than
one religion; an administrative office for the benefit of foreigners; and leaders who
were evaluated based on their just, fair, and caring treatment of people (Maïga,
2010; Sissoko, 1984). Akan philosophy views humans as free and responsible for
their actions—for enacting “the good” through behaviors that are truthful, just,
compassionate, generous, and peaceable—which create harmony in human rela-
tions and lead to the well-being of the community (Gyekye, 1987). And there are
the ethical teachings in the Odù Ifá—the sacred wisdom text of the Yoruba people
that parallels sacred texts in ancient Kemet (Karenga, 1999, 2006b). This text,
composed of 256 Odù (chapters) and many ese (verses) of poems, proverbs, stories,
chants, and ethical narratives, is used in a divination system based on the principles
of a well-ordered universe able to provide insights into every human action
(Abímbólá, 1976, 1997; Karenga, 2005c).
The African worldview elements evident in the Odù Ifá are representative of
the ways of being and knowing, values, principles, and virtues that African
people brought with them to the Americas (Hazzard-Donald, 2012). For
example, Odù 202:1 refers to “the principle of grouping together” that defines
how all forms of life are gathered in groups “[s]o that the goodness of together-
ness could come forth at once. Indeed all goodness took the form of a gathering
together in harmony” (Karenga, 1999, p. 361, 364). In Maulana Karenga’s
(2006a) commentary on this Odù, he explains that “great goods” such as
freedom and justice are real when they are shared. He states:
the great goods of freedom, justice, love, family, friendship, sisterhood,

brotherhood, a life of peace, a life of dignity and decency, and the world
itself, are all shared goods. And they are not real if only some people are
deemed worthy of them or worthier than others.
(pp. 269–270)
Notice the ontological and epistemological orientations of Collectivity,

Harmony, Interdependence, relational knowing, and empathy (feeling with) that
shape Yoruba thinking about how the universe is ordered and how sharing is
the greatest good that results from the experience of “gathering together in
harmony.” The values of service to others, right action, and equanimity; the
virtues of Reciprocity and Justice; and the principles of Unity and Self-
Determination—which all consider the needs of the collective—are present
throughout the Odù Ifá—a cosmology and lived philosophy that Yoruba people
brought with them to the Americas. Likewise, African people who were taken
from the Kôngo, Songhoy, Akan, Dogon, Bambara, Baluba, Fulani, and other
Nations brought with them knowledge of their cosmologies, philosophic tradi-
tions, oral and/or written texts, and cultural concepts and practices, which are
the material and spiritual expressions of their worldview.
People of African ancestry in the Americas continue to share a common cul-
tural legacy in which freedom, justice, and love are to be shared by all, as are
dignity and decency; and people are responsible to develop harmonious rela-
tionships and foster the well-being of the community through respect for
knowledge, wisdom, and the inherent worth of all humans (Hazzard-Donald,
2012; Karenga, 1999, 2005c; Sublette, 2008). This has been apparent for centu-
ries. For example, when Africans in 18th century North America petitioned
legislatures and courts for freedom, they often wrote that they had never given
up their natural right to be free (Aptheker, 1951/1969; Bennett, 1975; Hart,
1985/2002; Kaplan, 1973). They came here—both peasants and nobles alike—
with the experience of freedom and with ways of being and knowing that pro-
duced ethical traditions of speaking truth and doing justice, sharing responsibility
for community welfare, and having value for the dignity and equal worth of all
people (Karenga, 2006a). And while freedom for the enslaved was literally taken
away, Africans in North America often spoke and wrote that they had never
given it up. They understood freedom as inherent and shared, that all humans
were worthy and responsible to live and act in ways that were just and right—
to be of good character and to bring good into the world. Listen to Amoyi
Awodele as he describes his father’s Yoruba teachings that were passed on to
him.
VIGnEttE 1.1
Amoyi Awodele Speaks

I took my freedom from the plantation of Miguel Fortier in Louisiana and
carefully made my way north to Philadelphia in 1841.* I was called Francois
on the plantation, but my real name is Amoyi Awodele. My first name
means “the one who knows the way.” I am Yoruba and my family is from
Ilé-Ifè. My father’s real first name is Abiye, meaning “born to stay alive,”
which is certainly true of my father, since he managed, unlike many others,
to live through the brutal passage from our homeland to this country. His
name reflects his chosen destiny. My mother was sold away by the time I
was two years old. Her first name is Jumoke, which means “everybody loves
the child,” and from the stories I have heard about her, this was certainly
true.
My father has passed on; his body is no longer among us, but his soul or
ori lives on among the ancestors. In this life he did everything he could—of
course in secret—to teach me about my family, including my ancestors,
and about the lives they led before being enslaved. My parents—along with
other Yoruba, Fon, Hausa, and Edo men, women, and children—were kid-
napped, shackled, and put in the hold of a ship bound for New Orleans
around 1815. They were captured during a trip to visit relatives in the city
of Akure.
It is now 1848. I have established a small business in Philadelphia and
have recently married. Every day I think about the teachings my father
passed on to me. In Ilé-Ifè he was a Babalawo or Priest of the Ifa religion
and spent years studying the Yoruba sacred wisdom texts called the Odù
Ifá. He never forgot what he learned as a Babalawo and how to speak
Yoruba, but if we spoke our language or practiced our religion we were
severely beaten and even mutilated. So, in his efforts to protect me, I only
know a few Yoruba words and phrases. My father used stories to pass on
many Yoruba teachings—about honoring elders, caring for and living in
harmony with others, and about freedom and justice.
Among enslaved and free Africans in this country, the Yoruba are not
alone in knowing that freedom and the worth of each person is something
you are born with. That is why I began to work with Mr. W. S—after he
arrived in Philadelphia a few years ago. We are part of a network that con-
ducts “passengers” on the Underground Railroad to safety here and further
north. I also have signed several petitions advocating for the freedom of my
brothers and sisters who are still enslaved.
The Odù teaches that there is goodness in coming together in harmony.
Yoruba and other African Peoples brought ideas like this with them to this
country. However, most of us have been separated from our People and
from our languages, so it has been very difficult to pass on knowledge to
our children. But I have noticed that, even without this direct knowledge,
African people living here still value African ideals like respecting elders and
ancestors, being of good character, caring for others, being generous,
bringing good into the world, being kind to guests and strangers, being
responsible community members, and valuing goodness and justice for
everyone. These ideals I will teach to my children, and more importantly
they will see them practiced in what I do.
* This vignette is based on historical records about Yoruba ethical teachings, the system of
slavery, African Peoples in Louisiana, and individual historical figures. Amoyi Awodele and
his family are created in order to convey African People’s cultural retentions—a topic about
which there are few historical records during this period. Using the convention of the time,
only initials refer to Africans involved in abolition work. Mr. W. S refers to William Still,
who in 1872 wrote a book titled The Underground Railroad: Authentic narratives and first-hand
accounts, which documents his abolition work in Philadelphia. See also Abímbólá (1976),
Dopamu (2006), Karenga (1999), and Hall (2005).
Additional evidence of this African conceptualization and experience of freedom

as an inherent right can also be seen in early and ongoing revolts and the estab-
lishment of hidden communities throughout the Americas in which men and
women chose liberation over enslavement and the freedom to maintain their
own culture, which they viewed as a common right and responsibility, even
though denied by enslavement (Gomez, 2004; Hart, 1985/2002; Hilliard,
1995). In fact, the centuries-long pursuit of freedom never given up by African
people has been so intense and pervasive that it has wrenched the U.S. Consti-
tution from its conception as an oxymoronic document of stated freedom but
practiced exclusion to an amended document that, over time, has become more
inclusive.
Our exploration of the relationship between worldview and related African
and Diasporan practices of freedom emanates from an Afrocentric theoretical
framework that locates African people at the center not the periphery of phe-
nomena. It is to this theoretical framework that we now turn to discuss “re-
membered” (democratized) content and emancipatory pedagogies, and to
introduce how these pedagogies—whose cultural base is shaped by the world-
view, ethical teachings, and cultural concepts of African Diasporan Peoples—are
used to teach this content.
Afrocentricity
Almost a century ago, Carter G. Woodson (1919)—a seminal figure in the
Black intellectual tradition—understood the value of locating African people at
the center of phenomena when he explained the role that school curricula play
in the denigration of Africa and the disregard of African and Diasporan achieve-
ments in diverse disciplines. His analysis of school knowledge in the early 20th
century explained how systemic distortions have resulted from omissions and
misrepresentations of African descent people—a people located in thousands of
years of historical accomplishments and cultural excellence. By so doing,
Woodson foreshadowed Afrocentricity as developed in the work of scholars
such as Molefi Kete Asante (1980/1988, 1987/1998, 2007), Ama Mazama
(2003a & b), Danjuma Sinue Modupe (2003), Maulana Karenga (1980, 2003),
Linda James Myers (1988/1993, 2003), and Clovis E. Semmes (1981) that
locates people of African descent as historical agents who speak for and name
themselves. These and many other African-centered scholars provide theoretical
and conceptual frameworks for the type of research needed to recover Contin-
ental and Diasporan African knowledge that has either been hidden, distorted,
or appropriated by white supremacist conceptualizations of African Peoples
(Carruthers, 1999; Clarke, 1991, 1993; Diop, 1967, 1974; Dixon, 1976;
Hilliard, 1997; King, 2005; Nobles, 1993, 2006; Obenga, 1989).
Afrocentricity is a paradigm or philosophical framework located within the
discipline of Africology that examines knowledge in all other academic disci-
plines and fields through an African worldview and analytical stance (Asante,
2008; Kershaw, 1992; Mazama, 2003a). Because it is interdisciplinary, Africol-
ogy provides multiple theoretical frameworks. Related to the discipline of
history, and useful in the wide-ranging field of education, one of these theories
posits that by locating Africa and African people at the center of phenomena,
not on the periphery to be described and defined by others, the universalized
knowledge of the hierarchal European episteme can be replaced with democra-
tized knowledge (Asante, 1980/1988, 2003a & b, 2007; Karenga, 2003; Mazama
2003a & b). With the concept of locating people as normative subjects at the
center of the sociopolitical, economic, and cultural phenomena of their time,
this Afrocentric theory is a human-centric theory of representation with the
potential to turn about the distortions that have been embedded in school
knowledge related to African as well as all other groups of people (Asante 2007,
1991; Karenga, 2003).
As seen in Figure 1.2, we begin with an African worldview in the praxis of
Teaching for Freedom. This worldview—made visible through the philosophies,
cosmologies, and cultural concepts and practices that African Peoples produced
over time—is the cultural ground from which an Afrocentric theoretical frame-
work has emerged. This framework includes Afrocentric concepts and culturally
informed principles that 1) “re-member” (democratize) or bring back together
knowledge of those cultures and groups that have shaped the past and 2) identify
and “re-member” emancipatory pedagogies with their African-informed sources
(discussed more fully in Chapter 2). These pedagogies (described in Table 1.2
later in this chapter) include Eldering, Locating Students, Multiple Ways of
Knowing, Question-Driven Pedagogy, Culturally Authentic Assessment, and
African Worldview
made visible through African People’s development of

African Philosophies, Cosmologies, and Cultural Conceptsand Practices
Afrocentric Theoretical Framework
is grounded in African worldview and composed of

Afrocentric Concepts and Culturally Informed Principles
African-
“Re-membered”
Informed
Content
Emancipatory
Knowledge
Pedagogies
The Afrocentric Praxis of Teaching for Freedom
FIGURE 1.2 Afrocentric Praxis of Teaching for Freedom.
Communal Responsibility. Together, “re-membered” content and “re-

membered” emancipatory pedagogies shape the Afrocentric praxis of Teaching
for Freedom. When used in the classroom, this praxis is designed to produce
group (and therefore individual) academic and cultural excellence, expand stu-
dents’ heritage and cultural knowledge, teach agency, and create a shared com-
mitment to group well-being and belonging through just and right action.
The Afrocentric praxis of Teaching for Freedom is an alternative to the
omnipresent euro-pedagogical continuum that runs the gamut from
management-driven transmission pedagogy at one end to “best practices” at the
other (Daniels, Bizar, & Zemelman, 2001; Kliebard, 1986; Tomlinson &
Edison, 2003; Zemelman, Daniels, & Hyde, 1998). (In this volume we use the
term “euro” in the construction of words, rather than the general term “Euro-
centric,” in order to identify and locate specific practices and outcomes of a
European episteme.) While transmission pedagogy remains standard in schools
today, especially with the preponderance of test-driven scripted curriculum (Au,

2009; Karp, 2013–2014; Kumashiro, 2008; Ravitch, 2010, 2013), “best prac-
tices” (e.g., collaboration, student centering, experiential learning, differentiated
instruction, social interaction, and drawing upon students’ pre-existing know-
ledge) are arguably the “best” of euro-framed thinking about how to educate
children to critically think rather than follow scripts. Yet, these “best practices”
fail to acknowledge what Molefi Kete Asante (1980/1988) calls the “cultural
platform” on which stand the principles, values, traditions, and ways of knowing
(epistemology) and being (ontology) in any culture across time.
In the case of these “best practices,” such as collaboration, experiential learn-
ing, and drawing upon students’ pre-existing knowledge, their unacknowledged
cultural platform is actually African. These “best” practices depend upon building
relationships and dialogic interactions, which run counter to European ontological
orientations such as Individualism, Competition, and Survival of the Fittest
(Dixon, 1971; Nobles, 1976). Likewise, practices that require Interdependence
and Reciprocity—such as social interaction, student centering, and differentiated
instruction—also run counter to a European worldview that values individual
mindedness (the rugged individual) and the “I” as more important than the “We.”
These values restrict interaction and view learning as primarily an individual
experience. Collaboration, social interaction, and meeting the needs of each child
are excellent goals, but without Interdependence, mutuality, community minded-
ness, and Reciprocity—which come from an African (not European) worldview
and cultural platform—these goals are difficult to realize.
While some teachers resonate with “best practices,” such as those identified
above, and use them effectively in their classrooms, content and pedagogical
practices in most schools in the United States are shaped by a European world-
view that provides little or no support for these “best” practices. This discussion
of what is “best” and why exemplifies the need for the praxis of Teaching for
Freedom that models how to recover African Diasporan knowledge and expand
learning opportunities. Not knowing about and/or failing to acknowledge the
African cultural platform as the foundation of these “best practices” compro-
mises them even further by separating them from centuries of culturally
grounded philosophical tenets, ethical teachings, and worldview characteristics.
We have all been so disconnected from a positive identification with Africa and
its cultural legacy—which includes thousands of years of educational excel-
lence—that it has become the norm for African-derived content, concepts, and
practices to be appropriated and presented as culturally denuded (corporate-
driven) “best” knowledge and “best” pedagogical practices. Educators are thus
denied a human/cultural connection to significant African sources of learning
regarding “what works” and why. It is in this context that Afrocentric concepts
and the worldview from which they come can help us to retrieve African
Diasporan knowledge and culturally informed pedagogy that have been dis-
counted, decoupled, and stripped from teaching and learning.
Afrocentric Concepts and Worldview

Bringing back together the multiple and shared knowledge bases and experiences
that shaped the past connects the cultural platforms of those who were present in
any context; and using Afrocentric theory, concepts, and culturally informed prin-
ciples to frame, write, and teach more accurate historical accounts, liberates
subject-area content and pedagogy from the agreed-upon and incomplete versions
that have become standard in school knowledge. There are several concepts that
define the emancipatory intent and character of Afrocentric theory, and can be
used in the construction of democratized social studies knowledge, knowledge in
other disciplines, and pedagogical knowledge (Asante, 1987/1998; Bethel, 2003;
Cokely, 2003; Goodwin, 2004; Karenga, 2006a; King & Swartz, 2014; Mazama,
2003b; Modupe, 2003; Nobles, 2005). Table 1.1 below defines each of these
Afrocentric concepts (left side of Table 1.1) and shows how each one is shaped by
the elements of an African worldview (right side of Table 1.1).
TABLE 1.1 Afrocentric Theoretical Concepts and Worldview Elements
Afrocentric Theoretical Concepts African Worldview Elements

This side of the table is reprinted from This side of the table describes how each
“Re-membering” History in Student and Teacher Afrocentric theoretical concept is shaped by
Learning: An Afrocentric Culturally Informed various elements of an African worldview.
Praxis (King & Swartz, 2014, p. 38).
Collective Consciousness—This As an epistemology, Collective

epistemology refers to the “retention of Consciousness is a relational way of
ancestral sensibilities” within and across knowing that is part of heritage knowledge.
generations (Nobles, 2005, p. 199). This Across time this heritable knowledge has
way of knowing conveys the historic retained that which is excellent within the
continuity of African essence, energy, and collective African family as shaped by
excellence; is sustained through mutuality, equanimity, and the sacredness of
relationships within the collective African both the spiritual and the material (African
family that make awareness, knowledge, values); Reciprocity and Harmony (Maatian
and meaning possible; and elicits value for Virtues); and Unity and Self-Determination
the human collective. (Nguzo Saba Principles). These African
worldview elements are revealed in cultural
continuities across time and location.
Collective Responsibility—There are Collective Responsibility is also an
reciprocal and interconnected relationships ontological orientation, along with Harmony
among African people that together make and Interdependence that describe African
and are made by the “best” practices ways of being. Together with relational and
within African culture. These practices are group-based ways of knowing and empathy
emancipatory in that their collaborative (epistemologies); and community mindedness,
enactment increases justice and right service to others, and right action (values),
action for African people and the whole of these elements of an African worldview have
humanity. shaped this concept that represents a
commitment to human interconnectedness.
continued
TABLE 1.1 Continued
Centrality/Location—Placing Africa The concept of Centrality/Location is

and African people and experiences at the shaped by intuition-reasoning
center of phenomena means that African (epistemology), which combines heart
knowledge, cultural ideals, values, and knowledge and mind knowledge, and an
ways of knowing and being are a location ethical dialog between the two. Together
or standing place from which the past and with Truth and Justice (Maatian Virtues), it
present can be viewed and understood. is reasonable and right to center every
cultural group as a location from which to
know about the past and present.
Self-Determination—African individuals Self-Determination is also a principle of
make decisions and control their lives the Nguzo Saba. It is shaped by Collectivity
within the context of considering the (ontology); right action and community
collective needs and interests of African mindedness (values); Reciprocity (Maatian
people and maintaining the sovereignty of Virtue); and Unity and Purpose (Nguzo
African and other cultures. Saba). These African worldview elements
move this concept beyond the individual
level to mutuality and the needs of the
collective.
Subjects with Agency—African people Subjects with Agency is a concept shaped
and ideas are subjects when and where by relational knowing (epistemology);
they are present. They have the will and Reciprocity (Maatian Virtue); and Self-
capacity to act in and on the world—not Determination and Purpose (Nguzo Saba
only as individuals, but as members of Principles). These African worldview
their cultural group. elements support the voicing of ideas and
community-minded right action by subjects
who act collectively in social contexts.
Reclamation of Cultural Heritage— Reclamation of Cultural Heritage is a
The conscious recovery of African history, concept that is shaped by Collective
culture, and identity that is grounded in Responsibility (ontology); intuition-
knowledge of African cosmology, reasoning (epistemology); right action
ontology, epistemology, and axiology and (values); Truth and Order (Maatian Virtues);
presented with a culturally authentic and Creativity (Nguzo Saba Principle).
lexicon is a model for reclaiming the Together, these African worldview elements
heritage of diverse cultures and groups. support the recovery of heritage that has
been hidden or distorted.
Anteriority of Classical African Anteriority of Classical African
Civilizations—Ancient Kemet and prior Civilizations is shaped by right action
African civilizations developed and (value) as well as Truth and Order (Maatian
exhibited the earliest demonstrations of Virtues). Since this anteriority has been
excellence in foundational disciplines such denied for centuries, these elements of an
as philosophy, mathematics, science, African worldview support the scholarship
medicine, the arts, and architecture. needed to document and validate the
accomplishments of Classical African
civilizations.
Understanding how Afrocentric concepts are shaped by the elements of an

African worldview is a way to experience African Diasporan cultural continuity,
since a recent theoretical framework such as Afrocentricity is informed by
enduring worldview elements or cultural characteristics that are centuries old.
(The concept of cultural continuity is further developed in later chapters.)
Culturally Informed Principles and Emancipatory Pedagogy

We use the six culturally informed principles listed in Table 1.2 to “write”
Afrocentric concepts into instructional materials, and to connect this “re-
membered” content with emancipatory pedagogy. These principles connect
content and pedagogy by locating the individuals and groups being studied as
normative subjects at the center of the sociopolitical, economic, and cultural
phenomena of their time; and by locating students as the subjects of instruction
(Asante, 2007; Goodwin & Swartz, 2008; King & Swartz, 2014). In other
words, the six principles shape both content and pedagogy, which means that
students and teachers experience each principle through content and during
instruction. These principles were drawn from numerous analyses, guidelines,
and criteria found in the scholarship of the Black intellectual tradition dating
from the 19th century. This scholarship is the foundation from which evolved
20th century theories and practices, such as intercultural and multicultural
education, the modern Black Studies movement, culturally congruent/relevant/
responsive education, and Afrocentricity (ANKN, 1999; Banks, 1988, 1996,
2004; Cajete, 1994; CIBC, 1977; Gay, 2000, 2004; Grande, 2004; Karenga,
2003; King, 1994, 2004; Ladson-Billings, 1994, 2004; Mazama, 2003b). We
have refined and used these six culturally informed principles in empirical
research, in the critique of instructional materials, in the development of social
studies texts and professional development materials, and in professional devel-
opment sessions with PK-12 teachers (Goodwin & Swartz, 2004, 2009; RTC,
2007; Swartz, 2009, 2010, 2012, 2013; Swartz & Bakari, 2005). More recently,
we have identified how these culturally informed principles are related to spe-
cific pedagogies. Table 1.2 below defines each culturally informed principle as it
is applied to both content and pedagogy. As you review this table, ask yourself,
“What is the value of having both the content and the pedagogies I use shaped
by the same culturally informed principles?”
As part of the Afrocentric praxis of historical recovery, the six culturally
informed principles in Table 1.2 “re-member” or reconnect knowledge about the
past that has been torn apart by eurocratic narratives. These narratives are hierar-
chal, since they always take the lead in standard school knowledge, solipsistically
positioning Europeans and their descendants as having produced most of the
knowledge worth knowing in every subject area. As a remedy, writing “re-
membered” content framed by Afrocentric concepts and written with culturally
informed principles produces heterarchal accounts in which there is a shifting
T1.2 Culturally Informed Principles: Content and Pedagogy
Content Pedagogy*
Inclusion—This principle refers to Students experience inclusion when they

including all cultures and groups as the are in right relationship with their teachers
subjects of their own accounts, not as through the emancipatory pedagogy called
objects of others’ accounts about them. Eldering. Students feel dignity and respect
Inclusion asserts that, when all cultures and when teachers exhibit authentic authority
groups are understood as substantive based on knowledge, wisdom, and
participants in human development, their expertise—qualities that lead to building
presence is necessary, not expedient or upon what students know and who they
token. are, asking critical questions, and co-creating
curriculum with students. Eldering views
knowledge as a communal experience;
everyone has something to contribute.
Representation—This principle refers to Students experience Representation when
comprehensive portrayals that provide instruction is designed using their normative
enough content and context about cultural characteristics in the emancipatory
individuals and groups to avoid distortions pedagogy called Locating Students. For
and stereotypes. Individuals and groups example, if oral interactions in group
remain connected to their ancestral cultures settings are normative for some or all of
and communities as normative subjects of your students, you can locate or center
their own experience. Representation students by providing opportunities for
asserts that, when the cultural characteristics learning in collective and interdependent
of individuals or groups are taught, more settings where students can exchange ideas
authentic portrayals are possible. and learn together.
Accurate Scholarship—This principle Students experience Accurate Scholarship
refers to avoiding errors and omissions. It when teachers use the emancipatory
asserts that, when relevant knowledge is pedagogy called Multiple Ways of
present and when errors or omissions are Knowing, which taps into the heritage or
avoided, curricular content becomes a cultural knowledge teachers have about their
reflection of the past rather than an students. For example, relational knowing and
appropriation of it. While what is empathy are ways to know and learn things in
considered accurate can change based on relationships. If you have studied the
new information, accuracy is identifiable scholarship about these epistemologies and/or
when knowledge is examined with observed them being used by your students,
integrity (Karenga, 2006a). you would organize activities that allow
students to learn with and from each other.
Indigenous Voice—This principle refers Students experience Indigenous Voice when
to the curricular portrayal of all cultures teachers use the emancipatory pedagogy
and groups through the experiences of called Question-Driven Pedagogy.
their members and historical events Teachers ask students thought-provoking
through the voices and actions of those questions that build on what they know.
who were present. Indigenous Voice When teaching and learning is a reciprocal
asserts that, when cultures and groups experience based on inquiry, students
speak for, name, and define themselves, demonstrate agency by defining themselves
their textual presence as historical agents and their ideas during instruction.
mirrors their agency in life.
Content Pedagogy*
Critical Thinking—This principle refers Students experience Critical Thinking

to instructional materials and curricula that informed by African worldview when
provide broad and typically omitted and/ teachers use the emancipatory pedagogy
or distorted content. Critical Thinking called Culturally Authentic Assessment
asserts that, when content is broad, to 1) guide students to produce knowledge
students question, see connections and and arrive at solutions through
patterns, evaluate and synthesize demonstration rather than being asked to
information, identify areas of significance, give predetermined “right” answers; and 2)
and produce knowledge, rather than only assess students’ learning using community-
recalling and restating it. informed standards and expectations.
Students, teachers, and parents work
together to complete and assess projects and
performances that reflect imagination and
bring benefit to the classroom and
community.
A Collective Humanity—This principle Students experience a Collective Humanity
refers to the oneness of all humanity, when teachers use the emancipatory
meaning that all groups of people equally pedagogy called Communal
belong to the human collective. A Responsibility. This pedagogy fosters
Collective Humanity asserts that, when group belonging, working together,
there is equity in the presentation of reciprocity, right action, and being
knowledge across all cultures and groups, responsible for each other. Individuals are
there is no hierarchy of human worth that valued for what they contribute to the
places some groups above others. For group during cooperative learning,
example, content that presents freedom collaborative projects, and group-based
and justice as human entitlements—rather assessments. For example, engaging students
than legal rights that depend upon who is in collective decision making is a way for
in power in a particular time and place— them to experience unity or oneness in a
models this principle, since freedom and group, since everyone participates, and by
justice are the inherent rights of all people participating, decisions can be made that
in any time and place. reflect the interests of the class as a whole,
not only some or a majority of individuals.
Note
* We acknowledge Dr. Beverly Gordon (1986, 1990) and Dr. Susan Goodwin (1996, 1998, 2004)
for their conceptualization and exemplifications of emancipatory pedagogy.
order of leadership based on knowledge, expertise, and location (standing place)

(Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Schwartz & Ogilvy, 1980; Swartz, 2009). Heterarchal
narratives are more accurate and complete, since all voices are represented and
leadership in the telling of the narrative depends upon which group has the know-
ledge, expertise, and location to bring all group narratives into a coherent whole.
For example, in a “re-membered” account of Reconstruction, Afrocentric con-
cepts (e.g., Collective Responsibility, Centrality/Location, Self-Determination,
and Subjects with Agency) and culturally informed principles (e.g., Inclusion,
Accurate Scholarship, Critical Thinking, and a Collective Humanity) frame and

write the group narratives of Black and White people from the North and South
(Swartz, 2007). The leadership in connecting these narratives comes from the
group whose ideas and actions were congruent with the inclusive aims of Recon-
struction. It was people of African ancestry who—with the support of some White
politicians and advocates of freedom and justice—defined and pursued an inclusive
democracy that advanced the country closer to freedom during Reconstruction.
Thus, the African American narrative leads in weaving together diverse accounts
on this topic, with all accounts being written using culturally informed principles.
(See King & Swartz, 2014, for a full discussion and exemplification of the process
of “re-membering,” including the role of heterarchal macro narratives.)
As stated above and seen in Table 1.2, the principles that write “re-
membered” (democratized) content also inform emancipatory pedagogies so
that students and teachers can experience each principle through content as well
as during instruction. In the next chapter, we suggest ways to use these pedago-
gies in teaching a “re-membered” student text that was framed with Afrocentric
concepts and written with culturally informed principles. Importantly, we
include specific examples from oral and written African and Diasporan literature
that provide a cultural platform for each of the six emancipatory pedagogies
described in Table 1.2. These “re-membered” accounts and emancipatory peda-
gogies are the substance of the praxis called Teaching for Freedom.
Journeying Toward Freedom

Schools and classrooms can be communal spaces in which teachers, students,
and families learn not only content and skills, but also how to engage collec-
tively and responsibly in just and right action. The praxis of Teaching for
Freedom fosters such communal spaces in which subject-area knowledge is
gained through content and pedagogical practices that also teach students about
freedom and justice, that is, how to live and act based on beliefs and values that
bring shared good into the world of which all are worthy (Karenga, 2006a). In
this way, Teaching for Freedom models how to connect learning in various dis-
ciplines to a larger purpose of realizing a communal vision of well-being and
belonging that is congruent with students’ ancestral heritage. As educators, we
can contribute to realizing this vision by affirming the heritage knowledge of all
students while expanding our cultural knowledge. All children are born into
communities (families), and even for those children whose cultures engage in
limited communal and relational practices, there is a need to belong—to be a
part of the group (S. Goodwin, personal communication, May 15, 2009). This need
echoes all of our earliest experiences in family life and suggests why communal
practices resonate with and are valuable for all children.
In this first chapter, we have introduced the Afrocentric praxis of Teaching for
Freedom. A legacy of the Black intellectual tradition, this praxis uses Afrocentric
theory and culturally informed principles to “re-member” or put back together

curricular content, and to “re-member” emancipatory pedagogies (e.g., Eldering,
Question-Driven Pedagogy, Locating Students, Culturally Authentic Assessment)
with their African-informed sources. We describe the elements of an African
worldview or cultural framework and introduce the idea that this framework is
observable in the philosophies, cosmologies, and cultural concepts developed over
time by African Peoples and seen in African heritage knowledge and in practices
of freedom in Africa and the Diaspora. With its capacity to produce democratized
knowledge in the form of “re-membered” accounts and emancipatory pedago-
gies, Teaching for Freedom emerges from an African worldview that values stu-
dents’ heritage knowledge, making it possible for all students to experience
belonging in continuity with their ancestral heritage.
Chapter 2, “Culture Connects,” applies the Afrocentric praxis of Teaching for
Freedom presented in Chapter 1 to a student text entitled Black Community Build-
ing: The African Tradition of Collective Work and Responsibility (Swartz, 2013). This
text is written for grades 5–7, but can be used with younger students as a read
aloud and with older students as an introduction leading to more in-depth study.
Two highly effective teachers model how to teach this text using emancipatory
pedagogies that are connected to an African worldview and the cultural platforms
it has produced. These cultural platforms provide examples from various African
cultures to support all six emancipatory pedagogies, which are described as: (1)
cultural practices, meaning that they are supported and shaped within cultural
contexts; and (2) emancipatory practices in that they produce belonging, agency,
and excellence, with an ethical focus on relationship building, communal well-
being, and right action. Importantly, this chapter demonstrates how the praxis of
Teaching for Freedom accesses and builds upon African heritage knowledge, and
in so doing, maintains cultural continuity across generations.
Chapter 3, “Harriet Tubman: ‘Re-membering’ Cultural Continuities,”
presents two approaches to teaching about Harriet Tubman—one that dis-
regards culture and one that shows African Diasporan cultural continuities her
life and work represent. Although she is now regularly included in social studies
materials, Tubman is still presented through the grand narrative of slavery that
isolates her from other free and enslaved African people who also resisted
enslavement. By ignoring scholarship that could result in greater accuracy and a
more complete account—including the African cultural context of these accom-
plishments—this presentation of Tubman replicates the intended dehumanizing,
objectifying nature of enslavement and cloaks this institution’s white suprema-
cist assumption of the right to dominate. In contrast, we use Afrocentric theory
and culturally informed principles to frame and write a “re-membered” student
text about Harriet Tubman that locates her at the center of her story as an
African woman who embodies the African understanding that for anyone to be
free, everyone has to be free—that freedom is a shared responsibility and inher-
ent right that she and millions of others had never given up.
Chapter 4, “ ‘Re-membering’ the Jeanes Teachers,” examines a much

ignored aspect of the Black intellectual tradition, the pedagogical practices of
the Jeanes teachers. In the context of Black education, Jeanes teachers exemplify
the Afrocentric praxis of Teaching for Freedom in their demonstration of shared
responsibility or collective agency for community well-being. In the early
1900s, these determined educators of African ancestry—mostly women and a
few men—were sent throughout the South to support rural Black teachers and
to improve public health and living conditions for students, families, and com-
munities. Jeanes teachers, funded by Anna T. Jeanes, not only demonstrated
emancipatory approaches to teaching, but they taught how to meet the educa-
tional needs of students in cross-age classrooms, advocated for resources from
local (racist) school boards, and raised money from the communities in which
they worked to improve, and in some cases build, rural Black schools. These
teachers worked with limited material resources to bring the good of public
education to disenfranchised African Americans whose educational and other
social, political, and economic needs and interests were disregarded and/or
obstructed in the Jim Crow South. Under these conditions, their recorded
accomplishments are outstanding. How was this possible? What ways of being
and knowing, values, virtues, and principles are consistently found in their
work? And how does an African worldview guide us to “read” the African
Diasporan cultural continuity of these Jeanes teachers as an example of the
praxis of Teaching for Freedom?
Chapter 5, “ ‘Re-membering’ Cultural Concepts,” explains how the Afro-
centric praxis of Teaching for Freedom engages students, teachers, and families
with democratized content and emancipatory pedagogies that recognize culture
as the medium of exchange that has been absent in the school experience for all
students. This absence is due to the disconnection of content and pedagogical
practices from the cultural concepts and worldviews they represent—as if
content and pedagogy were conceived outside of culture. When teachers ask
students to gain knowledge through the lens of cultural concepts, which endure
across time and place, they can guide students not only to learn about past
events, but to use the cultural concepts that inform those events to act in the
present. In contrast with mainstream content and pedagogy—and the invisible
yet ubiquitous European worldview and cultural concepts that shape and main-
tain them—the praxis of Teaching for Freedom brings knowledge and examples
of African as well as other People’s worldview and heritage knowledge into the
school experience. In so doing, this praxis models how “re-membering” African
cultural concepts with democratized content and emancipatory pedagogies can
create cultural continuity for all groups of students, their families, and
communities.
Chapter 6, “Practicing Cultural Concepts and Continuity,” presents several
African Diasporan topics, identifies the cultural concepts that informed these
topics, and shows how two practitioners of Teaching for Freedom use these
concepts to shape their presentation of content and selection of pedagogies.

Their teaching occurs within the context of culture by engaging with the
meaning of past events as a way to maintain continuity between Africa and the
Diaspora. In addition to the content, pedagogies, and concepts they select, these
and other practitioners of Teaching for Freedom know that creating multiple
opportunities for families to be part of instruction also strengthens cultural con-
tinuity. They understand that families “hold” and convey heritage knowledge
(group memory), including worldview and cultural concepts that maintain the
continuity of diverse cultural legacies. The chapter ends with an activity that
helps to clarify many of the concepts, principles, and pedagogies presented in
this volume. We invite our readers to be practitioners of Teaching for Free-
dom—to build upon and expand students’ heritage knowledge and support stu-
dents in gaining cultural knowledge by learning about the cultures of others. In
so doing, they can guide their students in using knowledge of the past to act
with agency in the present.
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2
CULTURE CONNECTS
It should be emphasized here that the specificity of African rationality is to be

found in the concept of the thinking heart. In most Bantu languages, the word
heart (Mucima in Kiluba, for example) also stands for thought. A Muntu wa
mucima muyape is not only a person with a good heart in the sense of being
kind, compassionate, and generous but also a person of good thought. The
African thinks not only with the head but also with the heart.
Mutombo Nkulu-N’Sengha, “African Epistemology,” 2005.
In Asante & Mazama (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Black Studies, p. 42
In this chapter, using classroom examples, we show how the praxis of Teaching for
Freedom connects culture to content and emancipatory pedagogy, and as a result,
connects students to learning. This praxis uses the Afrocentric concepts and cultur-
ally informed principles presented in Chapter 1 to frame, write, and demonstrate
how to teach a “re-membered” (democratized) student text entitled Black Com-
munity Building: The African Tradition of Collective Work and Responsibility (Swartz,
2013). This text is written for grades 5–7, but can be used with younger students as
a read aloud and with older students as an introduction leading to more in-depth
study. The emancipatory pedagogies demonstrated in this chapter (e.g., Eldering,
Question-Driven Pedagogy, Culturally Authentic Assessment) are informed by
African worldview, cosmologies, and philosophies that are visible in the practice of
cultural concepts such as sharing responsibility for communal well-being and belonging,
knowing as a communal experience in which everyone has something to contribute, pursuing
knowledge as inseparable from pursuing wisdom, and the authentic authority of eldership.
We should note here that to connect emancipatory pedagogies to African culture(s)
is not to suggest the absence of other cultural influences. Making this connection
explicit does suggest that there are identifiable cultural platforms that carry African
Culture Connects 29
worldview, cosmologies, philosophies, and related cultural concepts and practices

drawn from oral and written African literature that support the emancipatory peda-
gogies used in the praxis of Teaching for Freedom, and that these cultural platforms
are African. For example, teaching with the intention of modeling a communal
vision of freedom and justice—one in which sharing freedom is a human entitlement—
is a traditional African cultural concept and practice in the context of community
(Ikuenobe, 2006; Gyekye, 1997; Karenga, 1999, 2006a). Through the influence of
such concepts and practices, emancipatory pedagogies are congruent with “re-
membered” texts such as Black Community Building, and these pedagogies make it
possible for students not only to know about the continuities between Africa and
the Diaspora, but also to experience them.
As we discuss how culture, content, and emancipatory pedagogies are con-
nected, you will have an opportunity to observe Ms. Hart teach a unit of study
based on Black Community Building. Ms. Hart is a highly effective elementary
school teacher due to being mentored by Ms. Singleton, who is a veteran
teacher at the same school. Through a number of scenarios, you will observe
Ms. Hart, her students, and their parents as they engage in using and experienc-
ing the emancipatory pedagogies that fit well with each of the six culturally
informed principles described in Table 1.2 in Chapter 1. These scenarios are
composites of teachers and teaching that we have observed over the years. Thus,
they represent classroom realities and present our vision of the Afrocentric
praxis of Teaching for Freedom that results in student learning and parent
engagement. As you enter Ms. Hart’s classroom and listen to the pedagogical
advice of Ms. Singleton, think about Ms. Hart’s pedagogies, including how she
interacts with students, parents, and her colleague and mentor. How might you
respond if you were the teacher in this classroom? But first, let’s see how Black
Community Building was framed with Afrocentric concepts and written with
those six culturally informed principles discussed in Chapter 1.
Black Community Building and Afrocentricity

Beginning in the late 1870s, thousands of African people migrated to the
Midwest due to the brutal acts of white terrorism that took place as Recon-
struction was ending in the South (Bennett, 1982; Franklin, 1992; Painter,
1976/1986). Within the theoretical paradigm of Afrocentricity, we use Afro-
centric concepts to organize and frame this history and culturally informed prin-
ciples to write it (see King & Swartz, 2014, for a detailed description of this
framing and writing process).
Afrocentric Concepts
The Afrocentric concept of Centrality/Location initially frames Black Commu-
nity Building: The African Tradition of Collective Work and Responsibility by placing
30 Culture Connects
African people at the center of their own story. As this story unfolds, students
learn how people of African ancestry established scores of self-governing and
self-sufficient towns, such as Nicodemus in Kansas and Langston and Boley in
Oklahoma. The Afrocentric concepts of Collective Responsibility, Self-
Determination, and Subjects with Agency also frame content about the unity
that town members built, the group-based decisions they made, and the actions
they took to set up and operate successful businesses and build institutions to
meet the needs of residents. (See Table 1.1 in Chapter 1 for descriptions of
Afrocentric concepts.) With the use of another Afrocentric concept—the Rec-
lamation of Cultural Heritage—this student text consciously recovers a piece of
U.S. history, including the economic and political accomplishments of many
Black towns and the responses of White people to Black economic and political
influence in the counties and states where these towns were located (Harding,
1981; Painter, 1976/1986; Taylor, 1998; Tolson, 1974). (To inquire about
obtaining a copy of Black Community Building, contact omnicentricpress@gmail.
com.)
Culturally Informed Principles

All six culturally informed principles listed below were used to write the content
in Black Community Building. (See Table 1.2 in Chapter 1 for descriptions of
each principle.)
#1 Inclusion
#2 Representation
#3 Accurate Scholarship
#4 Indigenous Voice
#5 Critical Thinking
#6 A Collective Humanity
While students experience these principles in the “re-membered” content of

this text, they can also experience them during instruction that uses emancipa-
tory pedagogies. For example, if “re-membered” content situates all cultures
and groups as the subjects of their own accounts, not the objects of others’
accounts about them (principle #1, Inclusion), then students can experience
being the subjects of instruction when they are in right relationship with their
teachers as elders whose authority is based on knowledge, expertise, and
wisdom. This emancipatory pedagogy called Eldering is a cultural practice that
we detail with specific examples below. Our point here is that the emancipatory
pedagogies we propose are informed by African worldview and the cosmolo-
gies, philosophies, and related cultural concepts that African people have devel-
oped and practiced over time.
Culture Connects 31
Principles, Pedagogies, and Cultural Platforms

Each of the six sub-sections below corresponds to one of the six culturally
informed principles. In each section we: (1) point out how the featured cultur-
ally informed principle is used to write content in Black Community Building; (2)
demonstrate how teachers can use a related emancipatory pedagogy to enact
that culturally informed principle during instruction; and 3) describe the African
cultural platform—using examples from oral and written literature—that sup-
ports the emancipatory pedagogy discussed in that section. These six sections
are a gateway to learning how culture connects content and pedagogy and how
teachers using emancipatory pedagogies connect students to learning. While
each sub-section is presented in narrative form in the remaining pages of this
chapter, Table 2.1 below is a preview of the connections between culturally
informed principles, emancipatory pedagogies, and African cultural platforms.
To indicate the nature of these platforms, this table includes one example of
African Diasporan philosophy, epistemology, cosmology, or cultural dimen-
sions/themes that supports each of the emancipatory pedagogies. Expanded dis-
cussion of these and other examples can be found in the narratives that follow
this table and in the references cited.
Culturally Informed Principle #1: Inclusion

Inclusion is consistently evident in the content of Black Community Building,
since the text positions African people who migrated to the Midwest as subjects
and substantive participants, not as objects or token figures in the margins of a
dominant account of westward movement. There are images and text of
numerous men and women who were leaders and participants in this late 19th
century migration and in building Black towns and institutions in Kansas and
Oklahoma. Working together, they built businesses to service their com-
munities; established schools for children and literary societies for adults; set up
newspapers to communicate and promote agreed-upon social behaviors, such as
peaceful actions, the setting of moral examples for children, and hard work;
created benevolent societies and churches to take care of material and spiritual
needs; established banks to assist in economic development; organized town
councils to govern themselves; and operated farms to grow and sell food
(Crockett, 1979; Hamilton, 1991; O’Dell, 2011; Painter, 1976/1986; Taylor,
1998). These towns were contexts in which people of African ancestry demon-
strated what self-reliance, courage, collective work and responsibility, unity,
knowledge, and skills can accomplish. By using the principle of Inclusion, Black
Community Building exemplifies how African people were substantive partici-
pants in what Maulana Karenga (1980, 2006a) calls “the forward flow of human
history” (p. 107 and p. 246, respectively).
TABLE 2.1 Principles, Pedagogies, and Cultural Platforms
Culturally Informed Principles Emancipatory Pedagogies African Cultural Platforms (carries African worldview, philosophies,
cosmologies, cultural concepts, and practices)
Inclusion Eldering African philosophy:

• Proverbs that acknowledge the revered position of elders
Representation Locating Students African American themes/dimensions:
(centering students culturally) • Research has identified cultural dimensions such as spirituality,
harmony, movement, verve, communalism, and orality in both
African and Diasporan contexts.
Accurate Scholarship Multiple Ways of Knowing African epistemology:
• Includes ways of knowing such as symbolic imagery, relational
knowing, intuition-reasoning, and empathy.
Indigenous Voice Question-Driven Pedagogy Baluba (of Central Africa) philosophy:
• Proverbs teach that questions are a way to arrive at true
knowledge.
Critical Thinking Culturally Authentic Assessment African epistemology:
• The performance of knowledge is a way of knowing through
interaction with an audience.
A Collective Humanity Communal Responsibility Bântu-Kôngo (Central Africa) cosmology:
• Proverbs teach that unity, complementary and caring
relationships, and right action make communal relations
possible.
Culture Connects 33
Eldering—an Emancipatory Pedagogy

During instruction, students can experience the culturally informed principle of
Inclusion through the emancipatory pedagogy called Eldering. This pedagogy
refers to teacher–student interactions led by teachers’ knowledge, expertise, and
wisdom, which together represent eldership or authentic authority. In this ethi-
cally informed relationship, students experience their “place” or presence as
younger/learner with dignity, since teachers’ authority is not an attempt to have
power over them, but to share the power of knowledge with them. Teachers
who are knowledgeable—not only about a topic, but about the students they
are teaching—are confident enough to ask critical questions, build upon cultural
characteristics, and co-create curriculum with students. Thus, after teaching
about the success of Black towns in the Midwest, a teacher as elder might ask,
“How do you think Black towns managed to become self-sufficient in such a
short period of time?” (Goodwin, in Swartz, 2013, p. 12). Asking this question,
whose answer is not given in the text, assumes that students have ideas, along
with text content, to respond to the question; and that the teacher can guide
students’ responses toward new knowledge and understanding. In Vignette 2.1,
we step into Ms. Hart’s fifth-grade classroom to see how she demonstrates
Eldering, that is, how she uses her knowledge, expertise, and wisdom as the
rudder of instruction with her students. In this classroom excerpt, we have
included our comments as observers.
VIGNette 2.1
Eldering
Ms. Hart
Now that we have read and discussed Black Community Building, how do
you think Black towns managed to become self-sufficient in such a short
period of time?
Kiesha
People were like a group and took care of each other.
Rob
When Black people stick together we get a lot done.
Lerone
Black people were just trying to have a good place to live, so they
depended on themselves, not on other people who acted like they didn’t
care about them.
34 Culture Connects
Observers
One way to view these students’ responses is through the presence of heritage
knowledge [see Chapter 1]. In this view, Kiesha’s cultural memory taps into
African ontological orientations (ways of being) such as Cooperation, Collective
Responsibility, and Interdependence, along with the epistemology of empathy.
Rob’s response also reflects heritage knowledge of Collectivity and Cooperation
seen when families, friends, or neighbors work together. Lerone’s cultural
memory links feelings and thoughts (epistemology of intuition-reasoning) to
know that it would be reasonable for people in Black towns to depend on them-
selves, since the hostile actions of White people surrounded them.
Ms. Hart
Yes, I see what you are saying. That reminds me of what happened when
the citizens of Langston asked the White county commissioners to provide
funds to fix the bridge between Langston and Guthrie. This bridge was
needed for safe travel between the two towns, but the commissioners
refused to fix the bridge. So what did the residents do?
Kanokwan
They got the materials they needed and built a new bridge themselves.
Ms. Hart
Right! So what does this tell you about how Langston residents thought
about their town?
Marcos
They thought that they should have a good bridge.
Ms. Hart
Yes, and what does that tell you, Marcos, about how the residents felt about
their town?
Marcos
They were proud of their town.
Sharesse
And they wanted it to be a good town so they wanted to keep it up.
Ms. Hart
Yes, I agree with both of you. We call this being community minded. The
residents of Langston were community minded, just like their African
ancestors. They cared about their town and everyone in it and by thinking
together about how to have a good town and working together to make it
happen they accomplished a lot in a short period of time.
Culture Connects 35
Observers
By having cultural knowledge, Ms. Hart is able to make a connection between
Africa and the Diaspora. Her pedagogical actions suggest her confidence in
building on students’ ideas to teach about community mindedness—a value
that was clearly at work in Langston. Ms. Hart also has expertise with scaffold-
ing and was able to build on what several students knew to create new know-
ledge for the class (Goodwin & Swartz, 2008). Together, these practices
demonstrate Ms. Hart’s use of Eldering. Not only has she used the principle of
Inclusion through content that substantively includes the ancestral heritage of
most of her students and builds cultural knowledge for all students, but her
pedagogy of Eldering includes all of her students in right relationship to her.
This ethical dimension of her teaching means that students can feel the safety
and dignity of being a participating learner in the presence of a knowledgeable
elder.
Throughout this chapter, you will see more of Ms. Hart and her use of the
other five emancipatory pedagogies. Who is this teacher and how did she
develop her pedagogical expertise? Ms. Hart is a mid-30s White teacher with a
working class family background. This is her 11th year teaching at Charles
Houston Elementary School, a predominately African American elementary
school in a mid-size city in the Northeast. This year the school is 78% African
American, 19% Latina/o, 2% White, and 1% Southeast Asian. Eighty-eight
percent (88%) of its students qualify for federally subsidized breakfast and lunch.
In her first year of teaching, Ms. Hart asked for guidance from Ms. Singleton, a
veteran African American teacher who also taught fifth grade at her school.
Their collegial relationship has continued over the years, with Ms. Hart seeking
Ms. Singleton’s thoughts and advice on all aspects of teaching, including how to
incorporate students’ cultures into curriculum and pedagogy. Learning how to
make these cultural connections was not part of Ms. Hart’s teacher preparation
program, and when she began teaching she quickly realized that something was
missing.
Ms. Singleton invited Ms. Hart to observe in her classroom, and she was
immediately struck by Ms. Singleton’s positive and productive relationships
with students. They were so engaged and eager to learn in both whole group
and small group settings; and there didn’t seem to be any need for the classroom
management techniques she had just learned in her master’s program, since stu-
dents were typically focused and on task. She was so glad to see this because
something about “managing” students with behavior modification techniques
didn’t feel right to her; and even if rewards and consequences “worked” in the
short term, she wondered if they had any lasting effect. It was also striking that
parents were a regular part of Ms. Singleton’s instructional program. At first Ms.
Hart thought that what she was seeing must have something to do with the
36 Culture Connects
teacher and most students and their parents being African American, but after
several observations she noticed that Ms. Singleton had the same kind of solid
connections with her Latina/o, Southeast Asian, and White students and their
parents; and that there didn’t seem to be any dissention among cultural/racial
groups in her classroom. Clearly, something else was going on here.
When Ms. Singleton and Ms. Hart began working together, they talked about
their personal and professional goals and approaches and then read and discussed
articles and chapters about teaching and learning, including how cultural know-
ledge and heritage knowledge are linked to curriculum and pedagogy, about the
principles used to write “re-membered” or democratized student materials, and
how learning has an ethical dimension and involves more than gathering informa-
tion for the sake of “having it” (Campbell, 2014; Goodwin, 1996, 2004; King,
2006; King & Swartz, 2014; Nkulu-N’Sengha, 2005; Shakes, 2004; Smith, 2004;
Swartz, 2012). Ms. Singleton referred to these approaches as Teaching for
Freedom, which she explained as a way that teachers, families, and communities
share the responsibility to teach students how to live and act based on ideals and
values that are just and good for self and others. This involves using culturally
informed content and emancipatory pedagogies that teach students to think criti-
cally and to gain knowledge with the intent of producing the academic and cul-
tural excellence needed to create community well-being and belonging.
Ms. Hart knew that it would take time to absorb and incorporate these new
ideas, but they felt right to her. So, she kept reading, asking questions, trying
different approaches, and reflecting on the outcomes. Whenever possible, Ms.
Singleton observed in Ms. Hart’s classroom and gave her feedback. Over the
years, Ms. Hart learned from her more experienced colleague how to select
culturally informed content, use six overlapping emancipatory pedagogies, build
relationships with her students and their families, and continue to grow as a
professional. The Ms. Hart you see in this chapter is the result of a willing mind
and heart and 11 years of guidance and support.
An African Cultural Platform for Eldering

Each of the six emancipatory pedagogies discussed in this volume is supported
by an African cultural platform composed of worldview elements and related
philosophies, cosmologies, cultural concepts, and practices. In the case of Elder-
ing, the philosophies in numerous African cultures—which are visible in prov-
erbs, aphorisms, and analyses of traditions—acknowledge the revered position
of elders who hold shared authority in communal societies based on their
knowledge, experience, and wisdom (Gyeke, 1987; Nkulu-N’Sengha, 2005;
Tedla, 1995; Waghid, 2014). Polycarp Ikuenobe (2006) states that elders
are recognized in the community as reasonable people based on their

actions, wealth of experience, knowledge of the tradition and culture, and
Culture Connects 37
their demonstration of such wisdom and knowledge, [and] may be relied

on as the source of knowledge and recognized as epistemic authorities.
(p. 178)
As a pedagogy, Eldering refers to the guidance that teachers provide to students

through their more advanced knowledge and expertise, which are both
informed by wisdom. Teachers as elders are thinkers who are responsible to
stand in right relationship with their students. Mutombo Nkulu-N’Sengha
(2005) explains that in African societies all knowledge has an ethical dimension
and that “the pursuit of knowledge is inseparable from the pursuit of wisdom,
for in the African understanding of things, a genuine knowledge necessarily
involves wisdom” (pp. 43–44). Eleni Tedla (1998) also references the ethical
aspect of eldership in indigenous African education, which we see in Ms. Sin-
gleton’s guidance of her younger colleague, and both teachers’ guidance of their
students:
. . . adults are elders to the young, and the old are elders to everyone in the
community. Eldership, the pinnacle of human life and the height of indi-
genous education, is not mere aging. It is the manifestation of the basic
values/virtues/morals deemed essential by the community in order to be
regarded as a person. Elders are expected to live an exemplary life, to be
kind and to be peacemakers, and to provide leadership and guidance.
(p. 35)
In their wisdom, teachers who are elders know that gaining knowledge is a
communal experience—it is the outcome of mutual exchanges that assume even
the youngest students are knowers who can contribute to everyone’s learning.
Consider the following Akan proverbs: “One head does not hold a discussion”
(Kwame, 1995, p. xxxi); “Wisdom is not in the head of one person” (Gyeke,
1997, p. 131); “All heads are alike, but not all their contents are alike” (Kwame,
1995, p. 83); and “Wisdom is like a baobab tree, a single person’s hand cannot
embrace it” (Nkulu-N’Sengha, 2005, p. 43). Since each “head” holds different
ideas that are valuable, merging and handling these ideas requires more than one
head. In communal cultures, people are interdependent—they rely on each
other, are community minded, and their interactions are collaborative and rela-
tional. As seen in the classroom excerpt in Vignette 2.1, Ms. Hart’s use of Elder-
ing involved having this cultural knowledge and viewing knowledge as
relational, values driven, and drawn from multiple sources, that is, knowing that
everyone has something to contribute to the well-being of the group. In these
ways, Eldering, which is the pedagogical application of the principle of Inclu-
sion, connects content and pedagogy, with both standing on an African cultural
platform, since gaining knowledge is understood to be a communal and ethical
experience, not an individual experience or one of gaining knowledge for
38 Culture Connects
knowledge’s sake (Gyeke, 1987; Ikuenobe, 2006; Karenga, 2006a; Nkulu-

N’Sengha, 2005). By viewing teaching and learning as an experience in which
everyone has something to offer, the pedagogy of Eldering is a cultural practice
able to connect students to learning in pursuit of academic and cultural excellence.
Culturally Informed Principle #2: Representation

Representation can be seen in the title of the student text—Black Community
Building: An African Tradition of Collective Work and Responsibility, which names
Black community building as an African tradition and portrays Africans in the
Americas as located within, not separate from, their ancestral heritage. The prin-
ciple of Representation continues inside the text where the enduring connec-
tion between Black townspeople and the traditions of their African ancestors is
described in the collaborative and collectively responsible actions of the men
and women who built these towns. They retained and practiced African values,
principles, and virtues such as community mindedness, service to others, unity,
communal responsibility, participatory/democratic governance, and self-
determination, which is evident in the businesses, institutions, and organizations
they established (Diop, 1959/1990; Gyeke, 1997; Karenga, 1980, 1996; Painter,
1976/1986; Taylor, 1998; Tedla, 1995).
Locating Students—an Emancipatory Pedagogy

As students in Ms. Hart’s classroom moved through a unit of study on Black
Community Building, they experienced the principle of Representation through
the emancipatory pedagogy called Locating Students, which means that stu-
dents’ cultures “hold” information about how to engage them in learning. Ms.
Singleton had encouraged Ms. Hart—in her first year of teaching—to observe
how her students interacted with each other and what was going on when they
seemed to be the most engaged in learning; and she cautioned Ms. Hart not to
be too quick to “shut down” interactions that seemed normative for her stu-
dents. Ms. Hart observed that her students learned effectively in relationships,
and that movement and being verbal and expressive were characteristics exhib-
ited by most of her students. Ms. Singleton also introduced Ms. Hart to research
by A. Wade Boykin and colleagues (Boykin & Cunningham, 2001; Boykin,
Lilja, & Tyler, 2004) that served to confirm Ms. Hart’s observations. She soon
realized that if she was going to engage her students in learning she had to adjust
her ideas about what a classroom “should look like,” including her preference
for a quieter and less active learning environment. So, she began to structure
learning opportunities that involved movement and verbal interaction among
students. In every subject area, she regularly asked students to partner or form
small groups to discuss and develop responses to the topics they were studying
or problems they were trying to solve.
Culture Connects 39
Ms. Hart also had to adjust her ideas about what parent involvement meant.
In their early years of working together, Ms. Singleton stressed the importance
of involving parents “in a real way.” When Ms. Hart asked what she meant by
“in a real way,” Ms. Singleton said:
Your relationship with parents and families needs to be a partnership that

includes their involvement in instruction. You want parents to come to
parent–teacher conferences and be chaperones on field trips, but you and
your students need more than that. For example, parents and family
members can participate in homework assignments and work on a joint
project with their child. They can make a presentation, co-teach a lesson,
and be interviewed by students based on their knowledge, skills, and
experiences; and they can participate in developing assessments of student
work [King, Goss, & McArthur, 2014]. Parents can also participate in
action research projects with teachers [Campbell, 2014; Oakes, Rogers, &
Lipton, 2006]. When students see you working alongside parents—
whether it be their own or others—they know that your classroom is a
place where they belong. Most importantly, once you get to know
parents, you need to ask them to share their community/cultural expecta-
tions for their children’s school experience, and then figure out what you
need to know to meet those expectations.
Over the years, as Ms. Hart used these suggestions, she began to see the con-
nection between the pedagogy of Locating Students and engaging parents. After
all, students carry the cultures of their families into the classroom, so if you are
going to locate or center students, you need to acknowledge their families by
inviting them—and the cultures they represent—into meaningful participation
in classroom learning. For this unit on Black Community Building, Ms. Hart
invited parents to participate in an interview process related to their knowledge
of the Nguzo Saba or Kwanzaa Principles and how they were used in her class-
room. Students and parents were already familiar with these Principles since Ms.
Hart used them as a guide for thinking about how to develop and maintain a
classroom community—one of Ms. Singleton’s highly effective suggestions. Ms.
Hart often referred to various Kwanzaa Principles when they related to what
she was teaching (she had a big Nguzo Saba poster on the wall); and instead of
posting classroom rules, she would regularly ask students which Principle their
actions were or were not reflecting. The parent interviews were part of group
projects in which students were collaboratively designing and presenting an oral,
visual, and/or dramatic demonstration in response to the following assignment:
“Select a Kwanzaa Principle and show: (1) how it was used by the residents of
Black towns in the Midwest to build their communities; and (2) how the
Kwanzaa Principle you selected is used in our classroom, including information
gathered from family interviews.” Students were encouraged to demonstrate
40 Culture Connects
personal expression during the group demonstration in order to enhance the

overall group presentation.
Small groups began by identifying and discussing the evidence they could
find in the text for the use of Nguzo Saba Principles in Black towns. Each group
found several, but agreed upon one Principle. They developed a question to ask
themselves and a parent or family member about where they saw this Principle
used in their classroom and recorded all responses. Students then collaborated
about how to combine the text information with what they and their families
thought and designed a group presentation that included personal expression.
One group did a visual presentation including a mural they painted showing
townspeople collaborating, which served as a backdrop for a mime that por-
trayed how Ujima (Collective Work and Responsibility) was visible in the class-
room. Another group performed a rap of several rhymed verses that included
metaphors and alliteration to demonstrate what the Principle of Umoja (Unity)
looked like in both Black towns and the classroom. There was a one-act play in
which students portrayed how their great-great-grandparents demonstrated Nia
(Purpose) in a Black town they built and how the Principle was passed on
through the generations so that parents could recognize it being used in their
classroom. And there was a series of dramatic dialogues, with group members
reenacting their preparatory conversations as the presentation about Imani
(Faith). In the first conversation, two students talked about how townspeople
believed in each other and in the rightness of being free to build a better life for
themselves and their families. In a second conversation, two other students
talked about how having faith in their parents and teacher could be seen in their
classroom. And in the third conversation, the final two students explored
possibilities for a performance about Imani. As always, families and friends were
invited to be an audience for students’ presentations. At the end of the presenta-
tions, Ms. Hart proudly pointed out that the seventh Nguzo Saba Principle
Kuumba (Creativity) was fully present in each group’s presentation.
An African Cultural Platform for Locating Students

Being connected to one’s culture/community (one’s lineage) is part of the
African cultural platform that supports the emancipatory pedagogy called Locat-
ing Students (Akbar, 1984; Gyeke, 1987; Karenga, 1999, 2006a; King, 2006;
Maïga, 2010; Nkulu-N’Sengha, 2005). As described in Chapter 1, Afrocentric-
ity recognizes cultural connection as seen in one of its key concepts called Cen-
trality/Location that has helped to identify and recuperate African knowledge,
cultural ideals, values, and ways of knowing and being as a location or platform
from which the past and present can be viewed and understood (Asante,
1987/1998, 2003; Mazama, 2003). Locating Students is a pedagogical manifes-
tation of this Afrocentric concept, since it views students’ cultures/communities
as “a place to stand” (Asante, 2003, p. 45); and by so doing, invites teachers to
Culture Connects 41
learn about and consider students’ cultures as they design instruction. Of course,
this locating or centering of students’ cultures also includes individuals who are
centered because the group is centered, which reflects the African ontological
construct, “I am, because we are; and since we are, therefore I am” (Mbiti,
1990, p. 106). In other words, individuals are valued for what they contribute
to their cultural community, and it is only in the context of varied relationships
within that community that individuals fully experience their identity (Gyeke,
1997; Ikuenobe, 2006).
Diasporan scholars of African ancestry have long recognized the importance
of culture and African Diasporan connections (Asante, 1980/1988; Boykin,
1983; Clarke, 1977; Dixon, 1971; Du Bois, 1947; Du Bois & Padamore, 1962;
Hilliard, 1986; Karenga, 1980; Nobles, 1972; Turner, 1949; Woodson,
1922/1966). Over 30 years ago, Wade Boykin (1983), an educationally focused
experimental psychologist, identified specific connections between African and
Diasporan cultures in the interest of providing an alternative to deficit-oriented
narratives and approaches that were (and still are) being used to teach students
of African ancestry in the United States (King, 1994; King et al., 2014). While
U.S. students in general have multiple and overlapping cultural influences,
Boykin identified nine distinct cultural themes or dimensions with an African
base that exist among African Americans: spirituality, harmony, movement,
verve, affect, communalism, expressive individuality, orality, and social time
perspective (see Boykin, 1983, pp. 344–346, for a discussion and descriptions of
these themes). Even though variations logically exist across time and geographic
locations, scholars have independently identified one or more of these themes in
African and Diasporan cultures (Anyanwu, 1981a; Dixon, 1971; Goodwin &
King, 2006; Karenga, 2006b; Gyeke, 1987, 1997; Mbiti, 1990; Nkulu-
N’Sengha, 2005; Nobles, 1976; Nyang, 1980; Senghor, 1964; Smitherman,
1977/1986, 1994; Turner, 1949). Over several decades, Boykin and colleagues
have conceptualized and conducted empirical research on a number of these
cultural dimensions, such as communalism, verve (energetic intensity), and
movement (Allen & Boykin, 1991, 1992; Allen & Butler, 1996; Boykin, 1994;
Boykin et al., 2005; Boykin & Bailey, 2000; Boykin & Cunningham, 2001).
This school-based research has found that African American and White students
perceive and experience the classroom in cultural terms. For example, African
American students favor learning environments that are communal, collabora-
tive, and vervistic/high movement compared to White students, who favor
individual, competitive, and low-verve/low movement learning environments
(Boykin, 2001; Boykin et al., 2005; Boykin et al., 2004; Dill & Boykin, 2000).
Collectively, this body of research, echoed by other scholars, suggests that when
teaching is culturally informed—when it pedagogically locates students by
acknowledging the integrity of their cultural capital and designs instruction
around their cultural characteristics—it enhances motivation and learning out-
comes (Goodwin, 2004; Yosso, 2005).
42 Culture Connects
As a pedagogical application of the principle of Representation—in which

individuals and groups remain connected to their ancestral cultures and com-
munities—Locating Students is a cultural practice that expands teachers’ reper-
toire to actively consider cultural themes/characteristics that exist within groups
of students and, in so doing, positions culture as a connector between students
and learning. This view of culture as the gluon or medium of exchange that
connects students to learning has been operating for students of European
ancestry who are well matched with the cultural characteristics of U.S.
schools—from their Puritan beginnings to the present (Asante, 1991/1992;
Boykin, 1986; Gatto, 2001; Spring, 2011). In these same schools, however, stu-
dents of African ancestry have experienced and continue to experience extreme
dislocation and disconnection due to the absence and denigration and distortion
of their culture in subject-area content and pedagogy (Asante, 2007a; King,
1994; Gordon, 1994; Shujaa, 1994). “Re-membered” content and emancip-
atory pedagogies such as Locating Students are direct curricular responses
designed to change schools and classrooms that dysconsciously—that is through
an uncritical habit of mind—disregard and disparage the culture of students of
African ancestry (see Chapters 3 and 5 for a definition and development of the
concept of dysconsciousness) (King, 1991; King & Akua, 2012).
This may be a good time to make note that, in our discussion of culturally
informed principles, emancipatory pedagogies, and African cultural platforms
we use examples that were outcomes of veteran teachers at Charles Houston
Elementary School coming together to study and develop a response to dyscon-
sciousness and the dislocation it causes students. Ms. Singleton is part of this
ongoing teacher-led collegial group, along with other experienced teachers at
each grade level who have committed to supporting new teachers interested in
guidance. As the group studies, gathers student materials, experiments with
emancipatory pedagogies, and conducts teacher research, its members share
what they have learned and discuss effective approaches with their younger
colleagues.
Culturally Informed Principle #3: Accurate Scholarship

Writing Black Community Building with the culturally informed principle of
Accurate Scholarship produces relevant (and typically omitted) information
about Black migration in the late 19th century westward movement in the
United States. As explained in an earlier volume (King & Swartz, 2014), all
scholarship reflects a particular worldview, standing place, and epistemic order.
The principle of Accurate Scholarship guides our consideration of multiple
worldviews and cultural orientations, including those of historically liminal
identity-groups. To approach accuracy, we place a range of scholarly work on a
topic within an Afrocentric theoretical framework. This theory and its human-
centric concepts and culturally informed principles represent an epistemic order
Culture Connects 43
with the capacity to center all cultures and groups, thereby bringing us closer to
accurate accounts of the past.
In Black Community Building, there are images and text about mass migration
of Black people from Southern states and White reactions to this exodus, about
promoters of migration such as Henry Adams and Benjamin Singleton, and
about early homes and businesses established in Black towns. Students learn
about Jenny Smith Fletcher, the first postmistress and school teacher in Nicode-
mus, Kansas, and Edwin P. McCabe, who was a lawyer, politician, and land
speculator in Kansas and then Oklahoma. They not only learn about people and
places, but about what people of African ancestry valued about the legacy of
community building they carried with them and passed on to future genera-
tions. Black Community Building presents this significant era in U.S. history with
integrity by including knowledge from numerous epistemologies and scholarly
sources.
Multiple Ways of Knowing—an Emancipatory Pedagogy

As an emancipatory pedagogy, Multiple Ways of Knowing is a manifestation of
a culturally informed principle in student–teacher interactions, meaning that in
addition to students experiencing, in this case, Accurate Scholarship in subject-
area content, they can experience it during instruction. Ms. Hart’s students
experience this connection between content and pedagogy when she uses Mul-
tiple Ways of Knowing, since this emancipatory pedagogy guides students to
use several epistemologies to arrive at rather than accept accounts of historical
topics. Ms. Hart uses this pedagogy to teach the first three pages of Black Com-
munity Building—a section written with the principle of Accurate Scholarship to
describe the White assault on Reconstruction, the life-threatening conditions in
the South for people of African ancestry, and the growing interest in migration.
She frames her teaching of this section with the following questions: “What do
you think Black people expected life would be like for them after slavery
ended? How do you know?” (Goodwin, in Swartz, 2013, p. 13). She is able to
ask these questions and guide students as they respond since she has, over the
years, developed cultural knowledge about the backgrounds and experiences of
her students. Through her discussions with Ms. Singleton—further informed by
recommended readings—Ms. Hart is familiar with the idea that there are mul-
tiple epistemologies or ways of learning or coming to know, and she structures
contexts in which all students are encouraged to use several epistemologies that
reflect both their heritage knowledge (group memory) and their cultural know-
ledge (learned knowledge about diverse cultural histories and legacies) (Clarke,
1994; Gyekye, 1987; King, 2006; King & Swartz, 2014; Nkulu-N’Sengha,
2005; Senghor, 1964). She has learned that the heritable epistemologies often
used by people of African ancestry include relational knowing (interdependent
and reciprocal interactions produced in social contexts), group-based knowing
44 Culture Connects
(drawing upon the experiences of one’s group identities), empathy (caring about
and feeling connected to others, past and present, including ancestors), and
intuition-reasoning (drawing inferences and constructing responses to questions
or problems that use both heart and mind knowledge, with an ethical dialog
between the two) (Dixon, 1971; Nkulu-N’Sengha, 2005; Nobles, 1976;
Senghor, 1964; Sindima, 1995). Ms. Hart asks students to work in pairs or small
groups to produce responses to the question about Black people’s expectations
of life after slavery, which gives them opportunities to consider the second
question (How do you know?). While all students use the authority of the text
to make inferences, some use heart-mind knowledge and empathy to answer
the question. When combined, these epistemic choices expand the accuracy of
knowledge that students create together.
African Cultural Platform for Multiple Ways for Knowing

As a pedagogy, Multiple Ways of Knowing holds assumptions, concepts, and
claims in common with African cosmologies and epistemologies. For example,
a cosmological assumption about reality that is common in African cultures is
that the world has a complementary (not contradictory) quality—that there is
no dualism or separation between man and nature, subject and object, matter
and spirit (Anyanwu, 1981a; Nobles, 1991). Léopold Sédar Senghor (1964), of
Serer and Fulani heritage, was a poet, cultural theorist, and first president of
Senegal. He claimed that, compared to the European, the African
does not draw a line between himself and the object; he does not hold it
at a distance, nor does he merely look at it and analyze it. After holding it
at a distance, after scanning it without analyzing it, he takes it vibrant in
his hands, careful not to kill or fix it. He touches it, feels it, smells it . . .
[he] sympathizes, abandons his personality to become identified with the
Other, dies to be reborn in the Other. He does not assimilate; he is assim-
ilated. He lives a common life with the Other; he lives in a symbiosis.
(pp. 72–73; italics in original)
This concept of interconnectedness—that all life forces, including the material

and spiritual, are linked—expands ways of knowing the world. In accordance
with this view, the Nigerian philosopher K. C. Anyanwu (1981a) wrote, “The
African culture did not assume that reality could be subordinated to human
reason alone. Imagination, intuitive experience, and feelings are also modes of
knowing” (p. 89). Thus, African epistemologies and cosmologies assume and
understand a world in which nothing is separate and isolated, and nothing is
lifeless—where there is unity among all things (Anyanwu, 1981a & b). In the
African worldview, heart knowledge (e.g., revelation, relational knowing,
empathy, intuitive insight, symbolic imagery) is inseparable from mind knowledge
Culture Connects 45
(e.g., authority, empiricism, reason/logic), and all things are interconnected.

Similarly, Multiple Ways of Knowing, as a pedagogy, brings together the so-
called subjective and objective ways of knowing the world, and in so doing,
expands the ways in which students can access knowledge. When teachers view
all things as interconnected and complementary rather than separate and discon-
nected, they seek content that is interconnected (“re-membered”) and ask stu-
dents to explore this content by connecting reason, imagination, authority,
intuitive experience, thoughts, and feelings. The African cultural platform that
offers concepts of interconnectedness exemplifies how culture connects content
and pedagogy. When content is written with the principle of Accurate Scholar-
ship and taught with Multiple ways of Knowing, teaching and learning experi-
ences are more integrated, nuanced, and comprehensive.
Culturally Informed Principle #4: Indigenous Voice

Building Black Communities portrays historic events as told through the voices
and actions of those who were present yet typically excluded in standard
instructional materials. For example, a range of Black responses to the actions of
White terrorist groups like the Ku Klux Klan are included—from petitioning
the president of the United States for justice to developing organizations, such
as a committee of 500 women of African ancestry that published an address
demanding all the rights due to them under the U.S. Constitution to secret
meetings to plan emigrating to lands where freedom might be possible. People’s
actions and voices are heard in quoted and descriptive content in which they
speak for, name, and define themselves. Through images and text, students learn
about the historical agency and self-sufficiency of Black men and women who
established businesses and banks, newspapers, governing councils, schools,
churches, and other organizations to enhance community life in the towns they
built. For example, the Langston City Herald and the Western Age—both black
newspapers—wrote that the city of Langston was a refuge for Black people
where they could enjoy the rights and privileges of any other American citizen
(Crockett, 1979; Hamilton, 1991; Taylor, 1998; Tolson, 1974).
Question-Driven Pedagogy—an Emancipatory Pedagogy

During instruction, Ms. Hart’s students experience the principle of Indigenous
Voice through her use of Question-Driven Pedagogy, which asks students
thought-provoking questions that build on what they know. Ms. Hart found
Question-Driven Pedagogy difficult to learn at first. In the hands of Ms. Single-
ton, this pedagogy was developed to a fine art, so watching her was very helpful.
This way of teaching is the antithesis of scripted curriculum, since it involves an
improvisational flow between teacher and students who basically create the cur-
riculum together. If you ask a critical question, the ensuing interaction depends
46 Culture Connects
on how students respond—on what they offer and what you can do with it to
extend learning. For example, Ms. Hart began whole-group instruction by restat-
ing text content about the abolition of slavery in 1865 with the passage of the
13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. She then asked, “If slavery was ended
by law, what should have happened as a result of emancipation?” This critical
question is an entrance into exploring the contradiction between what a legal
document states and what actually occurred. Importantly, all students will have
ideas in response to this type of open-ended question. Andrea said, “Since Black
people were free by law they should have been able to vote and own land.”
Miguel said, “Be able to earn enough money to take care of their families.” And
Latisha said, “We should have been able to go to school.” After hearing these
responses, Ms. Hart asked, “According to our text, what actually happened?” Stu-
dents explained that at the beginning of Reconstruction there were improve-
ments, but that White people who did not want any changes in the status of Black
people reacted with violence when Black people tried to vote, go to school, or be
part of bettering conditions in the South. Northern and Southern White leaders—
who had just been enemies in the Civil War—agreed that if the South could con-
tinue to provide cheap, almost free labor again they could all continue to make
huge profits as they did during slavery. Even the federal government turned its
back on Black people when it pulled out federal troops that had been protecting
some of the progress made during Reconstruction.
After students shared what they learned in the text, Ms. Hart asked another
question: “Why do you think that the 13th Amendment didn’t lead to right
action and respect for everyone’s freedom?” Such a critical question asks stu-
dents to question (not accept) the contradiction between laws and the absence
of right action and respect. Toward the end of the discussion, Ms. Hart asked
students to write down at least one question they had about the 13th Amend-
ment and what happened once it was passed, to pair up and ask each other their
questions, and to record all responses. Below, Ms. Hart describes her question-
driven approach:
I ask my students questions that get them to think—to go beyond what

the text says. I also have them develop their own questions so they can
experience agency by defining themselves and their ideas. In this section,
I was trying to pedagogically mirror the principles of Accurate Scholarship
and Indigenous Voice that provide enough information to give an insid-
er’s view of Black people’s experiences as Reconstruction was coming to
an end. Along with the knowledge students learned from the text, I
encouraged them to use other ways of knowing, such as intuition-
reasoning, relational knowing, and empathy to respond to a critical ques-
tion about how laws don’t necessarily lead to right action. I want them to
make meaning of the past rather than only be limited to what a text—
even a “re-membered” text—has to say about a topic.
Culture Connects 47
For homework, Ms. Hart asked students to take home and share a copy of the
text, pose the questions they developed to their parents and family members,
record their answers, and inform the next day’s discussion with the thoughts of
their families.
African Cultural Platform for Question-Driven Pedagogy

An example of the African cultural precedent for Question-Driven Pedagogy is
found in the epistemology of the Baluba (a Bantu People of Central Africa),
which is reflected in the following proverb: “The child who raises questions is
the one who will gain knowledge.” According to Mutombo Nkulu-N’Sengha
(2005), this proverb:
stipulates the centrality of the question in the path toward knowledge. For
the Bantu, knowledge does not stem from a blind repetition of ancestral
ways. The Baluba state that in order to know, one has to begin with the
“art of unknowing,” being carefully aware that everything that shines may
not be a “genuine knowledge” (Bwino ke bwino). This means that know-
ledge is not knowledge until it is critically examined and its validity
enshrined.
(p. 42)
This Baluba proverb views questions as a way to arrive at knowledge—an

approach that is valued over learning to repeat what is already known. True
knowledge comes from inquiry, which begins with the acknowledgment of not
knowing. Likewise, in Question-Driven Pedagogy, thought-provoking ques-
tions lead the exchange of ideas between teachers and students—a process of
arriving at answers together, without relinquishing the right relationship
between elders and young people. To begin with “unknowing” means that pre-
determined answers are not a way to gain genuine knowledge. Rather, it is
asking questions that leads to knowledge. This relational and interdependent
process described in a Baluba proverb shows how an African epistemological
concept—when enacted through Question-Driven Pedagogy—connects stu-
dents to learning.
Culturally Informed Principle #5: Critical Thinking

The principle of Critical Thinking is used to write content broad enough for
students to see connections and evaluate and synthesize information. Thus, prior
to telling the story of Black migration to the Midwest, Black Community Building
describes conditions in the South that pressed African families to consider
leaving the only homes they had ever known. These common experiences and
the features of Black towns—what institutions residents developed and what
48 Culture Connects
values they promoted—are patterns that allows students to critically think about
what was important to Black people, what they accomplished after migrating,
and how their accomplishments represent African Diasporan cultural continui-
ties (Crockett, 1979; Loewen, 2005; O’Dell, 2011; Painter, 1976/1986). With
this content, students can evaluate the significance of this mass migration from
the standing place of the people who built Black towns, which are a little-
known part of the westward movement.
Culturally Authentic Assessment—an Emancipatory Pedagogy

During instruction, students can experience the principle of Critical Thinking
through the emancipatory pedagogy called Culturally Authentic Assessment.
This pedagogy uses standards elaborated collaboratively with parents to guide
students to produce knowledge and arrive at solutions through demonstration
rather than being asked to give predetermined “right” answers. Thus, this peda-
gogy also assesses student learning through community-informed standards and
expectations (King et al., 2014). Critical thinking—on the part of teachers, stu-
dents, and parents—is stimulated when they work together to design, complete,
and assess exhibitions, portfolios, demonstrations, or performances that reflect
imagination and bring benefit to the classroom and community. For example,
Ms. Hart’s final unit assessment of Black Community Building involves students in
problem solving a response to the following end-of-text question: “How is
knowing about Black towns in the Midwest valuable to Black communities
today?” (Goodwin, in Swartz, 2013, p. 12). Ms. Hart sees this as an opportunity
for students to bring learning about the past into the present—a present in
which they can see themselves and their ancestors acting with agency and prac-
ticing specific principles and ideals.
As Part I of responding to this question, Ms. Hart gave students three questions
to discuss in small groups: (1) Do you think it is possible to transfer what was
learned and accomplished in the past to the present? (2) What principles, values,
and practices in Black towns of the Midwest do you think can be used in Black
communities today? (3) What types of values and ideals would your parents and/
or family members like to see practiced in your community? Students took the
third question home to ask family members and record their responses. The next
day, student groups presented what they learned from their families along with
their responses to the other two questions. During and following group presenta-
tions, Ms. Hart facilitated class discussion to highlight points that could help stu-
dents complete the assessment options in Part II of this assessment.
To develop the assessment options for Part II, Ms. Hart had already met with
a group of five parents and family members who agreed to participate in devel-
oping a final assessment for this unit of study. (Mrs. Hart had sent information
home about what students would be learning and doing at the start of the unit
and invited interested parents and family members to participate.) They began
Culture Connects 49
as a book group, discussing Black Community Building in the first meeting. Ms.
Hart also shared her interest in having students learn from the past in order to
apply their learning to the present, and explained that she needed family input
to make that happen. In the second meeting, the teacher–family group discussed
the same three questions that students would be answering in Part I of the final
assessment; and the third meeting was devoted to developing and refining three
assessment options for Part II. During this meeting, Ms. Hart showed and dis-
cussed a video of performance-based assessments completed by former students.
While parents were impressed with what they saw, a few parents asked how this
authentic approach to assessment affected students’ performance on standardized
tests. Ms. Hart explained that her focus on meaningful projects, rather than test
preparation that involves trying to cover a lot of content, meant that she could
give students more feedback along the way. This allowed students to participate
in assessment and to learn while they were being assessed, which actually
resulted in her students’ increased motivation and doing better on standardized
tests compared to other fifth-grade classrooms in her district. She said she would
bring a few articles to the next session that showed how research supported this
approach (McTighe, Seif, & Wiggins, 2004; Stiggins, 2002). In the fourth and
final meeting, the teacher–family group developed a rubric that the teacher and
all parents could use to assess students’ projects. After discussing and recording
what parents thought should be included in an assessment that was culturally
authentic and demonstrated academic excellence, Ms. Hart shared a few rubrics
she had used in the past. By combining ideas, the group produced an assessment
rubric to evaluate students’ final presentations.
After completing Part I, student groups selected one of the following Part II
assessment options developed by the teacher–family group: (1) As a group, write
and perform a poem, story, song, and/or drama that responds to the statement,
“If we did it then, we can do it now!”; (2) Collaborate to (a) produce a mural
or group of pictures that depict the accomplishments of 19th century Black
towns and what a community that learned from those accomplishments might
look like today, and (b) prepare a few questions that can guide a discussion of
audience responses to the mural; and (3) Work with parents to (a) develop and
conduct a survey of community residents to identify what they see as the most
pressing needs in their community, and (b) determine how Nguzo Saba Princi-
ples identified in 19th century Black towns (through an earlier assignment) can
be used today to respond to those needs. As students engaged in creating and
completing their projects—building on the knowledge they and their families
produced in Part I—Ms. Hart advised, guided, and challenged them to think
critically and to consider how the actions they were imagining and visualizing
represent right action and positive community building. When the projects
were completed, all parents and family members were invited to student per-
formances and were asked to use the rubric developed by the teacher–family
group to assess each group performance.
50 Culture Connects
Notice that in the above suggested projects Ms. Hart directed students to
consider African Diasporan cultural principles and ideals, cultural practices, and
accomplishments as ways to strengthen their cultural communities and the com-
munities in which they live. She has learned that everyone’s location or stand-
ing place in the world is shaped by the cultural communities in which they
were raised. Using Culturally Authentic Assessment pedagogy acknowledges
this by positioning culture as the anchor and connector between content and
pedagogy and between students and the assessment of their learning. As a cul-
tural practice, this emancipatory pedagogy is a creative teaching and learning
context that opens spaces for new ideas that come from the individual and cul-
tural identities of students, teachers, and families. Ideas are drawn from within
rather than from the “without” of relying solely on content provided by teach-
ers and texts. When teachers engage with students and families pedagogically in
these ways, assessment is also a context in which learning takes place. Instead of
assessment being a gatekeeping process, Culturally Authentic Assessment is
simultaneously a pedagogical process of assessment for learning and community
building.
Ms. Hart had invited a friend of hers, Ms. McCormick, and Ms. Singleton
to attend the student performances. At the end of the evening, after students
and families said their goodbyes and left for home, the three women remained
to talk for a while. Ms. McCormick said how impressed she was with stu-
dents’ enthusiastic and knowledgeable performances and parents’ high level of
participation. She said, “You know . . . there was such a sense of togetherness
in here, like everyone belonged to something special and important. I even
felt like I belonged. How did you make all this happen?” “Well, it’s all about
building real relationships with children and their families,” Ms. Hart said,
looking at Ms. Singleton and smiling. “I learned from Ms. Singleton to trust
that what students and families know is an absolutely essential part of doing
my job . . . so I do a lot of listening and learning.” “Yes,” said Ms. Singleton,
“your desire to learn has been as strong as your desire to be a good teacher,
which is why you are getting such good responses from students and parents.”
As they prepared to leave the classroom, Ms. Singleton asked Ms. Hart if she
might be interested in joining the collegial group of veteran teachers at the
school. “I know we’ll be getting some new fifth-grade teachers next year, and
if they show interest, I was hoping that you might be willing to provide some
guidance.”
An African Cultural Platform for Culturally Authentic Assessment

As an emancipatory pedagogy, Culturally Authentic Assessment mirrors con-
cepts in African worldview, cosmology, philosophy, language, and the arts.
For students of African ancestry, this cultural platform of concepts represents
continuity with their ancestral heritage; and for students of other cultural
Culture Connects 51
backgrounds, these concepts are an opportunity to gain cultural knowledge.

For example, several philosophical concepts of the Akan (West Africa), such
as the relationship between inquiry and excellence and between knowledge
and ethics, are expressed in Adinkra symbols. As an indigenous Akan script,
Adinkra symbols are epistemic expressions or visual markers of Akan cosmol-
ogy, values, and cultural concepts and practices (Arthur, 2001). Used during
what the Akan call the “final rites of passage from the world of the living to
that of the ‘dead’ ”—Adinkra symbols were stamped on fabric that was made
into clothing and worn during funereal services and ceremonies (Willis, 1998,
p. 25). In Akan cosmology, death is understood as a transitional passage or
stage in life, and specific symbols are used as messages to the person who has
passed. Adinkra symbols are still used in this way and are also printed on
fabrics for more general attire and on clothing worn during festivals and celeb-
rations such as marriages and naming ceremonies. Today, these symbols are
also used in architecture; on pottery, metalwork, woodwork, and sculpture;
and as logos for businesses.
Each symbol has specific meaning. Three Adinkra symbols, Hwehwemudua
(Scheweb-scheweb-meu-doo-ah), Matemasie (Mah-tee mah-see-uh), and Nsaa
(N-sah) are Akan symbols for standards of critical thinking, creativity, and
excellence.
According to Mutombo Nkulu-N’Sengha

(2005), Hwehwemudua:
literally means “search rod” or “meas-

uring rod” and is the symbol for crit-
ical examination and excellence. It
#1 (Hwehwemudua) defines the African concept of critical
thinking. Matemasie is the symbol of
wisdom and insight. It adds an ethical
dimension to the epistemology by
establishing the connection of know-
ledge and goodness, harmony, and
balance. Thus the purpose of know-
ledge is to ensure a good life for
oneself and the community.
(pp. 41–42)
#2 (Matemasie)
52 Culture Connects
saa is a symbol of excellence, genuineness, and

N
authenticity. It refers to a type of hand-woven fabric/
blanket that is authentic and of excellent quality
(Willis, 1998). “Nsaa has come to represent excellence,
a person or a thing of a very high standard.”
#3 (Nsaa) (p. 151)
Hwehwemudua, Matemasie, and Nsaa represent Akan communal standards for

creating knowledge and gaining insight that require careful thought. With its
ethical dimension, Akan epistemology claims that having knowledge is not for
knowledge’s sake, but for bringing goodness, harmony, and balance into the
world (Gyeke, 1987; Nkulu-N’Sengha, 2005).
Culturally Authentic Assessment pedagogy parallels these Akan concepts by
bringing critical thinking, authenticity, and high standards into teacher–student–
family relationships so that together they can create knowledge that brings benefit
to the members of the classroom and community. This pedagogy is distinct from
standardized testing and transmission pedagogy that are based on the retrieval of
“right” answers. Instead, teachers guide instruction through their more developed
knowledge base, with the assumption that everyone in the classroom has know-
ledge worth knowing, and that putting this knowledge together produces authen-
tic demonstrations of high quality that bring something worthwhile to the
community. By including the ideas, standards, expectations of families, and their
understanding of community needs in creating curriculum and assessing what stu-
dents produce, Culturally Authentic Assessment Pedagogy permeates the bound-
aries between classrooms and communities.
As an African-informed pedagogy, Culturally Authentic Assessment also
encourages students to perform their learning—to connect the rhythms (life forces)
that exist in movement, music, dance, drumming, words, and imagery (Akbar,
1984; Boykin, 1983; Jones, 1979; Welsh Asante, 1985). During performance—
which “is considered as normal as speaking”—aesthetic and literary expressions are
combined and intertwined with the histories and spiritual, social, and political prac-
tices and events in each African community (Stone, 2000, p. 7). Susan Goodwin
(Goodwin & Swartz, 2008), refers to performance as an instructional approach that
“connects teachers with learners in what becomes a three-way communication
with the community audience. . . . Performance allows students to experience
themselves as learners and teachers when they share and open themselves to com-
munity critique and affirmation” (p. 13). In the context of Culturally Authentic
Assessment pedagogy, student demonstrations and performances are opportunities
for interpersonal and reciprocal interactions that involve movement, flow, and
improvisation between individuals and the group and between the material and
spiritual worlds, which in African worldview are viewed as inseparable (Anyanwu,
1981b; Senghor, 1964). These performance interactions are common experiences
among African cultures at home and in the Diaspora. As explained by Kariamu
Welsh Asante (1985):
Culture Connects 53
In the African sense, the work [song, dance, spoken word, drumming]
itself must have life and be worthy of the praises and approbations of an
audience. The African aesthetic in the oral element provokes collective-
ness in terms of spirit and individuality in terms of artistry. Pride and self-
satisfaction come from the harmony achieved with the ancestors, nature,
family and village.
(p. 79)
Following this understanding, the pedagogy of Culturally Authentic Assessment

is emancipatory in that it encourages the performance of knowledge—a way to
give knowledge life through interaction with an audience. In an essay on
African artistic and aesthetic experience, K. C. Anyanwu (1981b) describes the
enduring epistemic features of the African cultural platform that supports the
pedagogy of Culturally Authentic Assessment:
Life in an oral culture demands a high sense of imagination, intuition,

memory, sense of hearing, observation and the ability to use language
effectively. Here lies the significance of storytelling as a form of art. Lan-
guage is used to create or recreate events so vividly that it produces the
desired effects among the audience-participants. One must listen atten-
tively to grasp the flow or rhythm of events and the individual must flow
with them.
(p. 281)
For students whose ancestral cultures are oral and communal, performance that
uses imagination and language effectively resides in their group memory (her-
itage knowledge). For other students, the community-enhancing possibilities of
performance can be learned through access to this cultural knowledge. In either
case, the emancipatory pedagogy of Culturally Authentic Assessment gives all
students an opportunity to experience community through the integration of
critical thought, words, imagination, and movement.
Culturally Informed Principle #6: A Collective Humanity

The actions of residents in the Black towns of the Midwest indicate their self-
determination and understanding of freedom and justice as human entitlements—
as inherent rights of all people in any time and place—rather than legal rights that
depend upon who is in power in a particular time and place (Franklin, 1992;
Harding, 1990). Their actions in this historical period certainly have precedents in
the Black freedom struggle as far back as the earliest presence of African peoples in
the Americas and in the resistance to Arab and European conquest and enslave-
ment on the African Continent (Asante, 2007b; Hall, 1992; Hart, 1985/2002;
Hilliard, 1995; Piersen, 1993). As a grassroots mass movement, emigrants from the
54 Culture Connects
South circumvented a hierarchy of human worth to support each other and the
vision of freedom and justice for everyone. In the early stages of building Black
towns in the Midwest, Black and White farmers worked together and Black town
leaders established a working relationship with White county and state officials.
However, this cooperation turned to hostility once Black towns—as well as Black
communities in Midwest towns and cities, such as Greenwood in Tulsa, Okla-
homa—became successful (Brophy, 2002). When Black leaders sought political
influence outside of their towns, White legislatures changed boundaries so that
voters in Black towns would have less influence in county and state elections; and
after that, legislatures denied Black people the vote in state elections, and finally
passed Jim Crow laws to separate Black and White people on trains, in schools,
and other public and privately owned places (Crockett, 1979; Katz, 1996; Painter,
1976/1986; Taylor, 1998). White banks denied credit to Black farmers (O’Dell,
2011); and acts of mob violence against Black people increasingly occurred
outside the refuge of Black towns (Crockett, 1979; Loewen, 2005). The violence
and hostilities of White people demonstrated their commitment to a hierarchy of
human worth—the opposite of viewing all groups of people as equally belonging
to the human collective.
Communal Responsibility—an Emancipatory Pedagogy

Communal Responsibility is the pedagogical application of the principle of a
Collective Humanity. Ms. Hart uses this pedagogy to ensure an environment of
reciprocity and shared responsibility—a coming together that corresponds to the
principle of a Collective Humanity in the “re-membered” content she uses.
This is how she describes it:
It makes sense to me now that my pedagogy needs to match the content

I’m using. So, if the content is inclusive and representational—with no
hierarchy of human worth—then my pedagogy needs to communicate to
students that everyone in our classroom is valued for what they contribute.
This pedagogy is called Communal Responsibility. As the pedagogical part
of Teaching for Freedom, Ms. Singleton and I have been working on six
emancipatory pedagogies and Communal Responsibility is the sixth one. I
use it to encourage students to see our class as a whole, not only as a group
of individuals. So, we do a lot of partnering and group work and we make
decisions by consensus, which means that students have many opportunities
to consider each other, negotiate, and come to agreements through collabo-
ration. This is such a different approach than what I thought I would be
doing when I entered teaching. I don’t foster competition; I try to create
learning as a mutually beneficial and communal experience—one in which
everyone considers the good of the group. As I’ve come to see it, that’s
how each individual benefits the most.
Culture Connects 55
Notice that the community-oriented features of Communal Responsibility are

also part of the other five emancipatory pedagogies. Eldering positions students in
right relationship to their teacher, who understands knowledge as a collective and
communal experience in which everyone has something to contribute; Locating
Students at the center of teaching and learning acknowledges their cultural com-
munities and normative cultural characteristics as reasonable and right contexts for
learning; Multiple Ways of Knowing acknowledges cultural communities as the
source of epistemic diversity; Question-Driven Pedagogy is a relational experi-
ence that builds on and scaffolds what students know to increase learning for the
group; and Culturally Authentic Assessment pedagogy stimulates critical inquiry
in the completion and evaluation of projects and performances designed to bring
benefit to both the classroom and the community. Communal Responsibility
brings together the community-oriented features of these five emancipatory peda-
gogies to guide students through collaborative experiences that teach unity and
communal caring. As an embodiment of emancipatory vision and practice, Harriet
Tubman is a forerunner of Teaching for Freedom. She knew that for anyone to be
free, everyone had to be free—that freedom is a mutual experience of working
together for the good of the community. Likewise, the praxis of Teaching for
Freedom combines and uses emancipatory pedagogies in overlapping ways to
bring about unity among teachers, students, and families as a shared responsibility
for communal well-being and belonging.
An African Cultural Platform for Communal Responsibility

African worldview, philosophies, proverbs, cosmologies, and language concepts
acknowledge community to be what Nigerian philosopher Polycarp Ikuenobe
(2006) calls a “normative conceptual scheme” in African cultures (p. 53). He
echoes a common theme among numerous African philosophers, such as K. C.
Anyanwu (1981b), Kwame Gyekye (1987, 1998), Ademola Kazeem Fayemi
(2009), Kimbwandende Kia Bunseki Fu-Kiau (2001), and Yusef Waghid (2014)
when he states that “the community is at the center of every activity, practice,
belief, and value” (p. 53). As an emancipatory pedagogy, Communal Responsi-
bility—which teaches mutual consideration, working together for the good of
the community, and being responsible for each other—is a cultural practice
grounded in this view of community.
Language is one way to identify elements of the cultural platform that supports
this pedagogy. Hassimi Oumarou Maïga (2010) explains how the lexicon of any
language—what words exist and do not exist in a language—reveals the meaning
of concepts, values, and the presence or absence of specific sociocultural practices.
In Songhoy-Senni language (of Mali, West Africa), there are no words for “retire-
ment,” since elders do not retire, but are seen as essential to the well-being and
functioning of their families and communities. Thus, for example, elders are
counselors and guides in charge of rites of passage ceremonies for the young.
56 Culture Connects
Likewise, there is no word in Songhoy-Senni for “orphanages,” since there are

none; the family is the institution that cares for children. The absence of these
words from the Songhoy-Senni language—and therefore from Songhoy concepts
and institutions—is a way to know about the African communal values and prac-
tices related to elders and children in traditional Songhoy and other African soci-
eties (Boakye-Boaten, 2010; Ikuenobe, 2006).
African proverbs and their wide-ranging functions in daily living also sit on
the cultural platform that supports Communal Responsibility. As explained by
Congolese scholar Kimbwandende Kia Bunseki Fu-Kiau (2001), African prov-
erbs are a philosophical language; they communicate large and important ideas
within a community:
Proverbs, in African context, are laws, reflections, theories, customs, social

norms and values, principles, and unwritten constitutions. They are used to
justify what should be said or what has been said. Proverbs play a very
important ethical role in storytelling, legends, etc. Very often parents as well
as griots [n’samuni], and storytellers end their tales by very fitting proverbs.
(p. 94)
Between 1964 and 1973, Fu-Kiau directed the collection of over 1500 proverbs
that draw upon oral literature to reflect the cosmology of the Bântu-Kôngo
(Central Africa). Many of these proverbs define and describe community
(kânda), and in so doing are a cultural foundation for the pedagogy of Com-
munal Responsibility. For example:
Mu kânda, babo longa ye longwa.

Within the community everybody has the right to teach and to be taught.
Education is a matter of reciprocity. True knowledge is acquired through
sharing.
(pp. 99–100)
Kânda diansânsa, kânda isânsa.

The community took care of me; I will take care of that community.
Community life is a process of receiving and transmitting/passing on.
[tâmbula ye tambikisa] Teach a child completely and thoroughly about
what you are as a community and your teaching will go on completely
and thoroughly. Life and living is a seedling process.
(p. 104)
Dièla dia kânda m’bikudi.

The wisdom of the community prophesizes. The community sees farther
than an individual can. Anyone who learns to see through the communi-
ty’s eyes (wisdom) is a very bright person.
(p. 106)
Culture Connects 57
These longstanding proverbs of the Bântu-Kôngo foreshadow the unity, com-

plementary and caring relationships, and right action that Communal Respons-
ibility seeks to produce pedagogically. By teaching that true knowledge comes
from group belonging and reciprocity; that being cared for by the community is
received and passed on in the actions of community members; and that excel-
lence and insight are accomplished by communal efforts, these Bântu-Kôngo
proverbs provide guidance for the pedagogy of Communal Responsibility. With
this cultural positioning of the community at the center of every activity and
decision, the pedagogy of Communal Responsibility is well connected to “re-
membered” content—written with the principle of a Collective Humanity—
that reflects unity and the oneness of all humanity.
Concluding Thoughts
In this chapter, we have demonstrated how the praxis of Teaching for Freedom
uses Afrocentric concepts and culturally informed principles to connect six
emancipatory pedagogies with “re-membered” (democratized) content in the
social studies. We have also shown how emancipatory pedagogies are supported
by cultural platforms that carry African worldview, cosmologies, philosophies,
and related cultural concepts and practices drawn from oral and written African
literature. These cultural platforms, which demonstrate the reality of the cultural
unity of African peoples (Diop, 1959/1990), are absent in standard school
knowledge, not only for African Diasporan groups, but for other historically
marginalized groups as well. In fact, cultural platforms are absent for all groups
when the knowledge they convey is distorted by inaccurate scholarship and the
obstruction of critical thinking. Knowing about the cultural platforms that
support emancipatory pedagogies imbues these instructional practices with epi-
stemic authority—with centuries of African knowledge, expertise, and wisdom
about freedom—about how to bring goodness, harmony, and balance into the
world; how to produce intellectual and cultural excellence; how to keep the
past and the present connected; and how to facilitate community well-being
and belonging.
We have shown how emancipatory pedagogies and “re-membered” content
are outcomes of cultural practices, which means that both heritage knowledge
and cultural knowledge figure prominently in their use. Members of all cultural
groups have heritage knowledge, which is a repository of group memory related
to their ancestry and other “re-membered” or recuperated knowledge about
their heritage; and members of all cultural groups can gain cultural knowledge,
which is knowledge of the histories and cultural legacies of other groups. When
teachers and students draw upon their cultural memory or heritable legacy, and
learn knowledge about their own People, they are connected to what they are
learning. Instruction becomes an experience of belonging that acknowledges
their cultural and individual identities. Likewise, when teachers and students
58 Culture Connects
gain and use cultural knowledge, they become part of preserving the cultural
capital and continuity that school knowledge has historically ignored or
obstructed, which is also an experience of belonging—in this case to a learning
community engaged in ethically informed practices. As we saw demonstrated in
this chapter, when students are encouraged to use heritage knowledge and cul-
tural knowledge to collaboratively explore a topic—and when families are a
substantive part of this process—students and their families truly know that the
classroom is a place where they belong. In this way, Teaching for Freedom is an
emancipatory praxis with an educational emphasis on community well-being
and shared responsibility. Structuring learning opportunities through “re-
membered” content and emancipatory pedagogies demonstrates how accessing
the knowledge carried on diverse cultural platforms is essential in efforts to
produce academic and cultural excellence.
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3
HARRIET TUBMAN
“Re-membering” Cultural Continuities
That your Petitioners apprehend we have in common with all other men a
natural right to our freedoms without Being depriv’d of them by our fellow
men as we are a freeborn People and have never forfeited this Blessing by any
compact or agreement whatever.
To his Excellency Thomas Gage Esq. Captain General and
Governor in Chief in and over this Province [Massachusetts-Bay],
May 25, 1774 in Aptheker, A Documentary History of the Negro People in the
United States: From Colonial Times Through the Civil War, 1951/1969, p. 8
The praxis Teaching for Freedom offers us a way to access and build upon
African heritage knowledge and cultural knowledge. The need for this praxis in
student and teacher learning is evident in the omnipresence of eurocratic pres-
entations of knowledge that omit and misrepresent the histories and cultural
productions of perennially marginalized cultures and groups, and in so doing,
disrupt the cultural continuities necessary for intergenerational community well-
being. While we are reluctant to spend much time in this volume on what is
damaging about eurocratic presentations of knowledge—preferring instead to
provide examples of “re-membered” content—we ask Ms. Harriet Tubman’s
permission to discuss the ways in which she, and the grand narrative of slavery
in which she is located, continues to be presented in standard social studies
knowledge. While there are particularities and nuances in the too-numerous
examples of omissions and distortions in standard school knowledge—many that
we describe in our earlier volume (King & Swartz, 2014)—this one in-depth
example should suffice here. We conclude this chapter by showing how the
cultural continuities that Harriet Tubman’s life and work represent can be “re-
membered.”
Harriet Tubman: “Re-membering” Cultural Continuities 65
Ms. Tubman has been included in most school curricula and instructional
materials for over four decades, yet the way in which she is represented still
exemplifies the need to recuperate a more accurate account that keeps her con-
nected to her African heritage. For this reason, she is an excellent example for
the praxis of Teaching for Freedom. How can Tubman be taught so that she
remains at the center of her story as an African woman who embodies the
African understanding that for anyone to be free, everyone has to be free—that
freedom is a shared responsibility and inherent right that she and others had
never given up? In other words, how can Tubman’s story be told in a way that
maintains African Diasporan cultural continuity? Almost a century after Carter
G. Woodson’s (1919) assessment of the omissions and distortions of African and
African American history in school curriculum, Tubman and other women and
men of African ancestry continue to be deployed to represent the ubiquitous
grand narratives that continue to shape school knowledge. As distorted explana-
tions of national development, grand narratives—about macro-historical topics
such as exploration, colonization, slavery, freedom and democracy, manifest
destiny, and industrialization—are planted in the minds of children in their
earliest school days and repeated throughout 12 or more years of schooling
(Epstein, 2009; King & Swartz, 2014). These explanatory narratives are particu-
larly pronounced in the social studies, but also shape knowledge related to liter-
ature, science, mathematics, media, and school celebrations of national holidays
such as Thanksgiving and Columbus Day. Grand narratives include assumptions
about the right of dominance, difference as deficit, cultural legitimacy, the
origin of concepts and entire disciplines, progress and technology, and the inev-
itability of oppression that together play an epistemic role in maintaining euro-
cratic dominance and its hierarchy of human worth. To look at how young
children are introduced to Harriet Tubman in school knowledge, we first need
to examine the grand narrative of slavery into which she is inserted. This
agreed-upon narrative conveys a set of ideas that are taught with varying degrees
of detail at different grade levels.
The Grand Narrative of Slavery and its Assumptions

We are able to identify the contours of U.S. grand narratives in the social studies
through a review of textbooks from the 19th century to the present (Bailey,
1956, 1971; Boyd et al., 2011a–e; Fiske, 1894; Gavian & Hamm, 1945; Klein,
1983; Hale, 1835; Morison & Commager, 1942; Bennett et al., 2013). While
we acknowledge that textbooks are only one aspect of school curricula, corpo-
rate publishers have assured the predominance of these products in most class-
rooms through marketplace strategies that capitalize on current technologies.
From no pictures to drawings to photographs; from black and white to color;
from no graphics to colorful graphic layouts; and from hard copy to e-books to
digital apps and other interactive materials, textbooks are redesigned to be
66 Harriet Tubman: “Re-membering” Cultural Continuities
attractive to teachers and students in each decade (Kessler, 2011; Pearson, 2013).
Yet, with all their attempts at shifting shape, the grand narrative themes con-
veyed in these corporate materials remain consistent. The content that teaches
these themes is called a master script, since it legitimizes the accounts of
powerful groups (e.g., White, upper class, male, abled) as the knowledge worth
knowing (Swartz, 1992, 2007a). The voices of others are either omitted or mis-
represented as a way of mastering or bringing them under control so that they
can be marginally included without challenging the hegemony of standard
school knowledge (King & Swartz, 2014). This type of marginalizing inclusion
occurs in master scripts when “others” are so significant to an account that it
strains credibility to omit them. In cyclical fashion, these master scripts teach
and perpetuate the grand narrative themes that have shaped them.
For example, the grand narrative of slavery explains—from an authoritative
Euro-American stance—the origins, characteristics, development, and outcomes
of this institution. As you read this grand narrative in Vignette 3.1, it may sound
familiar, since it includes ideas and assumptions that have been consistently con-
veyed to most of us through state standards, master scripts, local curricula, text-
books, and other materials since we were very young children. Following
Vignette 3.1, we will point out and discuss the numerous contradictions and
inaccurate portrayals of historic events that exist within this grand narrative.
VIGNETTE 3.1
Grand Narrative of Slavery

Slavery refers to a lack of freedom and has existed all over the world for
thousands of years. Arabs, Africans, and Europeans all participated in slavery
in Africa. In the 1500s, African slaves were used to provide the large
numbers of laborers needed to develop colonies in the Americas. When the
United States became a country, it continued to use slave labor as a means
of economic growth. Blacks were owned as property by someone else and
forced to work hard, mostly on farms and plantations. While some slaves
were treated badly, others were treated well. Over the years, slavery con-
tinued to grow, especially in Southern states. Northerners and Southerners
debated about slavery and legal compromises were made about the polit-
ical representation of slaves as well as where slavery could exist. Some slaves
tried to rebel against slavery by running away, and they were helped by
people called abolitionists who wanted to end slavery. Disagreements about
slavery was one of the reasons for the Civil War, and before the end of that
war, President Abraham Lincoln—who was opposed to slavery—wrote the
Emancipation Proclamation.
By using Afrocentric theoretical concepts such as Centrality/Location, Self-

Determination, and Subjects with Agency (see Chapter 1, Table 1.1 for descrip-
tions of these concepts), we can identify numerous errors and distortions in the
above grand narrative and the assumptions it fosters. Foremost, the very people
who were enslaved are decentered; they are the objects of the narrative, not the
subjects, even though they are the topic. And the self-determination and agency
of free and enslaved people of African descent are nowhere to be found—hid-
den by the white supremacist assumption of the right to dominate. This assump-
tion replicates the original objectifying nature of enslavement in current
accounts that describe it.
Applying culturally informed principles, such as Representation, Indigenous
Voice, and Accurate Scholarship (see Chapter 1, Table 1.2 for descriptions of
these principles), to further examine the grand narrative of slavery uncovers
additional omissions and distortions. For example, when the European slave
trade began, there were no “Africans.” Rather, the Indigenous Peoples of Africa
(e.g., Akan, Songhoy, Wolof, Kôngo, etc.) as well as the Peoples of Europe
(e.g., British, Dutch, Portuguese, Spanish, etc.), identified themselves not in
pan-continental terms but with their respective Nation/nation states. (See King
& Swartz, 2014, p. 53 for a detailed explanation of the use and capping of
“Nations” and “Peoples.”) Likewise, this grand narrative of slavery includes no
representation or indigenous voice of the men, women, and children of various
Nations who are referred to as “slaves,” rather than as people who were kid-
napped and enslaved. Labeling people “slaves” conceptually severs them from
their families, communities, and heritage—as well as from the human family—
while cloaking their enslavers and their worldview; and once in the Americas,
the terms “blacks” and “slaves” are used interchangeably. Over time the various
peoples of Europe, who waged interminable wars to dominate, control, and
exploit the Americas, Africa, and other areas in the world, have come to be
known collectively as “Europeans.” We now use this commonplace conceptu-
alization of “Europeans” and “Africans” even though it elides these important
historical developments. Further, the claim that “Arabs, Africans, and Europeans
all participated in slavery in Africa” not only collapses time, context, and
meaning but it also assumes that the term “slavery” denotes common cultural
practices across more than 1500 years. While Arabs began enslaving the Euro-
pean, Turkic, and East and North African people as early as the sixth century,
our focus here is on what Kwasi Konadu (2010) describes as the “international
enslavement enterprise” (p. 6)—commonly called the Atlantic slave trade, but
more accurately called the European slave trade or Maafa. To the detriment of
the Peoples and civilizations in Africa and the Americas, this “enterprise”
resulted in a massive transfer of wealth from Africa to Europe, bringing system-
wide economic benefit only to Europeans and their colonial descendants as seen
in European and American scientific and industrial revolutions and global
supremacy in commerce to this day (Davidson, 1972; Mills, 1997; Rodney,
1982; C. Williams, 1974; E. Williams, 1944/1966). Land theft and genocidal

depredations suffered by the Indigenous peoples of the Americas also resulted in
earlier untold wealth transfers from the Americas to Europe and the subsequent
massive kidnapping, deportation, and enslavement of Africa’s people (Sublette,
2008).
Reframing the Grand Narrative of Slavery and its

Assumptions
The topic of “slavery” has unquestioningly generated extensive debate among
generations of academics within varying schools of thought. Even with a range
of ideological stances and shifting demographic and historical evidence, the
topic of “slavery” remains tantamount in the popular imagination as an explana-
tion of Black people’s presumed deficits (King, 1991). Our interest here is not
to engage in this academic debate, but to provide teachers with information that
can expand either their heritage knowledge or their cultural knowledge and will
to question and decipher agreed-upon historical narratives that function as ideo-
logy. We aim in this way to offer an antidote for the dysconsciousness that per-
meates our ranks as educators. Developed by Joyce E. King in 1991, the
concept of dysconsciousness
refers to an uncritical habit of mind (including perceptions, attitudes,

assumptions, and beliefs) that justifies inequity and exploitation by accept-
ing the existing order of things as a given. This cognitively limited mode
of thinking shapes one’s identity and distorts one’s consciousness—that is,
one’s awareness and sense of agency. Dysconscious racism is an uncritical
habit of mind that lacks any ethical judgment regarding or critique of sys-
temic racial inequity. By unquestioningly accepting the status quo, this
mind-set, which is identified as an outcome of miseducation, prevents
teachers, for example, from questioning the existing racial order and
leaves no room for them to imagine practical possibilities for social change
or their role as change agents.
(King & Akua, 2012, p. 724)
The unrelenting presence of grand narratives and master scripts to which we

have all been exposed—through school knowledge, media, sociopolitical
institutions, and corporate marketing—create an uncritical mind-set and
obstruct teachers from questioning the existing order of knowledge. The
absence of this critical capacity—long a concern of scholars in the Black intel-
lectual tradition—is achieved by shutting out the perspective advantage of
alterity, that is, the knowledge, experiences, and insights of those misrepre-
sented or disregarded in dominant venues (King, 2004; Wynter, 1997, 2000,
2006). When knowledge from such marginalized or liminal locations is made
visible and centered, it critically challenges phenomena that remain unques-

tioned in the knowledge base of dominant groups (King, 2006). Thus, our
response to such dysconsciousness responds to the epistemic eurocratic author-
ity that maintains it—an authority that continuously supports the dismissal and
denigration of “other” knowledge. The following reframing of the grand nar-
rative of slavery includes content that teachers can use to critically assess their
own knowledge and their instructional materials and to supplement or select
other materials that more accurately represent this topic.
At the beginning of Portuguese exploration of the west coast of Africa in the
mid-15th century, varying forms of domestic servitude existed in Europe and
Africa (Rodney, 1966). Domestic servants could typically gain freedom and
eventually integrate into the society where they lived. While domestic servitude
was maintained in Africa, it was discarded in Europe, which turned to chattel
slavery of African people to propel their emerging merchant capitalist system—a
system that expanded exponentially with the 16th and 17th century develop-
ment of colonial ventures in the Americas (Davidson, 1961). During these two
centuries, the records of the first European enslavers in Africa, the Portuguese,
make no reference to West African chattel slavery and include no mention of
enslaved people in that region’s trade activities (Rodney, 1966). Along the
western coast of Africa, interest in trading with Europeans initially involved
local commodity exports (e.g., gold, ivory, copper, hides, cloth, indigo, salt) in
exchange for European goods (Dike, 1956; Miller, 1988; Rodney, 1966, 1982).
However, after more than two centuries of European disruption of African
social, economic, and political structures in search of people to enslave for
profit, including the British-financed defeat of the Songhoy Empire in 1591,
followed by European-induced wars among African Nations that were justified
by the Catholic Church as “Just Wars”, a European-driven system of chattel
slavery took root.
It is important to note that African resistance to the voracious European slave
trading in the states of Matamba, Kôngo, Benin, and Dahomey—to name only
a few—is well documented (Rodney, 1982; Williams, 1974). Yet, with few
exceptions—Nzinga, Queen of Matamba being one—this resistance was over-
come by the well-armed troops of European intruders who then required local
leaders to deliver quotas of enslaved people or themselves be enslaved (David-
son, 1961; Williams, 1974). Europe’s steady provocation of internal conflicts
and purposeful devaluing of local currencies for economic control led to exten-
sive social upheaval, dependency, and breakdown within African Nations.
These conditions made it possible for Europeans, who were competing among
themselves, to advance a system of race-based chattel slavery in the African soci-
eties they targeted, and over centuries, to disrupt their practices of justice and
shared responsibility for community welfare. However, as discussed in Chapter
2, the worldview, philosophies, and cultural concepts that were the foundation
for these traditional practices among the Yoruba, Akan, Songhoy, Kôngo, and
other African Nations were not lost; they constitute the cultural continuities
that were retained and brought to the Americas by those who were enslaved
(Konadu, 2010; Gomez, 1998; Gyekye, 1997; Maïga, 2010; Nkulu-N’Sengha,
2005; Piersen, 1993).
Europeans and Africans had very different conceptions of “slavery” (David-
son, 1961; King, 1992, 2006; Rodney, 1966). This is evident when considering
the institution of chattel slavery that Europeans developed. The following
example shows how knowledge of African language concepts can shed light on
the meaning of these culturally distinct conceptions. In Songhoy-senni, the lan-
guage of the Songhoy people of West Africa, the word barnya refers to
“someone who doesn’t even have a mother” (King, 2006, p. 352). Fleeing from
danger, captured in war, or cast out of your community as punishment for
wrongdoing (there was no word for “prisons” in pre-colonial Africa because
there were none) meant that as barnya you no longer had the protection of your
lineage or your mother’s people. You would be taken in by another com-
munity, but your lineage disruption often positioned you in an indigenous
system of domestic servitude that bore no resemblance to chattel slavery in the
Americas, with its dehumanizing bondage in perpetuity (Davidson, 1961; King,
2006). As a domestic servant, you might become part of a system of trade, with
your exchange signifying the wealth of your new “owner” who sought to buy
your loyalty more than your labor (Davidson, 1961).
As exemplified in the Niger-Delta, domestic servitude was typically a socially
mobile system in which freedom and elevation in social status was gained
through hard work and ingenuity that brought benefit to the head of your
household who valued and rewarded your achievements (Dike, 1956).
However, the grand narrative of slavery and the K-12 master scripts that convey
it collapse these different cultural conceptions and practices by referring to them
with the same term—“slavery.” Stating that slavery existed all over the world,
without examining local language meanings, indigenous historical accounts,
substantive differences in different eras, and the range of practices from domestic
servitude to chattel slavery erroneously suggests that slavery is universal in defi-
nition and description and therefore an inevitable phenomenon (King, 2005;
Maïga, 2010). When referring to the European slave trade, the encapsulating
use of the term “slavery” in K-12 instructional materials serves to erase its par-
ticularities and obstruct the accountability of its perpetrators and beneficiaries;
and it infers that both Africa and Euro-America are responsible for the holo-
caust experienced by the former that brought benefits and worldwide domi-
nance to the latter.
The grand narrative of slavery also ignores scholarship that could result in
greater accuracy and a more complete account, and as a result blocks the critical
thinking and moral agency of teachers (King, 1991). For example, proclaiming
the “need for large numbers of laborers” as the reason for slavery ignores
scholarship about the knowledge and skills of specific African Nations that were
sought and exploited by Europeans and their descendants through the system of
slavery. African people came to the Americas with knowledge and skills in such
fields as agriculture, architecture, astronomy, metallurgy, husbandry, fishing,
gold mining, the military, business and trade, sculpture, culinary arts, weaving
and textile production, and medicine (Holloway, 1990; Littlefield, 1981; Phil-
lips, 1990; Wahlman, 2001). This can be seen in the growing of products unfa-
miliar to Europeans, such as rice, tobacco, and indigo; in the construction and
adornment of Southern plantations by African craftsmen; and in primary source
accounts that verify African influences on the nation’s agricultural, industrial,
and aesthetic development (Carney, 2001; Hall, 2005; Maïga, 2010; Piersen,
1993; Sublette, 2008; Walker, 2001). If students and teachers have no access to
accounts of African intellectuality and accomplishments, it is likely that
dominant cultural assumptions about difference as deficit will lead to the false
conclusions that still predominate in the school textbooks and the popular imag-
ination. These false conclusions—which obstruct any critical examination of the
Maafa—include the belief that Africans provided only unskilled labor, that the
existence of domestic servitude in Africa justified the institution of chattel
slavery in the Americas, and that the low socioeconomic positioning of African
people, then and now, is a “reasonable” outcome of these factors.
Likewise, failing to name White people as the enslavers and describing
slavery as something that just “grew” assumes its inevitability and cloaks those
responsible for the well-documented horrors of enslavement and post-
emancipation systems of oppression—as if they operated without perpetrators
and beneficiaries. In addition, as Europeans became “white” and the dehumani-
zation of African people became normative, the grand narrative of slavery per-
petuated a cultural model built on the ideology of white racial superiority
(Fields & Fields, 2014; Painter, 2011; Wynter, 1984). Within this normative
belief structure of race, racist scholarship has shaped the current grand narrative
of slavery that “silently” positions African people as non-cultural beings in order
to justify enslavement as normative (Mills, 1997; Wynter, 2000).
Once enslaved, the grand narrative of slavery provides no reference to how
people retained African practices as well as how they created new cultural forms
and continuities that have sustained them in the Americas (Bennett, 1975; King
& Goodwin, 2006; Walker, 2001). The meager references to rebelling and
“running away” in no way characterize the ongoing resistance and successful
liberation efforts by individuals and groups who wrote and spoke about never
having given up their natural right to be free (Aptheker, 1951/1969; Bennett,
1975; Hart, 1985/2002; Price, 1979; Thompson, 1987; Williams, 2010).
Assumptions about agency—who has it and who does not—erase the substan-
tive role of Africans who resisted slavery on the continent and during the
middle passage and the resistance of enslaved Africans in the Caribbean. Also
erased are the Black men and women in the abolition movement in the United
States, inferring that, with few exceptions, abolitionists were White. And the
truth about Lincoln’s disinterest in ending slavery is omitted (Bennett, 2000;

Quarles, 1969; Still, 2007). His Emancipation Proclamation was not a position
against slavery, and in fact freed no one that Lincoln had the power to free. The
Proclamation was both a war measure issued to further weaken the Confederacy
(Welles, 1862/1960) and a gradual plan of emancipation that would keep as
many African people enslaved as possible until they could be deported, which
was Lincoln’s favored plan that he was unable to effect (Bennett, 2000).
The culturally informed principle of a collective humanity—that we are all
one humanity and that no human groups are more worthy than any others—is
absent in the grand narrative of slavery as seen in references to enslaved people
being treated well and slavery being something about which to debate and com-
promise. Whether we are beaten less often, wear better clothes, or eat better
food than people on the next plantation does not change that we are all enslaved
(S. Goodwin, personal communication, October 17, 2008). Neither being held
against our will in perpetuity or being worked to death (Bland, 2001), or sys-
tematic sexual coercion to deliberately “breed” crops of humans to be sold as
“slaves,” qualifies as “good treatment” (Bridgewater, 2014; Smithers, 2013).
And “Northerners” and “Southerners” (coded geographic designations that
refer to White people in the grand narrative of slavery) debating and compro-
mising over our existence—as if freedom is not a human entitlement—makes it
clear that assumptions about difference as deficit obstruct the idea of equitable
human worth in this grand narrative.
Grand Narratives, Master Scripts, and Time

The grand narrative of slavery in Vignette 3.1 has changed very little over time.
It and other grand narratives endure because they are protected and perpetuated
by master scripts that change somewhat to accommodate the sensibilities of each
era. For example, textbooks used at the end of the 19th and first half of the 20th
century contained justifications and support for the system of slavery that
depended on the absence of African voices about the experiences of enslave-
ment, the acceptance of White domination as given, racial slurs, slanderous ster-
eotypes, false assumptions of docility, and justifications of dehumanization
(Bailey, 1956; Fiske, 1894; Johnston, 1904; Gavian & Hamm, 1945; Harlow,
1947; Morison & Commager, 1942). The grand narrative of slavery in Vignette
3.1 fits as well with these much earlier textbooks as it does with current text-
books that have dropped the racial slurs and slanderous stereotypes, since old
and new texts justify the system of slavery through omissions, distortions, and
the absence or misuse of indigenous voice (Appleby, Brinkley, Broussard,
McPherson, & Ritchie, 2014; Bennett et al., 2013; Boyd et al., 2011a; Viola et
al., 2008; Zimmerman, 2004). A notable exception to this textbook rule is
Carter G. Woodson’s (1945) The Story of the Negro Retold, originally published
in 1935. This high-school textbook not only locates people of African ancestry
as the subjects of its accounts, it fully reveals their agency and self-determination
in the pursuit of freedom. Reading this textbook, written 80 years ago, makes it
quite clear that it was not lack of scholarship that resulted in consistently
omitted and distorted content in the standard school texts of this era that persist
in our day. In fact, current textbooks continue to present African enslavement
in a matter-of-fact and objectifying manner—as just the way it was back then
(Mbatha, 2012; Swartz, 2012a). The master scripts in these texts still cloak the
perpetrators of slavery, omit the ideology of racial superiority, and silence any
discussion of the inhumanity of chattel slavery.
A few current textbooks say that the conditions of slavery in the Americas
were cruel or harsh, but they do not describe the institution as unethical or
inhumane, which can actually be found in much older textbooks. For example,
in Salma Hale’s 1835 high-school textbook, he wrote that slavery was “a traffic
abhorrent to humanity, disgraceful to civilization, and fixing the foulest stain
upon the character of the age and people” (p. 22). Nothing close to this ethical
assessment can be found in the master scripts of current textbooks, which
instead use sound-bites from personal accounts and speeches of once-enslaved
African people, such as Frederick Douglass. For example, a current high-school
textbook by Appleby et al. (2014) includes a quote from a speech made by Fre-
derick Douglass in Rochester, New York on July 5, 1852:
What, to the American slave, is your 4th of July? I answer: a day that
reveals to him, more than all other days in the year, the gross injustice and
cruelty to which he is the constant victim. To him your celebration is a
sham; your boasted liberty, an unholy license; your national greatness,
swelling vanity; your sounds of rejoicing are empty and heartless; . . . a thin
veil to cover up crimes which would disgrace a nation of savages.
(p. 178)
Douglass, not the textbook, concludes that slavery is unjust, disgraceful, and
criminal. While brief and infrequent quotes by people of African ancestry insert
ethical moments into master scripts, these insertions are not supported by the
content that surrounds them. These “moments” create an illusion that textbooks
are now multicultural and inclusive, but the lack of text support for these brief
insertions fails to challenge the prevailing grand narrative of slavery and the
master scripts that teach it (King & Swartz, 2014). In fact, these moments of
realness lend credibility to textbook accounts by suggesting that the exclusion of
marginalized or omitted voices in the past has now been corrected. Thus, even
when those voices challenge the practices of their era—as in the above quote of
Frederick Douglass—their anomalistic presence in no way alters the master
script. As for inclusions that are more than sound-bite quotes, as is the case with
the corporate delivery of figures such as Harriet Tubman, the content in no way
challenges or critiques the grand narrative or master scripts that convey it.
The Corporate Delivery of Harriet Tubman

While Harriet Tubman is included as an agent of the Underground Railroad in
Carter G. Woodson’s (1945) high-school textbook, The Story of the Negro Retold,
she doesn’t appear in most standard school curricula and instructional materials
until the late 1960s (e.g., Bailey, 1971; Fenton, 1970; Klein, 1983; Morison,
Commager, & Leuchtenburg, 1969; Wineburg & Monte-Sano, 2008). Her
inclusions range from one in-text sentence to a picture and caption to a para-
graph to a vignette. Yet, in whatever form, the content is consistent across cor-
porate publishers in that it fits within the grand narrative of slavery. It is
noteworthy that one of the earlier textbooks to include Harriet Tubman, The
Americans: A history of the United States (Fenton, 1970), used a story form that
provided much more information about her than later and current texts. While
parts of this account take some liberties with scholarship on Tubman, and the
account still fits within the grand narrative of slavery (e.g., enslavement is not
contested and its perpetrators are not named), it provides indigenous voice and
representation that connect Tubman to her family, community, and ancestral
heritage. This is another example that suggests caution about assuming that
content related to historically omitted and marginalized groups increases or
improves in a linear fashion from earlier decades to the present.
Our review of elementary, middle, and high-school social studies textbook
accounts of Harriet Tubman over the past decade shows that inclusions varied
in length, but the content was remarkably similar across publishers (Appleby et
al., 2014; Banks et al., 2005a–d; Bennett et al., 2013; Berson, Howard, &
Salinas, 2012a & b; Boyd et al., 2011a–d; Cayton, Israels Perry, Reed, &
Winkler, 2007; Garcia, Ogle, Risinger, & Stevos, 2005). Thus, it is possible to
claim that examining any one of these textbooks is representative of the current
corporate delivery of knowledge about Harriet Tubman. So, let’s look at a
recent elementary social studies series by Scott Foresman in which Tubman is
included in vignettes, text, pictures, and sound-bite quotes in their first-,
second-, third-, and fifth-grade textbooks (Boyd et al., 2011a–d). As a heuristic
for critiquing corporate versions of knowledge about Tubman, and as a prelude
to “re-membering” knowledge about her, we selected for review one of Scott
Foresman’s lengthier accounts—a two-page vignette in their first-grade text-
book All Together (Boyd et al., 2011b).
At the top of this two-page vignette is a red, white, and blue banner of stars
and stripes with the title “Citizen Heroes” (Boyd et al., 2011b, pp. 68–69).
Citizen Heroes is a feature of this elementary textbook series that highlights
individuals at different grade levels who each represent one of the characteristics
of good citizenship, which are defined in the series as caring, respect, responsi
bility, fairness, honesty, and courage. Need it be said that Harriet Tubman—
considered a fugitive slave by the laws of the United States—was not a citizen of
this country in the 1840s and 1850s. Using language and flag imagery to signify
otherwise disingenuously appropriates Tubman into the dominant national and

patriotic narrative of “democracy and freedom for all,” which did not apply to
Tubman. In fact, by passing the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, the U.S. govern-
ment made Tubman and other self-liberated African women and men no longer
safe from capture and enslavement, even in the North. Thus, “our country”
would have supported her re-enslavement if she had been caught.
The first paragraph in the vignette reads: “Some customs and ways of life have
changed from long ago. Harriet Tubman lived in our country when some African
Americans were not free. She wanted fair treatment for everyone” (p. 68; empha-
sis added). Apparently the “customs and ways of life that changed from long ago”
refers to enslavement, which isn’t mentioned prior to this vignette—or actually
anywhere in this first-grade textbook. How are six-year-olds to understand why
“some [it was actually millions] African Americans were not free”? What did they
do to be not free? This introduction of Harriet Tubman gives students no
information about enslavement, about Tubman’s ancestry, and whether she was
one of the African Americans who was “not free.” What they are told is: “She
wanted fair treatment for everyone.” To state that Tubman wanted “fair treat-
ment,” but not to say from whom and for whom, invisibilizes the power and
presence of the ideology of whiteness that in practice obstructed freedom for
enslaved African Americans. In the same paragraph, the text invites students to
identify with “our country”—a country that enslaved and denied Harriet Tubman
and millions of other African Americans human dignity and the rights of citizen-
ship. The misrepresentation of Tubman’s work as a desire for fairness (from White
people who go unnamed) is used to infer that there was/is one country experi-
enced the same by all—a country that valued fairness. Actually, Harriet Tubman
was not interested in seeking any kind of treatment from White people. Quite the
contrary, she was seeking liberation for Black people, which she understood as
everyone’s inherent right. Not only does the misinformation in this paragraph
make critical thinking next to impossible, the absence of indigenous African voice
portrays a cruel and oppressive system as benign.
“Fair treatment” remains a theme in the second paragraph, with Harriet
Tubman working hard to achieve it by helping “African Americans move to
new places where they could be free. The people she helped followed a special
path in the woods. The path was called the Underground Railroad” (p. 68).
Tubman sounds more like a travel agent than a conductor of the Underground
Railroad, and the “special path in the woods” sounds like a nature hike rather
than a route to freedom fraught with hardships and dangers.
The third paragraph states that “Harriet Tubman was a very brave woman”
(p. 69), remembered for believing in fairness and freedom for African Ameri-
cans. Yes, she was a brave woman, but her bravery is presented in a way that
disconnects her from her community. The absence of any information about
her own liberation from enslavement and her repeated and perilous trips into
the South to liberate others ignores scholarship that could provide a more
accurate, more complete, and indigenously voiced account that would acknow-
ledge her bravery and connect it to its source. Harriet Tubman personifies an
African worldview in what Maulana Karenga (2006) calls her pursuit of a “col-
lective practice of self-determination in community” (p. 247)—a communal ori-
entation of practicing freedom as a shared responsibility. Explaining this source of
her bravery maintains continuity between Harriet Tubman and the African com-
munity that taught her the meaning of freedom. In summary, the absence of indi-
genous voice and the appropriation of Tubman into the dominant and patriotic
national narrative objectify and deculturalize her; the focus on fair treatment rather
than liberation obstructs accurate scholarship regarding enslavement and racial
ideology. Moreover, cloaking the White perpetrators of slavery sanitizes the insti-
tutionalized system of enslavement, representing it rather benignly as “unfair treat-
ment” that, according to the text, seems inevitable and benefiting no one. In these
ways, this vignette is a master script that disrupts African Diasporan cultural conti-
nuities and protects and teaches the grand narrative of slavery.
A “Re-membered” Account of Harriet Tubman

So far in this chapter we have used Afrocentric theory and culturally informed
principles to examine one grand narrative and the master scripts that sustain it.
We also use this theory and these principles to create “re-membered” accounts
of the past in such forms as one-to two-page rewrites of textbook content
(Swartz, 2005, 2006, 2011) and stand-alone texts on specific topics (Swartz,
2007b, 2008, 2010, 2012b, 2013). In this section our “re-membered” account
of Harriet Tubman (Swartz, 2011) is a two-page re-write of the Scott Foresman
first-grade vignette discussed in the previous section. Our “re-membered”
vignette (see Vignette 3.2 below) follows a format similar to the Scott Foresman
vignette. The “re-membered” content is of course different. We decided to
only include a copy of our re-written, “re-membered” vignette about Tubman
in this chapter, not a copy of the Scott Foresman first-grade vignette. We
believe that including the latter would likely qualify for “fair use” under current
copyright law, since 1) it is being used for scholarly/educational purposes; (2)
the portion used (only two pages out of a 272-page text) is not substantial; and
(3) it is unlikely that including the vignette in this chapter will affect the text-
book’s marketability (since it was published in 2011 and pre-adoption samples
of the 2015 edition are currently being advertised) (Pearson, 2015; TEA, 2015;
U.S. Government Printing Office, 2014). However, given the unlikelihood of
receiving Scott Foresman’s permission to include and critique a portion of their
textbook in this volume, we decided to avoid possible legal questions by only
describing and quoting small portions of the textbook vignette in the above
section. Interested readers can request a copy of the Scott Foresman vignette for
study in professional development contexts by sending an e-mail to omnicen-
[email protected] or by buying the 2011 first-grade text All Together from
Scott Foresman at http://pearsonschool.com/index.cfm?locator=PSZwAe.

Vignette 3.2 below is our “re-membered” text vignette about Harriet Tubman,
along with a discussion of its content. This vignette is also written for first grade,
but can be used in other elementary grades; it can also be used as an exercise in
critical analysis at upper grade levels. To inquire about obtaining an 8.5 x 11
inch color copy of this vignette that can then be copied for classroom use,
contact [email protected].
Our Harriet Tubman uses the same general layout of the Scott Foresman
textbook vignette, but that is where the similarities end. As an African woman,
Harriet Tubman and her people are located at the center of the “re-membered”
student text in Vignette 3.2. This is first seen in the words and imagery of the
title. Rather than being inaccurately referred to as a “Citizen Hero,” Tubman is
called a “Heroine of Right Action.” This tells young children that her actions
were just and right, which is why she is someone to learn from and admire.
And rather than the stars and stripes, the banner at the top of the page includes
Kente cloth made by people of the Asante Nation. Some Tubman biographers
either omit any discussion of her African ancestry (Lowry, 2007) or are tentative
about identifying her Asante lineage (Clinton, 2004). When interviewed by
journalist Frank C. Drake in 1907 (as cited in Larson, 2004), Tubman stated
that she was told by women in her community about her Asante heritage.
Ghana, a current African nation that is the homeland of the Asante People, has
agreed. In 2000, Ghanaian officials visiting New York City enstooled (a tradi-
tion that recognizes the contributions of a community member) Harriet
Tubman as Queen Mother of Ghana; and in 2005 Ghanaian officials received
her great-grandnieces in the Ghanaian city of Aburi for a week of activities
honoring their great-grandaunt (USA Today, 2005). Thus, the Kente cloth is a
visual reference to the first sentence in the vignette that connects Tubman to
Africa: “Harriet Tubman came from a long line of African men and women.”
Freedom is then defined in the context of an African worldview as a shared
responsibility that applies to everyone (Karenga, 2006). By framing the first par-
agraph with three Afrocentric concepts—Centrality/Location, Collective
Responsibility, and Reclamation of Cultural Heritage—the presentation of
Harriet Tubman is “re-membered” by drawing upon an African knowledge
base that is omitted in standard accounts.
Accurate Scholarship, Indigenous Voice, and Critical Thinking are culturally
informed principles used to describe the enslavement of African people in the
second paragraph (Aptheker, 1951/1969; Bennett, 1975; Franklin & Moss, 1994).
The content in this paragraph obviates the grand narrative assumptions of slavery
as a benign and inevitable system. Rather than assuming the white right of domi-
nance, it names slavery’s perpetrators, calls their actions wrong, and states how
they benefit from stealing the knowledge, skills, and labor of African people, all of
which allow teachers to guide students in exploring the unethical dimensions of
the system of slavery. This becomes a critical thinking opportunity, one that is
VIGNETTE 3.2
HEROINE OF RIGHT ACTION
Harriet Tubman
Harriet T ub m an c a m e from a long line of
African m en an d w om en. T h ey knew that
ev e ry o n e had to b e fre e in ord er to h av e
ju stic e in the w orld. T h is m e a n s that
freed o m is a sh a r e d responsibility.
Before and during Harriet T ub m an ’s
lifetime, the freedom of millions of African
people w a s taken away. Their knowledge
skills, and labor w ere stolen by White
people to m ake money. This is called
slavery. S la v e ry is not a right action. It is cruel an d w rong.
H a rrie t T ubm an w as
e n s la v e d . But, s h e an d all
other e n sla v e d Black p eop le
never g a v e up their right to be
free. S o , like m any others, sh e

Harriet Tubman w as
found a w ay to ta k e b a ck her born in D o rch ester
C o u n ty , M ary lan d .
freed om .
Build Citizenship
Caring
Respect
R e sp o n sib ility
F ir s t, H a r r ie t T u b m a n m ade a
d a n g e ro u s trip from the Sou th to the Fairness

Honesty
North to free herself. Then sh e m ad e Courage
m an y trip s b a c k to th e S o u th to le a d
hundreds of other Black p eop le to freedom . S h e u se d the
help of Black and White p eople. T hey w orked togeth er to
hide and feed the p eop le s h e w a s guiding to freedom . The
plans they m ad e and the hiding p la c e s they u se d w ere
called the Underground Railroad.
M o st t r a v e l e r s on t h e
U nderground R ailro ad
w alk e d all t h e way to
f r e e d o m . O t h e r s w ere
ab le to r id e p a r t o f th e
way. S o m e w ere hidden
in s e c r e t spaces in wagons.
Harriet T ubm an w a s a caring m em ber o f her community.
Her c o u ra g e c a m e from knowing that in ord er for an y on e
p erson to really b e free, ev ery o n e had to b e free.
Vignette courtesy of Omnicentric Press. Copyright © Ellen E. Swartz, 2011.

silenced when standard school knowledge presents enslaved labor as an inevitable

driver of economic growth—as if that compels its justification and removes it
from ethical review in the present.
The third paragraph presents Harriet Tubman as an enslaved member of a
community that had never given up its right to freedom (Aptheker, 1951/1969;
Bennett, 1975; Hart, 1985/2002). Students learn that she and others in her
community found ways to liberate themselves (Bennett, 1975; Franklin, 1992;
Price, 1979; Quarles, 1969; Thompson, 1987; Williams, 2010). This section
uses Indigenous Voice, Representation, and Accurate Scholarship to write
student content that is framed by the Afrocentric concepts of Subjects with
Agency and Self-Determination. There is no voiceless request for fair treatment
from a cloaked, unseen oppressor. Instead, there is a voice-full account of a
person’s and a People’s taking back what was always theirs—a markedly differ-
ent portrayal of enslavement and freedom that emerges from locating African
people at the center of their own story.
In the fourth paragraph, students learn of Tubman’s Underground Railroad
work and her collaborations with White and Black people, which demonstrate
the Afrocentric concepts of Collective Responsibility, Agency, and Self-
Determination and the culturally informed principle of a Collective Human-
ity—all of which counter the ideology and practice of white racial supremacy.
Black people and some White people saw themselves as equally part of the
human collective and together they acted to resist this ideology as practiced in
the system of slavery (Aptheker, 1993; Bennett, 1968; Quarles, 1969; Still,
2007). White resistance is presented in the context of the African struggle for
human freedom—not leading it, but more accurately assisting it. Harriet
Tubman exemplifies this: as she engineered her journeys to freedom, she sought
and acquired the assistance of Black and White abolitionists. By placing African
people at the center, an African knowledge base and experiences are “re-
membered”—and are also combined, in this case, with the knowledge base and
experiences of White people. Tubman is no longer a marginalized object of dis-
cussion in a White narrative of slavery, but the subject of a reconnected, cultur-
ally informed narrative about her and her people.
Another Afrocentric concept, the Reclamation of Cultural Heritage, frames
the final paragraph. It describes the communal source of Harriet Tubman’s
courage and caring. She embodies the African understanding that freedom is a
communal concept and experience, and that for anyone to be free, everyone
has to be free. Human freedom is a shared responsibility, which demonstrates
what is African about Harriet Tubman’s actions. Thus, in this rewritten vignette,
Harriet Tubman represents the citizenship characteristic of Responsibility (as a
community), rather than Fairness (as an individual). This vignette demonstrates
how cultural continuities can be “re-membered” when extant knowledge—in
this case about Tubman—is shaped by African knowledge and worldview. Yes,
Harriet Tubman was a brave and exceptional woman; not everyone could or
can be a Harriet Tubman. But her exceptionality, as seen in her understandings,

courage, and caring, was shaped by the African community to which she
belonged.
Conclusion
While it is necessary to engage in critical analysis of standard school knowledge,
it is equally necessary to acknowledge that such critique is endlessly reactive.
Standard instructional materials, which are responsive to state interests in main-
taining dominant national narratives, are produced by a well-funded corporate
delivery system that is impervious to criticism, especially of the grand narratives
it perpetuates (Buras, 2008; Spring, 2010; King & Swartz, 2014). Rather than
continuously reacting to “official knowledge” (Apple, 1999) that has become
entrenched in social, political, and economic institutions, not the least of which
are schools, the Teaching for Freedom praxis we suggest and demonstrate here
produces instructional materials for students that “re-member” cultural continu-
ities. In describing his efforts against the fugitive slave law as a way of destroying
slavery, Frederick Douglass (1881/1983) wrote that
it was like an attempt to bail out the ocean with a teaspoon, but the thought
that there was one less slave, and one more freeman—having myself been a
slave, and a fugitive slave—brought to my heart unspeakable joy.
(p. 272)
In drawing upon this metaphor, we recognize that the examples of “re-

membered” cultural continuities that we produce fill only a teaspoon in com-
parison to the ocean of omnipresent corporate-state productions of standard
knowledge. Under such circumstances, and guided by the Black intellectual tra-
dition, we are still “outthinking and outflanking” hegemony (Du Bois, 1932,
p. 71) if only 100 teachers and several thousand students are given access to
instructional materials that “re-member” the multiple and shared knowledge
bases and experiences that shaped our collective past. By framing student mater-
ials with Afrocentric theory, and writing them using culturally informed princi-
ples, there will be fewer children and adults mentally enslaved to limited sets of
knowledge that obstruct human freedom by continuously replaying and reifying
the past in the way it is told in the present. Rather, there will be more children
and adults whose understanding of the past and present is informed by access to
the cultural continuities that make it possible to disrupt grand narratives and
master scripts while concurrently providing a fuller rendering of our collective
history.
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4
“RE-MEMBERING” THE JEANES
TEACHERS
To be a teacher in the Jim Crow South demanded a faith in the future and a
belief that education could make a difference in the lives of individual students
and their communities.
Joanne Abel, Persistence and Sacrifice, 2009, p. 120
Some African American leaders still held out hope that at least northern whites
could be turned back from the rising venality of white Americans.
Douglas Blackmon, Slavery By Another Name, 2008, p. 270
. . . [w]hite southerners and politicians were suspicious of any education for
blacks that involved reading, writing, and arithmetic that would lead to black
demands for political equality.
Phyllis McClure, Jeanes Teachers, 2009, p. 19
To dialogue deeply with African cultures means, more than anything else,
using them as a resource rather than as a mere reference. It means communicating
critically and becoming conversant with continental and diasporan African
thought- and practice-traditions that point to new passions and new
possibilities.
Reiland Rabaka, Against Epistemic Apartheid, 2010, pp. 276–277
This chapter illustrates another example of the praxis of Teaching for Freedom.
It uses Afrocentric theoretical concepts and African worldview elements (see
Chapter 1) that “re-member” African American rural school supervisors in the
South, who were called “Jeanes Teachers,” named after Anna T. Jeanes, the
wealthy Northern Quaker philanthropist whose funds partially paid their sal-
aries. This chapter situates the thought and pedagogical practices, community
building work, and teacher training activities of these exceptionally able Black
teachers within the historical reality of how “negro” education has been used to
88 “Re-membering” the Jeanes Teachers
maintain white supremacy (Fairclough, 2007; Watkins, 2001). Although the

Southern white power structure employed Jeanes teachers ostensibly to
“improve” woefully inadequate and often dilapidated “rural negro schools,”
many devised ways to resist the deprivations and depredations of white-
controlled Jim Crow education in their communities (Abel, 2009; Fairclough,
2000). This chapter asks: How was this possible? What ways of being and
knowing, values, virtues, and principles are consistently found in their work?
And how does an African worldview guide us to “read” the African Diasporan
cultural continuity of these Jeanes teachers as an example of the praxis of Teach-
ing for Freedom?
Northern White industrial philanthropists and education agents, who catered
to the ideology of Southern White planter regime’s more overt racism and the
“social consensus” that excluded Black political participation through institu-
tionalized structures of white racial domination, are implicated in the betrayal of
Black aspirations for freedom and advancement through education (Anderson,
1988). For while education was the fervent hope of the masses of the four
million formerly enslaved African Americans, abject impoverishment, the denial
of education altogether, and the systematically intentional provision of sub-
standard education were involved in the re-imposition of white supremacy
upon Black people in the post-Reconstruction Jim Crow South (Fultz, 1995).
There are well-documented accounts of the epic efforts of Black communities
to build, fund, and operate their own schools during and following the Civil
War (Du Bois & Dill, 1911). Following the war, however, state, religious, and
philanthropic involvement in education for African people was ideologically
driven by White interests in social, political, and economic control, not in fos-
tering freedom and self-reliance (Butchart, 1988). Thus, Black women teachers
were paid less than half of what White male teachers earned; schools did not
exist in many rural communities—for Blacks or Whites; and both funding and
educational quality were unequal in every other respect—which violated the
“separate but equal” provision of the 1896 Plessy v Ferguson Supreme Court
decision, the legal framework that normalized segregation and made it manda-
tory as Reconstruction was overturned (Anderson, 1988).
While some Southern Whites believed a “racially separate pedagogy” that
offered a modicum of education for farm and domestic work—“manual arts”—
would prevent Black people from migrating to the cities and reconcile them to
their subordinated status, McClure (2009) observes that wealthy Northern
industrialists and philanthropists, such as John D. Rockefeller, Julius Rosenwald,
and John Slater, among others, “had their own reasons” for endorsing and
financing this type of education for rural Blacks in the South. McClure’s (2009)
observation is worth quoting on this point:
The cotton crop and mills and the railroads in which they had their own
investments were central to the economy of the South. A trained black
“Re-membering” the Jeanes Teachers 89
southern worker would deter any attempts to unionize labor. With the
reformist intensions and a missionary spirit, Northerners threw their
support behind the Tuskegee Institute and the Hampton Institute as the
leading promoters of the type of black education that would help drag the
region out of poverty.
(p. 19)
Situating the Jeanes teachers within this historical, political, economic, and cul-
tural dialectic of domination/resistance is required to pinpoint and then re-
connect the collusion and corrosive power of White Northern philanthropists,
Southern elites and a rampantly racist media to opposing dynamics among the
Black intellectual leadership and Black scholarly activism of this period that
challenged the racial orthodoxy of white supremacy and Black people’s so-
called degeneracy (Butchart, 1988; Du Bois, 1935/1972; Woodson, 1922).
Black intellectuals and educators, including Booker T. Washington, challenged
the ideology of white supremacy by:
contradicting the pervasive message of black degeneracy and criminality.

The Negro as degenerative beast and rapist became an image so destruc-
tive that it had to be altered for the race to make progress. A more pos-
itive reputation for black Americans was needed to defuse some of the
explosive feelings that had built up against blacks since Reconstruction,
especially during the 1890s.
(Norrell, 2005, p. 47)
Carter G. Woodson, W. E. B. Du Bois, Ida B. Wells, Anna Julia Cooper, Booker

T. Washington, and the Jeanes teachers were part of this dynamic (Lemert &
Bahn, 1998; Davidson, 2009; Du Bois, 1897).
Within this complex nexus of powerful white political intransigence,
lethal ideological subjugation, and social terror, the work of the Jeanes teach-
ers—also called “Jeanes supervisors,” “Jeanes agents,” or “Jeanes supervising
industrial teachers”—involved both apparent accommodation and tenacious
covert resistance. Locating the Jeanes teachers as normative Subjects with
Agency at the center of the Jim Crow regime “re-members” and reclaims
their contributions to the Black freedom struggle as heritage knowledge, and
is intended to illuminate other Afrocentric theoretical concepts and African
worldview elements (see Chapter 1) that are recognizable in the pioneering
work of these women, their knowledge of Black cultural strengths, and their
way of being in the world. For example, African Collective Consciousness,
Collective Responsibility, and Self-Determination can also be seen in their
actions. As Chirhart (2013) reports: “Many Jeanes teachers were accomplish-
ing more than educational improvements for African Americans.” In
Georgia:
Those who were members of the National Association for the Advance-
ment of Colored People and the Georgia Teachers and Education Associ-
ation (GTEA) also informed African American communities about the
work, promoted by both organizations, for equal schools and voting
rights. By communicating African American goals at the state and national
level to local communities, many Supervisors served as leaders of the early
civil rights movement during the 1950s.
(Chirhart, 2013, n.p.)
While this conscious definition and demonstration of concern for cultural and
communal well-being on the part of the Jeanes teachers is part of Black cultural
heritage, this legacy has been nearly obliterated from history as well as from our
memory.
Fortunately, there is growing interest in the Jeanes teachers (Fairclough,
2007; Harris & Taylor, 1999; Jones, 1937; Littlefield, 1999; McClure, 2009;
Pincham, 2005; Smith, 1997; Williams, 1981). Moreover, Afrocentric theory
reveals a more complete context for analyzing and interpreting the freedom
implications of their thought and their pedagogical practices. Yet, the expres-
sions of African worldview in the thought and practice of the Jeanes teachers
epitomize persistent contradictions within the Black freedom struggle, particu-
larly with regard to white patronage, control, and influence, and the need to
appease Whites versus maintaining racial dignity and loyalty (Fairclough, 2000).
In numerous articles and books, several theses, oral histories, and other web
resources, the story of the Jeanes teachers typically begins with the altruism of
Northern philanthropists. The concerns of these Northern White elites about
the “problems of Negro education” in the South led them to establish several
funds, including a generous gift of Quaker Anna T. Jeanes, who, in consultation
with Booker T. Washington, scion of “industrial” (that is, vocational or manual)
education for the formerly enslaved, established a $1 million endowment to
improve education in rural Negro schools in the South. This fund paid a
portion of the salaries of Black supervisors—Jeanes teachers—most of whom
were women assigned to supervise and support typically under-prepared and
under-paid Black teachers in country schools in impoverished counties where
the local education authorities elected to use them. The first Jeanes supervisor,
Mrs. Virginia Estelle Randolph, was appointed in Virginia, then others, follow-
ing the model “Henrico Plan” that she developed, were hired in 16 southern
states from 1908 through 1968 (Pincham, 2005). The predominate educational
philosophy envisioned and intended for rural Black schools was not academic
preparation for higher education but the “industrial” Hampton-Tuskegee model
developed by Samuel C. Armstrong and promoted by his “prized pupil” Booker
T. Washington (Anderson, 1988, p. 32). Before examining the “school of
thought” (McClure, 2009, p. 96) and pedagogical practices of the Jeanes teach-
ers and the ways they navigated this contradictory ideological and political
terrain, it is important to connect them to the broader sociopolitical, economic,

cultural, and ideological context that defined the white supremacy racism
regime that circumscribed or denied Black education altogether. Thus, “re-
membering” the Jeanes teachers entails critically examining this broader context
from an African worldview perspective in order to consciously recover and
reclaim what was both African and emancipatory about their thought and their
pedagogical practice.
The Great Fear: “To Prevent the ‘Africanization’ of the South”

In his 1895 Atlanta Exposition Address, when Booker T. Washington advised
Black people to “cast down [their] buckets where they were” in “agriculture,
mechanics, commerce, domestic service,” he articulated the educational philo-
sophy that would inspire Northern philanthropists, assuage white fears, and
define white expectations for Black education for a generation, including the
rural schools and the work of the Jeanes teachers (Williams, 2006, p. 188).
However, this training program for manual labor and domestic work not for
real industrial jobs that were closed to African Americans in the South was con-
troversial from the beginning among the masses of Black people as well as for
leading Black intellectuals like W. E. B. Du Bois and Carter G. Woodson, who
viewed Booker T. Washington’s educational philosophy as an accommodation-
ist obstacle to Black progress (Anderson, 1988; Fairclough, 2000). Scholars also
argue, however, that Washington’s championing of “black self-reliance and
thus, Black people’s capacity for progress contradicted white supremacist ideo-
logy” (Frederickson, 1995, p. 35, emphasis added). Norrell (2005) explains that
Washington’s “Atlanta Compromise” speech merely articulated what was
already the reality of Black political disenfranchisement.
In the Atlanta speech Washington began a sustained challenge to the ugly

images then current in white intellectual and cultural presentations of
beastly, immoral African Americans. The speech represented Washing-
ton’s attempt to counter the presumption on the part of the white South,
and much of the rest of the nation, that in freedom African Americans
had declined in character and morality.
(p. 46)
Thus, Washington believed that Reconstruction, a time when Black people had
been voted into political office, was a failed and futile experiment and the
“industrial model of education was the only way to accommodate Whites”
(Riley, 2002, p. 4).
The racial climate in the United States in 1908 when the first Jeanes teacher
was appointed was defined by what Du Bois described as White people’s “Great
Fear” (Riley, 2002, p. 3) that was manifested in a period of rising white racism,
disenfranchisement, the terror and trauma of lynching, the deadly economic

exploitation of Black people which continued slavery through peonage, and the
system of convict leasing or “slavery by another name” (Blackmon, 2008). The
media popularized the myth of Black people’s inherent criminality and violent
immorality in the popular 1915 film “The Birth of a Nation.” White research-
ers also promulgated the belief in the imminent extinction of the Black popula-
tion as a result of such deviant degenerative racial traits (Muhammad, 2010).
This “mentality,” or arsenal of white power, contrasts with the “race know-
ledge” and Black scholarly activism in the fight against white supremacy, which
included a growing interest in and recognition of “the achievements of blacks
in ancient Africa” (Williams, 2006, p. 134)—another reference to an Afrocen-
tric concept called the “Anteriority of Classical African Civilizations” (see
Chapter 1). Williams argues that through Booker T. Washington’s association
with the sociologist Monroe N. Work, who had in turn been influenced by W.
E. B. Du Bois and Franz Boas, Washington was gradually influenced by this
viewpoint. However, as far as prevalent white sentiment that Northern philan-
thropists and Southern education administrators were both so keen to respect,
little had changed since President Andrew Johnson’s 1867 annual message to
Congress, when he stated that African Americans who had “less capacity for
government than any other race of people,” would “relapse into barbarism” if
left to their own devices (EIJ, 2015, p. 7). Also worth noting is the role of U.S.
philanthropy in the adoption of Tuskegee-style “industrial education,” includ-
ing the use of traveling Jeanes teachers, in rural British colonial and missionary
schools in Africa (Kenya, South Africa, Rhodesia, Uganda, Zambia) and British
Honduras (Berman, 1971; Franklin, 2011; McClure, 2009; Watkins, 2001).
“Thinking Black”: Self-Determination and Freedom as an

Inherent Right
Carter G. Woodson’s fight against white supremacy ideology is evident in a
revealing historical inter-connection between the Afrocentric theoretical
concept of Collective Consciousness, the value of service to others, namely
racial uplift, and Self-Determination, another Afrocentric theoretical concept
demonstrated by both Woodson and the Jeanes teachers. Like the Jeanes teach-
ers, Woodson had received considerable Northern industrial philanthropic
funding to establish and support the Association for the Study of Negro Life and
History and to maintain the publication of the Journal of Negro History—which
were seminal to his campaign for “Negro history” to uplift the consciousness of
both the Black masses and the Black educated class. In spite of his ongoing crit-
ical need for Rockefeller support at the time, he nevertheless resisted all pres-
sure from his White benefactors to “affiliate” his research program and
publications with a “Negro College” that was receiving Rockefeller funding—
adamantly choosing instead to maintain his scholarly autonomy. The common
denominator was Jackson Davis, whose career represented the pattern of white
control of Black education reflecting both Northern interests and Southern
domination over Black lives and opportunities for education. Davis was Virginia
Randolph’s White “boss” when he served as State Superintendent of Schools
and secured Jeanes funding to appoint her as the first Jeanes teacher in Virginia.
Davis “admired the initiative she took in improving her school and organizing
the parents and teachers for community betterment” (McClure, 2009, p. 29).
She also advocated “industrial training” in her first report:
The destiny of our race depends, largely, upon the training children
receive in the schoolroom. . . . The great majority of the children in the
country schools will never reach high school; therefore we must meet the
demands of the schools in the Rural Districts by introducing [industrial]
training in every school room.
(p. 31)
Davis promoted Mrs. Randolph’s teaching approach as a model throughout the

South. By the time of his appointment as Director at the General Education
Board (a precursor of the Rockefeller Foundation) in 1915, the same year
Woodson established the Association, Davis, a proselytizer of the Hampton-
Tuskegee philosophy of manual training for Black people, was considered pos-
sibly the nation’s “leading white authority on black education” (McClure, 2009,
p. 28).
Woodson was at the center of the ideological clash about Black education
and was the target of a sustained campaign to curtail his work. As part of the
pressure Davis and the other foundation officers exerted on Woodson, an
“independent” assessment of the publications produced by the Association for
the Study of Negro Life and History was undertaken—reviewed by some of the
same White historians Woodson’s scholarship criticized. Even though this sur-
reptitious review deemed the Association’s publications “useful,” Rockefeller
funding was withdrawn when Woodson refused their demands to surrender his
independence. According to the historian Darlene Clark Hine (1986), Woodson
asserted: “for a black university to assume a publishing responsibility for the
Journal would amount to a ‘disestablishment of the Association’ ” (p. 419).
It was Davis who delivered the news to Woodson that all the Rockefeller
trusts had agreed that further funding would not be forthcoming unless
Woodson heeded their directive. Previously, however, Woodson had declared
that in the final analysis the work of researching and writing Negro history
“must be done by Negroes . . . who have the advantage of being able to think
black” (Hine, 1986, p. 409). Moreover, while Woodson maintained that Whites
did “not appreciate the feeling, thought, and aspirations of the Negro and there-
fore cannot think black” (Goggin, 1993, p. 131), by the 1930s Woodson also
“argued that black educational institutions were ‘mis-educating’ black students,
failing to teach them about their racial and cultural heritage, but also how to
make a living” (p. 155). Thus, he refused any efforts of White people to control
or guide his research and at the same time his position was that no Black college
was up to the task of supporting the Negro History Movement (Woodson,
1933/1990). Hine states what “Davis reported to his colleagues”:
I made it clear to Dr. Woodson that the Board had invested large sums of
money in these institutions and that it seemed to the officers that the
opportunity and responsibility of the Board was in helping them to
become centers of study and research rather than to build up independent
agencies without institutional connections.
(Hine, 1986, p. 420)
After 1933, no foundations made any contributions to the Association and

Woodson “would not endorse or participate in any projects financed by whites
that he could not control” (Goggin, 1993, p. 111).
Subsequently, Woodson relied almost totally upon the Black community for
financial support—through paid Association memberships, $1 subscriptions pur-
chased primarily by Black teachers, and book sales—to continue his scholarly
and organizing endeavors on behalf of Black people. During the hard times of
the Depression, through economizing, greater efficiencies, outreach efforts, and
creativity, at great personal sacrifice he not only maintained the production
schedule of the scholarly Journal of Negro History, Woodson also began several
new research projects and published the mass-appeal Negro History Bulletin as
well. He broadened his base of support among the Black masses and organiza-
tions, such as the mail carriers union (in his home state of Virginia); he offered
correspondence courses through the Association’s Home Study Department and
teacher training institutes for educators that likely included Jeanes teachers; and
he established chapters of the Association through which he engaged a “mass
audience in the collection and dissemination of source materials for the study of
black history” (Goggin, 1993, p. 118). Woodson also trained and paid salesmen
to sell black history books in a door-to-door campaign across the Deep South
and cities, including Chicago and Philadelphia (Greene, 1996).
“Reading” African Diasporan Cultural Continuities in

Emancipatory Pedagogy Born in Struggle
Woodson’s emphasis on the importance of being able to “think black” in the
interest of Black people’s advancement—that is to say, for freedom as an inher-
ent right—demonstrates agency and self-determination using black history
research and teaching as emancipatory tools for black liberation and to combat
white supremacy. As discussed in Chapter 1, the Afrocentric concept of Sub-
jects with Agency describes African people who “have the will and capacity to
act in and on the world—not only as individuals, but as members of their cul-
tural group.” Likewise, the Jeanes teachers also relied on the Black community
to support their work and, like Woodson, were committed to education and
freedom for the Black masses. Other examples of this community-minded
“black thinking” on the part of the Jeanes teachers will be evident in the exam-
ples of their emancipatory pedagogical practices—a praxis of Teaching for
Freedom that also exemplifies African Diasporan cultural continuities and Afro-
centric theoretical concepts, such as Collective Consciousness, Collective
Responsibility, Subjects with Agency, and Reclamation of Cultural Heritage.
Collective Consciousness: Community-Minded Service to

Others
Historical records of Jeanes teachers reveal Collective Consciousness in their
intergenerational knowing/thinking and “educational and communal values”
(Anderson, 1988, p. 173) on behalf of Black people’s freedom and well-being.
This Collective Consciousness was part of the heritage knowledge bequeathed
to them from formerly enslaved parents and the ideology of “racial uplift” and
memories of freedom that defined post-Reconstruction Black communities.
Whether their families were relatively privileged or impoverished, Jeanes teach-
ers Virginia Randolph, Sarah Delany, and Carrie Thomas Jordan, for example,
were rooted and grounded in an ethos of community-mindedness and a strong
sense of belonging in familial, community, and professional networks that dis-
played African ways of being, knowing, and values that shaped and made their
extraordinarily dedicated professional work as Jeanes teachers possible.
Virginia Randolph, born in 1874 in Henrico, County Virginia, was the
second of four children “of a widowed mother born in slavery” (McClure,
2009, p. 29). She became a legendary Jeanes teacher in her own lifetime. While
Superintendent Davis appointed her as the first Jeanes teacher because he
admired her effective relations with the parents and community and her initi-
ative in improving the school where she worked in neighboring Goochland
County (with so very little material resources), Mrs. Randolph “realized that
she could use the industrial courses [imposed by Northern benefactors and local
Southern education officials] to improve the lives of her students and their
parents, and as a supplement to and not a replacement of the traditional curric-
ulum, while pleasing Superintendent Davis” (Abel, 2009, p. 32). McClure gives
a detailed account of Mrs. Randolph’s methods and the challenges she encoun-
tered working with teachers in 20 Henrico County schools in order to:
instruct them on how to impart skills that would improve the lives and
physical surroundings of poor children. The curriculum incorporated
training in personal hygiene, making schoolrooms clean and attractive,
and learning how to plant and harvest gardens. She was a prodigious
fund-raiser; she collected pennies from parents, solicited contributions

from sympathetic whites, and pled with the Jeanes Fund for extra money.
All cash and donations went to planting trees and gardens, painting class-
rooms, hanging curtains, and opening summer programs. Randolph
organized exhibits of quilts and other items made by students. . . . With
money raised from black families and cajoled out of the county school
board, Randolph worked to provide more years of schooling than the
small primary schools offered.
(McClure, 2009, pp. 31–32)
In 1921, Virginia Randolph purchased three acres of land next to the four-
teacher Rosenwald training school that had been built and named after her.
This land was used for a girls’ dormitory that eventually opened in 1924. She
turned the deed over to the County as required by the Jeanes Fund. Boarding
allowed students who lived too far away to continue their education beyond
primary school.
Sarah “Sadie” Delany, one of the celebrated “Delany Sisters,” was born in
1889 (Delany & Delany, 1993). She grew up with nine brothers and sisters on
the campus of Saint Augustine College where her father, Henry Delany, was
Vice-principal. Although he was born into slavery and he and his family were
freed “with nothing,” they did have certain advantages: they were still together;
he could read; and he learned carpentry skills from his father. Her mother,
whose White father and Black mother could never marry, had been a house
servant and also could read. Henry Delany studied theology on scholarship at
Saint Augustine’s, the school the Methodist Episcopal church had established
for freed men and women. Her mother, Nanny Logan Delany, also a graduate,
taught home economics and domestic science and served as the college
“Matron.” Henry Delany was eventually ordained as a deacon, then a priest,
Archdeacon, and in 1918 rose through the hierarchy to become the first African
American Bishop elected in the (segregated) Episcopal Church in North Caro-
lina. Bishop Delany was active in the promotion of church-based education for
Black people; he helped organize church-affiliated schools throughout the state
of North Carolina; and he was also “one of the few education advocates who
worked to bring educational opportunities to black prisoners in local jails”
(Rupert, n.d.).
Sadie recalls that, on the day she graduated from “St. Aug” in 1910, her
father said: “Daughter, you are college material. You owe it to your nation,
your race, and yourself to go. . . . And if you don’t, shame on you! I have no
money. . . . You must make your own way” (Delany & Delany, 1993, p. 79).
Her father also advised her not to accept any scholarship money, warning that
she would be beholden to the people who gave her the money. This advice is
an example of the attitude of self-determination among the formerly enslaved,
which they passed on to the next generation. So to save money and pay her
own college expenses, she applied and was appointed to a position as a Jeanes
supervisor setting up “domestic science” programs; she also assumed administra-
tive duties and was responsible for rural schools all over Wake County, North
Carolina—with no additional pay or recognition. Such additional duties were
routinely assigned to Jeanes teachers (Tillman, 2004). Though she was accus-
tomed to the amenities of city living in Raleigh, her relatively more privileged
background was not a barrier in her work, as she made trips to visit schools and
boarded with local rural families living in the most impoverished circumstances.
Miss Delany described the conditions she found in the rural schools:
Oftentimes, “school” was held at a church and the children would kneel
on the floor and use the pews as desks. There were usually no facilities to
teach domestic science, so I would borrow someone’s kitchen and once I
got a class started I would hire a teacher to take up where I left off.
(Delany & Delany, 1993, pp. 113–114)
Mrs. Carrie Thomas Jordan, who was appointed as the third Jeanes supervisor
in Durham, North Carolina from 1923–1926, was the daughter of Reverend
Lawrence Thomas, a founder of Morris Brown College and a pastor of Big
Bethel AME, the oldest Black church in Atlanta. A graduate of Morris Brown
College in 1889, she had been a teacher and a principal who was guided by a
racial uplift educational philosophy. Mrs. Jordan is credited with raising money
to build 12 Rosenwald schools and she implemented various educational inno-
vations, including an enriched curriculum based on the State Course of Study
Guide that was intended for White students. This curriculum, which included
the subjects of spelling, geography, and nature study, was intended “to prepare
Black children for a world that neither they nor their community could envi-
sion” (The Artishia and Frederick Jordan Scholarship Fund, n.d.). In her report
to the Division of Negro Education, Mrs. Jordan indicated:
An effort was made to develop in each child a spelling conscience—the

ability to know when a word is spelled correctly or incorrectly; to teach the
use of the dictionary and the need for looking up words when uncertain of
the spelling or meaning of a word. Games and spelling devices were used to
motivate the drill and put life and interest into the spelling class.
(Abel, 2009, p. 75)
Mrs. Carrie T. Jordon documented the ways she helped teachers to improve
classroom instruction, thereby hoping to improve student interest and
attendance:
In order to increase the Black students’ knowledge of geography, Carrie

solicited funds from the Black community and the Black Teachers’
ssociation to purchase maps, globes, and travel magazines which gave

A
her students “an incentive for doing school tasks which they had not had
heretofore.”
(The Artishia and Frederick Jordan Scholarship Fund, n.p.)
She modeled place-based science teaching innovations and project-based geo-

graphy lessons using the local environment. She developed other long-lasting
innovations: commencement programs and rallies to showcase Black students’
academic accomplishments that drew hundreds of parents (Abel, 2009). Engag-
ing students in learning and demonstrating their knowledge of science as related
to the context in which they lived foreshadowed the emancipatory pedagogies
we discuss in Chapters 1 and 2, such as Locating Students, Multiple Ways of
Knowing, and Communal Responsibility.
The Collective Consciousness of these Jeanes teachers, which can be seen in
their community building, was linked to teacher development and improving
instruction through organizing: Parent Teacher Associations, Homemaker’s
Clubs, teachers’ Reading Circles, Parent Unions, Health Clubs, Home
Improvement Associations, Corn Clubs, Pig Clubs, fundraising, teaching in
summer institutes for teachers, and encouraging teachers to complete profes-
sional certification. All these activities are indicative of the epistemology of rela-
tional knowing and the ancestral continuity their lives represented. As Abel
(2009) notes, to do their work, “each Jeanes teacher had to put her teachers,
students, and communities first, pushing the white authorities as far as she
could” (p. 32).
Collective Responsibility: Justice and Interdependence

Linking the Rosenwald Rural Negro School Fund—financed by Sears Roebuck
magnate Julius Rosenwald—and the “industrial education” Jeanes teachers were
responsible for promoting and overseeing was the brainchild of Booker T.
Washington. As Anderson (1988) points out, however, the aim was never to
produce qualified skilled workers for the industrializing South. Rather, the plan
was to further entrench the Hampton-Tuskegee educational approach to
prepare teachers who would instill in the Southern Black population the atti-
tude of acquiescence to the prevailing racial hegemony in the guise of self-
reliance—“convincing them to accept their subordination as a normal and
inevitable fact of life . . . while leaving the door of hope and opportunity ajar”
(Leloudis, 1996, p. 182). John Hope Franklin offered a clear analysis of the
situation:
The collusion was complete as Northern financiers and industrialists reaped

enormous benefits from economic developments in the South. And, if these
Northerners sinned as accessories in stimulating share cropping, peonage,
and convict labor, they did penance by offering pittances to educate the
former slaves in ways that would not be offensive to Southern mores and
predispositions.
(Cecelski & Tyson, 1998, p. x)
Thus, classes in cooking, sewing, and manual training were typically found only
in Black schools supervised by Jeanes teachers. Such “industrial training” was
viewed as a supplement to the curriculum for White schools but as the “ideal
linchpin of black schooling” (Thuesen, 2013, p. 51). Thuesen makes this point:
Industrial lessons taught students to prepare food and clothing for their
families. In cash-strapped tenant and sharecropping families Jeanes teach-
ers schooled children in cooking, sewing, gardening, basketry, shuck mat
making, cobbling, housekeeping, pine straw work, rug making, embroi-
dery, and flower arrangement. In encouraging these skills, many Jeanes
teachers organize Home-Makers’ Clubs, where children worked to grow
corn, can [preserve] produce, raise chickens and pigs, and make pickles
and jellies.
(p. 52)
While the “Rosenwald Fund required its schools to include facilities for such
activities,” however, many Jeanes teachers were not content with limited aspira-
tions for Black children (Thuesen, 2013, p. 51). These Jeanes teachers, who
shared other Black educators’ concerns about the limitations of this approach,
found ways to resist this racialized curricular inequality that “curried the favor
of local whites” by promising “more efficient domestic and agricultural labor-
ers” (Thuesen, 2013, p. 51). Jeanes teachers also took the lead in grassroots
fund-raising to build schools, supplement teachers’ salaries, purchase supplies
and equipment, extend the school term, etc. In harmonious, reciprocal, and
interdependent relationship with impoverished tenant farmers and sharecrop-
ping families who contributed at least a third of the funds needed to build a
Rosenwald school, Jeanes teachers and the rural population took advantage of
cracks in the system to collectively seek more justice.
One Jeanes teacher and her husband, a Black pastor and teacher in Fayette
County, Tennessee, helped to build 20 Rosenwald Schools throughout the
county. What this meant in reality was that Black citizens—ex-slave subsistence
tenant and share-cropping farmers and their children working in the cotton
fields, with contributions from more well-to-do others in their communities—
collectively helped to build these schools. They contributed their labor and
donated building materials and land, mortgaged their property and, as an
example, raised as much as $2,200 of the $3,500 needed for one school. Ander-
son (1988) reports that, in this instance, “the Rosenwald fund donated $500 and
the county public school authorities appropriated $800” (p. 166). By 1928, one
in five schools for Black students across the South was a Rosenwald school.
When the program ended in 1932:
this fund had helped to build more than 4,977 new school facilities, 217
teachers’ homes, and 163 shop buildings . . . at a total cost of $28.5
million. Of that $28.5 million, the Fund donated $4.3 million and local
African-American communities had raised $4.7 million. These schools
served 663,615 students in fifteen southern states.
(National Registry of Historic Places, 2008, p. 11)
In addition to providing more up-to-date facilities to offer more rural students

improved “industrial education,” Rosenwald schools became sites for various
community activities, including theatrical productions, pageants, graduation
ceremonies, Juneteenth celebrations, agricultural exhibitions, extension demon-
strations, church services, and even political activism. For example, Jeanes
supervisor Mrs. Carrie T. Jordan “turned the Rosenwald Schools of Durham
[North Carolina] into organizing tools and community centers” (Abel, 2009,
p. 118). Not only did she elevate academic instruction, as noted above:
She would bring members of various churches, land owners, sharecrop-

pers, tenant farmers, workers in the factories and mills of East or West
Durham together to work for the common goal of improving their chil-
dren’s schools. . . . The schools became centers of community life, where
Moonlight schools [evening schools for adults], Home Makers’ Clubs,
Betterment Leagues, P.T.A.’s, and other community meetings took place.
(Abel, 2009, pp. 119)
Also, according to Abel (2009), some Jeanes teachers “organized cooperatives to

buy land so tenant farmers and sharecroppers could become landowners” (p.
33). In addition, besides emphasizing cleanliness and self-sufficiency, which
might be the most obvious “next needed thing”—as expressed in their motto—
Jeanes teachers also “transformed their students into entrepreneurs” (Gilmore,
1996, p. 161). In North Carolina in 1915:
their Home-Makers Clubs, Corn Clubs, Pigs Clubs involved over 4,000
boys and girls and 2,000 adults in 32 counties. The clubs were intended
to teach farming, of course, but they also enabled poor rural African
Americans to make money on their produce. The students raised more
than $6,000 selling fruits and vegetables that year.
(Gilmore, 1996, pp. 162–163)
During the Depression in the 1930s, growing and preserving home-grown

foodstuffs made vital contributions to family survival. Engaging in these practices
through shared or Collective Responsibility for communal well-being and

belonging was “emancipatory in that their collaborative enactment increase[ed]
justice and right action for African people and the whole of humanity” (see
Table 1.1 in Chapter 1). The evidence for this claim is more visible when
examples of Jeanes teachers’ educational activism are analyzed and interpreted
through the lens of African worldview elements, such as ways their Faith, Crea-
tivity, and community mindedness informed their ethical consciousness and
participation in the Black struggle for Justice (see Figure 1.1 in Chapter 1) under
conditions of overt racial repression, which is discussed next.
Subjects with Agency: Teacher Activism, Struggles for Equity

Demonstrating agency and self-determination within a white supremacy
regime—“to advance within a system designed by white people to stop them
from advancing” (Fairclough, 2007, p. 262)—called forth diligent stratagems.
The nature of the struggle was transparently clear:
it was an unpalatable fact that instead of narrowing, the inequalities

between black schools and white schools widened in the 1920s and 1930s.
Black schools improved but white schools improved more. Every educa-
tional innovation had to be first started in the white schools; a decade or
two then went by before whites considered extending it to black schools.
(Fairclough, 2007, pp. 262–263)
Thus, there is more than irony in the fact that the intended schooling for Black
children living in the most impoverished circumstances—where Black citizens
were doubly taxed by being required to raise their own funds to build badly
needed schools—was not designed for their betterment but to make them better
fitted for permanent exploitation. Worse still, it was also documented that Black
people paid more in taxes than the state (of North Carolina) spent on Black
education, and Black people’s taxes were routinely used to educate White chil-
dren (Gilmore, 1996, p. 159). Whites were encouraged to support this “right
kind of education” for Black people because: “Each year Durham will be sup-
plied with better trained cooks, servants, and housekeepers” (Abel, 2009, p. 69).
In Gender and Jim Crow, Glenda E. Gilmore (1996) observes how Jeanes
teachers attempted to upend and exploit this ideological hegemony using it to
the advantage of the Black community:
While paying lip service to the ideal of producing servants for white
people, black women quietly turned the philosophy into a self-help
endeavor and the public schools into institutions resembling social settle-
ment houses. Cooking courses became not only vocational classes but
nutrition courses where students could eat hot meals. Sewing classes . . .
had the advantage of clothing poor pupils so they could attend school
more regularly.
(Gilmore, 1996, pp. 160–161)
Indeed, in a chapter entitled “Diplomatic Women,” Gilmore argues that the

Rosenwald Negro Rural School Fund gave Black teachers in the state of North
Carolina “what they needed to incorporate social work into the public school
system” (p. 161).
In North Carolina, where Jeanes teachers helped to build the largest number
of Rosenwald schools in any state (412), Whites supported the program because
they claimed it “yielded a more docile and less restless black population” (Abel,
2009, p. 35). Paradoxically, “the Rosenwald Fund rewarded Black self-help”—a
kind of agency, with “white paternalism but discouraged notions of black enti-
tlement” (Abel, 2009, p. 35). In fact, White officials assured the White com-
munity that “the colored people do not expect as much money shall be spent
on their school as is spent on the white school” (p. 35). Less visible are exam-
ples of Jeanes teachers’ tactful but vigorous “push-back” as demonstrated, for
example, when Mrs. Marie McIver was appointed State Supervisor of Negro
Elementary Schools in North Carolina. In 1937, she provided her White super-
visor with her assessment of a primary reader that was being developed specifi-
cally for Black children. Mrs. McIver’s critique of the text, entitled Tobe, which
depicted Black tenant farming families in blatant “blackface” stereotypes, found
its way into the final published version. Not only had she strongly objected to
the representation that “tends to make farm tenancy ideal,” she also noted: “I
would like to call attention to the expression on the face of the father on page
thirty-eight ‘Daddy’s Got a Watermelon’ ” (Abel, 2009, p. 33).
In her account of this example, Abel observes: “While showing respect for her
boss, Mrs. McIver was also true to herself and the community she served” (p. 35).
This tightrope was arguably much more manageable for Black women teachers
than Black men (Fairclough, 2000). The overall stratagem was to use Northern
philanthropy to compel local officials to allocate some funding for Black education
within the limits of the Jim Crow legal framework and White control where none
would otherwise have been made available because the power structure was
engaged in maintaining manifestly separate and unequal conditions. As community
activists, Jeanes teachers, community leaders, pastors, and other Black professionals
joined with the grassroots Black community to extract at least some benefits from
the system. They did this while transgressing the narrow confines of the type of
education provided by the Jeanes program and the Rosenwald Negro Rural
Schools Fund. Abel (2009) describes what the Jeanes teachers knew that enabled
them to breach these parameters in the rural schools of Durham, North Carolina:
When teaching subjects that whites considered industrial education, the

Jeanes teachers knew that they were improving the lives of their students
and their communities. Canning clubs would again become very

important sources of food during the Great Depression. The Jeanes teach-
ers knew that this sort of vocational education was not going to lead to
jobs in the industrializing South, but they played along with the white
Northern funders and state education officials who still believed it was the
best sort of education for African Americans. For Durham’s Jeanes teach-
ers, vocational education was not emphasized.
(Abel, 2009, pp. 117–118)
The Jeanes teachers also held the rural teachers they supervised to high stand-
ards, while encouraging them to attain more education—which was another
way to undermine the edifice of black inferiority upon which the system of Jim
Crow mis-education was constructed. By the 1930s, “industrial education
gradually gave way to a more academic emphasis by Jeanes Supervisors”
(Noland, n.d.). That their agency and various forms of resistance were impactful
is evident, even though it was not in line with the official purpose of the Jeanes
Fund. In 1931, President of the Jeanes Fund Henry Dillard advised Black teach-
ers to “teach academics selectively and not to abandon plain, humble handi-
work” because children “study words too much, and words cause thoughts and
thoughts are what is troubling the world today” (Thuesen, 2013, p. 53). The
examples in the following sub-section further illustrate “troubling thoughts”
(for White people) as seen in the values and ethical principles that Jeanes teach-
ers reclaimed from Black cultural heritage, which sustained them in the struggle
for right action through an emancipatory praxis of Teaching for Freedom that
brought benefit to oppressed Black people on behalf of justice in the world.
Reclamation of Cultural Heritage: In Their Own Words

An oral history and an autobiography of two college-educated Jeanes teachers
who supervised rural segregated schools in North and South Carolina in the
1940s and 1950s present compelling examples—in their own words—of Black
cultural heritage and the African worldview elements they consciously reclaimed
and embodied to aid them in their work. Among these elements are their faith
in God, which allowed them to transcend feelings of hate and anger, and their
close identification with the Black community, including the poor, which can
be understood philosophically in terms of the African ontology of Odù, “gath-
ering together in harmony,” and the epistemology of Ubuntu, or “I am because
we are and because we are, therefore I am” (Mbiti, 1990; Nobles, 1973).
Related elements involve affirming their humanity and ethical consciousness.
As these Jeanes teachers described the anguish and anger they felt when attempt-
ing to respond to grossly unjust educational conditions the teachers and students
experienced in the schools they supervised, their recollections demonstrate these
four examples of reclaiming Black cultural heritage: (1) they consciously called
upon their faith and prayed to God to help them maintain their own humanity and
(2) they relied upon close relations and organizing networks within the Black com-
munity—securing the active engagement of even the most impoverished parents
and community members and partnering with other Black professionals and com-
munity leaders. Thus, being college-educated was not a barrier that set them apart
from poor parents and they used their social standing to gain access to arenas of
power and influence, which they used for the benefit of the community. Further,
as their testimony reveals, (3) consciously re-affirming their own humanity in
dehumanizing situations also enabled them to seek out and garner assistance from
sympathetic White people. In addition, (4) demonstrating ethical consciousness,
consistent with the ideals of Maat, for example, enabled them to embody the
African American cultural legacy of justice as a standard that fosters community
well-being. Each of these Black cultural heritage and African worldview elements
helped these Jeanes teachers to persevere.
Mrs. Lucy Saunders Herring was born into a family of 12 children in 1900 in
Union, South Carolina, where she had limited education opportunities. Even-
tually, earning a master’s degree at the University of Chicago, Mrs. Herring’s
career as a teacher, principal, education consultant, reading specialist, and
award-winning Jeanes supervisor in Harnett County, North Carolina spanned
52 years (Krause, 2005). She started teaching in Ashville in a one-room school-
house at age 16. She died in 1995. Dr. Lela Haynes Session was also born in
South Carolina, in the town of Moncks Corner, in 1921; she died in 2013. Dr.
Session was appointed as a Jeanes teacher in Berkeley County, South Carolina
from 1952–1959. Her outstanding career of leadership in education, her church,
and civic activities were recognized with a tribute that U.S. Representative
James E. Clyburn entered into the Congressional Record on July 25, 1995 (p.
E1508). Mrs. Lucy Herring’s experience recorded in an oral history interview
(Herring, 1977/2001) is presented first, followed by excerpts from Mrs. Lela
Haynes Session’s autobiography (Session, 2012).
Lucy Saunders Herring

Whenever there was an old bus replaced, it went to the black kids, and
the white kids got the new [one]. And the same thing was true of equip-
ment; [we got] desks after . . . the white kids would have them and cut
them up. Well, our people got them; so, we were accustomed to this
kind of second-hand thing. . . . It was painful in Harnett County to see
white kids riding to consolidated schools on nice yellow buses, and black
kids walking to school long distances, and most of them going to cotton
fields when they should have been in school because they were tenant
farmers and they had no choice. The landlord had charge, and if they
stayed on the farms, they had to work. So many of these kids would ride
to the fields, cotton fields and tobacco fields on wagons, and the white
kids were going to school in nice yellow buses. But that’s the thing you
tolerated and worked to improve, and asked God to help you, you know,
to make it, to make conditions better.
. . .
You didn’t feel good over it, but you couldn’t afford to lose your mind
over it, you know what I mean? So, quite often you prayed over it to
keep from losing your temper and from climbing the wall, and that’s the
way we maintained our sanity by not letting ourselves become too emo-
tionally disturbed. We could just pray over that. That has been the salva-
tion of the black man: to pray over a thing, and just work and wait!
. . .
I describe all of this, you see. About the struggle that the black people
have had to get an education. It has been a very rugged path, but there is
something about the black person that is of this kind of endurance; maybe
it’s a part that our forebears passed on to us, this matter of bearing the
burden, of being patient and working on, but still hoping and never
giving up, never despairing of the fact that you will eventually reach your
goal. . . . But it’s a struggle that I guess you just become—you’re not
totally immune to it, but you become reconciled to the fact that God is
not dead and things will eventually change, and it’s that kind of hope,
you see, that’s helped us to go on.
(Herring, July 26, 1977 [2001])
Lela Haynes Session

Some barns were converted into schools . . . with unpleasant odors from
the animals at times. Some of the schools were rooms in churches and
individual homes. The majority of the buildings had no water supply . . .
outside toilets were used.
(Session, 2012, p. 69)
My work as a Jeanes teacher/social worker included finding clothing for

the children and medical supplies. . .
(p. 72)
Some of the teachers had thirty students from grades elementary to high
school in one room.
(p. 74)
Starting their day off with devotion, prayer, scripture, and the pledge of
allegiance to the flag were great therapeutic techniques to cope with the
situation and hope it will change.
(p. 74)
Dr. Lela H. Session also co-signed loans with the local bank for fathers who
were employed cutting trees in the lumber industry but, during rainy weather,
they could not work. Her financial intervention, trusting the families to pay
these debts, made it possible for children to continue to come to school. Also,
Dr. Session acknowledged that she did not experience these conditions in her
own personal life—she attended private school and she admitted she “never
knew the real picture of education in South Carolina” (p. 69). In the passage
below, she shared how confronting these conditions affected her and what she
had to overcome to be effective.
The first and most important hurdle I had to overcome was my personal
anger, disbelief, hurt, and feelings of prejudice mounting within me.
These strong feelings of prejudice inside of me frighten me. I did not
want to hate. But the conditions that the students and teachers had to
cope with made me furious at the governor, senators, congressmen and
school officials in Berkeley County [and] the President of the United
States and everyone who was associated with funding and making deci-
sions about education. I was irate that black people were not voting in
mass crowd[s] and had a little voice in government. I made up my mind I
had to get involved on a larger scale by getting involved in the politics of
education. . . . Flashbacks of [my] mother’s words and sacrifices danced in
my head concerning education. I just gave thanks to a kind and loving
Savior who still had me in the palm of His hand. . . . I prayed and asked
Him to help me not to have hate in my heart and not to let the con-
ditions of my people cloud my judgments to classify all white as
enemies. . . . I ask my Father in heaven to help me not to blame people as
a race but be aware of the state of mind of an individual. My prayer was
to use my strength and wisdom to find solutions and not a moment com-
plaining. These are times you are glad for your favorite scriptures or bible
stories to rely upon for comfort. I know that once my emotional health
was in control and I had a healthy perspective of myself, there was
nothing stopping me from successfully helping mankind.
(pp. 69–70)
Mrs. Lucy Herring likewise emphasized the power of faith and prayer to bolster
her effectiveness in the struggle and her ability to persevere:
You’ve got to have faith; you’ve got to have a vision. You have to have
patience; you have to be tolerant. And my one prayer has been that I
would never hate anybody or anything because that is the thing that will
tear you apart. When you start hating, that’s the time you start destroying
your effectiveness.
(Herring, July 26, 1977 [2001])
Odù/Ubuntu/Ethical Consciousness
The way Mrs. Lucy Herring responded to ethical challenges that she encoun-
tered with both her White supervisor and members of the “Negro school com-
mittee” that she had to work with further demonstrates her commitment to
bringing goodness and well-being to the communities where she labored.
Upholding a standard of excellence in spite of possible risks to her own posi-
tion, she described how she responded when the Superintendent indicated that
he wanted her to terminate and replace teachers who did not hold a state certif-
icate. Instead she used her Black professional network to develop an in-service
training program that included extension courses and summer school opportun-
ities with instructors coming from a nearby HBCU. Mrs. Herring stated what
she told the Superintendent:
I’m not concerned with trying to replace people so much as I am to lift

people and to improve the teachers. Some of them, although they don’t
have degrees, they are doing a good job, and I know it. . . . Some of these
teachers probably, although they have not gone beyond the ninth grade,
have good backgrounds in the basic skills, and with assistance they could
develop into very, very good teachers.
(Herring, August 2, 1977 [2001])
Her explanation seemed to convince the Superintendent and she explained the
results of her approach:
So the point is . . . we got some teachers to go back to school, the young
ones who had just finished the high school which was the ninth grade, and
the standards were not very high. We got them to go back to school; some
went to Fayetteville College, and they did work that was really below the
high school level. Many went back and went through in-service training.
Mrs. Herring also recognized a systemic inequity related to teacher certification

that particularly disadvantaged Black teachers with respect to the problem of
“substandard” and temporary certification:
In Fayetteville, which is in Cumberland County, a much more prosper-

ous county than Harnett, the superintendent there reportedly hired mostly
black substandard teachers in order to avoid paying big salaries, but the
white teachers were paid a different salary. And they would take white
teachers with State certificates, but they took very few black teachers with
State certificates because they didn’t want to pay them that salary.
Mrs. Herring’s commitment to many of the African worldview elements

evident in the Odù Ifá can be seen in her ways of being and knowing, values,
principles, and virtues that are part of the Diasporan African legacy (see Chapter
1). Survival of the Group, Harmony, community-mindedness, Justice, and Faith
(see Figure 1.1 in Chapter 1) are evident in her response to the ethical implica-
tions of a challenge to this worldview: A school committeeman offered her $50
to place a person that he wanted hired into a teaching position (Herring, August
2, 1977 [2001]). It was the responsibility of three-man Trustees or “Negro
Advisory Committees” to recommend teachers to be hired by the County
Superintendent. (See “The Jeanes Teachers: The Women Who Ran the
Schools,” http://durhamcountylibrary.org/exhibits/jeanes/teachers.php, Note
12.) The Maatian Virtue of Propriety in Mrs. Herring’s response demonstrated
her worldview; it was tactful but uncompromising:
“I’m sorry sir. I don’t operate like that! No, you can’t pay me anything! You
couldn’t pay me a $1,000! (I knew she wasn’t qualified). The superintendent
has told me to get qualified teachers—to recommend qualified teachers. I
have recommended a qualified teacher for that place. . . . I would never take
any kind of money for any kind of service! That would be dishonest!”
Dr. Session also emphasized the importance of the community for her teachers’
effectiveness and a lack of such ethical consciousness on behalf of Ubuntu (“I am
because we are”) would have undermined this important cultural legacy: “The
teachers were well respected in the communities. Most lived in the community
where they taught and had an invested interest in the community beyond the
school activities. They had specific roles in the church as Sunday school teach-
ers” (Session, 2012, p. 74).
In sum, these testimonies regarding Reclamation of Cultural Heritage illustrate
Fairclough’s observation about the importance of faith but also the need for
organization, which these Jeanes teachers masterfully and wisely demonstrated:
“The faith of women teachers sustained black schools and strengthened black
communities at a time when white supremacy could not be directly challenged.
But it would require organization, as well as faith, to bring about equality”
(Fairclough, 2007, p. 263). The ongoing struggle of the Jeanes teachers is an
integral part of the Black freedom struggle and was not only for equality of
educational opportunity but for equality with cultural integrity that reflected
elements of their African worldview.
The Legacy of Hope That’s Helped Us To Go On

In this chapter, there are numerous examples of how Jeanes teachers “played
along” with Northern industrial philanthropists and the local white supremacy
power structure to take advantage of whatever opportunities could be extracted

and used for the benefit of the Black community (Abel, 2009). In this sense,
their “hope” represents an epistemic legacy—one that builds on knowing what
is possible when people work together to develop community well-being and
belonging. The Jeanes teachers’ ontological communal focus on Survival of the
Group, Collective Responsibility, and Interdependence should come as no sur-
prise when the African Diasporan cultural legacy and the history of the Black
freedom struggle are considered. Thus, this chapter also demonstrates the
importance of using Continental and Diasporan thought- and practice-traditions
as a resource in the explication of our experience (Rabaka, 2010). The “black
thinking,” or African worldview, in the emancipatory pedagogical approaches
and activism of the Jeanes teachers has been underappreciated, while the cultural
continuities these teachers embody are evident from the perspective of an Afro-
centric theoretical analysis. This chapter identifies the ways of being, knowing,
values, virtues, and principles that are consistently found in their work. The
Maatian Virtues of Truth, Justice, Harmony, Balance, Order, Reciprocity, and
Propriety are reflected in their community building and tenacious resistance
bequeathed to the next generation as the battle against white supremacy and Jim
Crow, which also included the scholarly activism of Carter G. Woodson and
other “black thinking” intellectuals, evolved into the civil rights movement and
took center stage out in the open. “Re-membering” the Jeanes teachers illumi-
nates this legacy of “hope that’s helped us to go on.”
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5
“RE-MEMBERING” CULTURAL
CONCEPTS
By dialoguing with African culture, I mean constantly asking it questions and

seeking from it answers to the fundamental concerns of humankind. More-
over, it is to continuously bring forth from this quest the best of what it means
to be African and human in the fullest sense, speak this special cultural truth to
the world, and use it to make a unique contribution to the forward flow of
human history.
Maulana Karenga, Maat, the Moral Ideal in Ancient Egypt, 2006a, p. 409
Worldview and cultural concepts are evident in what we do. While both are
discussed in each preceding chapter, the idea of their presence in what we do
and how we live our lives is exemplified in Chapters 3 and 4 through the lives
of Harriet Tubman and the Jeanes teachers. These historical figures demon-
strated numerous elements of African worldview (e.g., Collectivity, Interde-
pendence, relational knowing, community mindedness, Reciprocity,
Self-Determination) and embodied African cultural concepts such as the inherent
right of freedom, exhibiting self-determination that considers the needs of the collective,
and demonstrating concern for human welfare through actions based on community mind-
edness and service to others (Anyanwu, 1981a; Bennett, 1975; Gyeke, 1997;
Karenga, 2006b; King & Swartz, 2014). The cultural concepts they embodied—
which are consistently held patterns of thought and observable manifestations
and expressions of their African worldview—brought change into a world that
was out of order and out of balance through centuries of enslavement, denial of
opportunities, and exploitation of one segment of the population by another. In
this chapter, we explain and exemplify not only how the divergent worldviews
and cultural concepts people hold have informed and shaped historical events,
but how they have informed and shaped (and can shape) the ways in which we
“Re-membering” Cultural Concepts 113
teach about those events. When practitioners of Teaching for Freedom invite
students to gain knowledge through the lens of cultural concepts, all events and
actions become more than mere historical occurrences; they are made meaning-
ful by teaching that illuminates the worldviews and cultural concepts of the
people involved and how they lived their lives. Since these concepts endure
across time and place, teachers can guide students to use them in the present.
Then, learning about Harriet Tubman, the Jeanes teachers, and other people
and events becomes a way for teachers, students, and families to experience cul-
tural continuity by using cultural concepts in their own communities, such as
sharing responsibility for communal well-being and belonging and pursuing freedom and
justice as communal responsibilities. As Mutombo Nkulu-N’Sengha (2005) states:
“The ontological and cosmological dimensions of African knowledge imply also
that knowledge is not a mere language game or a pure dialectical entertainment.
Knowledge is active. Indeed, it is action!” (p. 43). The Afrocentric praxis of
Teaching for Freedom incorporates this idea of knowledge as action by modeling
how to engage teachers, students, and families with democratized content and
emancipatory pedagogies that recognize culture as an interactive medium in
which worldview and cultural concepts that have steadily informed and shaped
people’s actions in the past can be used to shape people’s actions in the present.
Cultural Concepts: Disconnected or “Re-membered”

Compared to Teaching for Freedom, the fate of cultural concepts is different in
mainstream schooling. There, cultural concepts—if they are acknowledged at
all—are disconnected from content and pedagogy, and what and how we teach
appears universal as if conceived outside of culture. For example, cultural con-
cepts such as competition as essential to making progress, achievement understood as
excelling above others, and expecting and accepting a certain amount of student failure are
rarely acknowledged as the consistently held patterns of thought that shaped and
maintain the school practices of assessing what is taught with high-stakes stand-
ardized testing and tracking students based on test results (Au, 2009; Hilliard,
1989, 1997; Kumashiro, 2008; Meier, 1994). Thus, these cultural concepts—
which are observable manifestations and expressions of a European worldview
in which Competition and Survival of the Fittest are predominant ways of
being—are decoupled from the educational practices they have shaped (Akbar,
1984; Dixon, 1971; Nobles, 1976). Teachers transmit content, students compete
for “right” answers, and it is accepted that some students will fail as if these
practices are normal and inevitable. However, these practices are not normal or
inevitable; they were shaped by cultural concepts that express a particular
worldview. Developed and refined over time, their impact on mainstream
schooling affects all of our children. Yet, these omnipresent cultural concepts
and their links to educational practices are virtually invisible—like the air we
breathe.
114 “Re-membering” Cultural Concepts
There are, of course, from within different worldview perspectives, other

ways to view knowledge and knowing, which as we will show in this chapter
have implications for what and how we teach. Cultural concepts such as knowing
as a communal experience in which everyone has something to contribute and inquiring
(the acknowledgment of not knowing) as a source of true knowledge are observable
manifestations of an African worldview in which Collectivity, Cooperation,
relational knowing, and symbolic imagery (use of proverbs, gestures, rhythms,
metaphors, and affect) are predominant ways of being (Akbar, 1984; Dixon,
1971, 1976; Fu-Kiau, 2001; Nobles, 1976; Nkulu-N’Sengha, 2005). These cul-
tural concepts—and the content and pedagogies they shape—are absent in
mainstream schooling due to the devaluation of all things African (Asante,
2007). Thus, whether invisible due to being omnipresent or to being devalued,
cultural concepts are disconnected from mainstream educational practices,
which makes the meaning of these practices difficult to identify and changing
them even more difficult.
When teachers use cultural concepts to “re-member” content and peda-
gogy—that is, when culture becomes a medium for interaction around what
knowledge and teaching mean—the school experience can produce cultural
continuity for all groups of students. Such cultural continuity does not currently
exist. For example, teaching about African people in the Americas typically
begins with enslavement. Yet, when students are taught about European people
in the Americas, they learn, with increasing depth over the years, about the
history and heritage that Europeans brought with them to the Americas. The
history of European people does not begin with the late 15th century arrival of
the Spaniards in the Caribbean or with the arrival of Portuguese, Dutch, British,
French, or any other Europeans. While the worldview and cultural concepts
underlying this narrative of European history and heritage are typically not
acknowledged and are therefore invisible, and while this narrative is sanitized
due to omissions and distortions, learning about Europeans in the Americas does
involve some degree of continuity across time and place. However, in main-
stream content, there is no similar experience of African Diasporan cultural con-
tinuity, which can only happen if students learn, with increasing depth over the
years, about the history and heritage that African Peoples brought with them
(see King & Swartz, 2014, p. 53, for a detailed explanation of the use and
capping of “Nations” and “Peoples”). Their history also does not begin in the
Americas, with the kidnapping and forced deportation of Kôngo, Akan, Igbo,
Yoruba, Fon, Hausa people or people from other African Nations to the Amer-
icas—or even with the much earlier pre-Columbian African presence (Diop,
1967; Hall, 2005; Hayes, 2008; Van Sertima, 1976; Wiener, 1922). Nor does
African people’s history begin with the presence of free African people in
Europe (Freeman, 2005; Horne 2014). The history of African people begins
with humanity’s origins and thousands of years of African heritage and cultural
production. If this knowledge were included in the curriculum, learning about
Africans in the Americas would also involve some continuity across time and
place. With the devaluation of all things African, however, access is blocked to
the worldview and cultural concepts that foster African Diasporan cultural con-
tinuity, which therefore remains limited and in most classrooms non-existent.
Yet, as we show in this chapter and Chapter 6, cultural concepts can be identi-
fied in the actions of African people and their descendants who brought con-
cepts to the Americas such as the inherent right of freedom, perceiving the
interconnectedness of all life including the unseen world, the authentic authority of elder-
ship, and knowing that cultural sovereignty is a common right of all Peoples. When
diverse cultural concepts are “re-membered” with content, that is, re-connected
with the actions and events they shaped—and with the pedagogy used to teach
about those actions and events—teachers and students can access meaning and
experience cultural continuity that foster agency and action in their lives.
Dysconsciousness in the Anglosphere

In addition to blocking meaning and cultural continuity, obscuring the world-
views and cultural concepts that shape and maintain eurocratic school policies
and practices produces a narrow cultural field that leads to dysconsciousness or
uncritical habits of mind (King, 1991). From the colonial period to the present,
European worldview and cultural concepts have shaped the content and ped-
agogical practices of public, private, and religious educational systems in the
Anglosphere. This relationship between worldview, cultural concepts, content,
and pedagogical practices, which we introduced above, is further developed in
Figure 5.1 and the narrative that follows it.
Figure 5.1 presents some elements of European worldview, several cultural
concepts, and mainstream content and pedagogical practices shaped and main-
tained by those worldview elements and cultural concepts. In this figure, Euro-
pean worldview includes Competition, Individualism (a way of being that raises
the needs of individuals above the collective), excessive reliance on the scientific
method as authoritative knowledge, a hierarchy of human worth, and only the
strong survive. Over time, people holding these worldview elements developed
and manifested cultural concepts such as valorizing individual versus group identity,
teaching as the transmission of agreed-upon information, achievement understood as excelling
above others, expecting and accepting a certain amount of student failure, perceiving mistakes
as negative and leading to loss, and distributing resources by status/rank (Akbar, 1984;
Baldwin & Hopkins, 1990; Boykin, 1986; Dixon, 1971; Kliewer & Fitzgerald,
2001). In turn, these cultural concepts shape and maintain content and pedago-
gical practices, such as sanitized eurocratic content, transmission pedagogy, stand-
ardized assessments, and a hierarchal system of tracking (Au, 2009; Meier, 1994;
Swartz, 2007, 2012). These practices require individual students to compete with
each other by taking in and successfully (more than others) giving back agreed-
upon information and ideas that are transmitted to them by authorities (e.g.,
European Worldview Elements*

• Competition and Individualism (ontological orientations)
• Excessive reliance on the scientific method and authoritative
knowledge that is defined as European (epistemological orientations)
• Hierarchy of human worth; only the strong survive (values)
Cultural Concepts as Outcomes of European Worldview

• Valorizing individual versus group identity
• Teaching as transmission of agreed-upon information
• Achievement understood as excelling above others
• Expecting and accepting a certain amount of student failure
• Perceiving mistakes as negative and leading to loss
• Distributing resources by status/rank
Mainstream Content and Pedagogical Practices

• Sanitized eurocratic content
• Transmission pedagogy
• Standardized assessments
• Tracking
FIGURE 5.1 European Worldview, Cultural Concepts, and School Practices.

Note
* Worldview is a cultural framework that endures across time and influences everything that people
who share a cultural heritage produce.
teachers, texts, state standards). Each student’s individual worth is then measured
by statistically driven standardized assessments (constructed and justified through
the scientific method) that are based on the ubiquitous bell curve, which concur-
rently “requires” and explains poor performance, guarantees failure, and claims to
represent natural laws of distribution that do not exist (Fendler & Muzaffar, 2008;
Oakes, Wells, Jones, & Datnow, 1997). These high stakes assessments sort stu-
dents in a system of tracking, with the “best” students valued as worthy of receiv-
ing more educational benefits (e.g., higher expectations, advanced/enriched
curricula, opportunities for critical thinking and active learning). Achievement
outcomes on these assessments are claimed to be the result of individual effort,
even though student scores are predicted by race and class (Au, 2009; Berliner &
Biddle, 1995; Oakes, 1985). Standardized assessments and tracking—even though
they distribute educational benefits unequally—are dysconsciously viewed as reas-

onable by many educators and the public, since they are based on culturally
embedded assumptions that transmitting information is an effective way to learn,
that a certain amount of student failure is to be expected (and therefore accepted),
that achievement and progress require excelling above others, and that sorting and
tracking students into a performance hierarchy mirrors the supposed “natural” bell
curve of intelligence.
Within this worldview—and its related cultural concepts—let’s look at an
example of curricular content and how it is taught. In 1898, the U.S. annexed
Hawaii, which occurred against the will of its people and its leaders who resisted
in defense of their sovereignty (Liliuokalani, 1898; Schamel & Schamel, 1999).
The actions of U.S. leaders were informed by their worldview that included
Survival of the Fittest (ontological orientation), excessive reliance of authority
(epistemology), and might makes right (value) as seen in the cultural concepts
they embodied, such as viewing cultural sovereignty as only the right of “advanced”
cultures (the fittest) and gaining imperial possessions (through the use of authority
and might) as descriptive and determinant of a country’s worth (Akbar, 1984; Nobles,
1976; P. J. Williams, 1991; W. A. Williams, 2007/1980).
Transmission pedagogy is typically used to teach content about the annexa-
tion of Hawaii (and other social studies topics) in preparation for standardized
and other assessments that compare students with each other. These assessments
are competitions that view progress as increasing the number of students who
excel (above others). However, since standardized, norm referenced assessments
(which are now attached to most subject areas and grade levels) are designed to
produce a certain amount of failure (bell curve), there is a limit on the expected
amount of excellence—and therefore a limit on teachers’ expectations. In terms
of content, notice that the sanitized agreed-upon state knowledge about the
annexation of Hawaii—as seen in standardized state assessments—mirrors the
same worldview and cultural concepts exhibited in the annexation itself. One
New York State Regents exam referred to the annexation as imperialism, yet in
no way contested it, thereby presenting U.S. imperialism as an acceptable way
of interacting with other sovereign Nations (NYS Board of Regents, 2006).
Another New York State Regents exam asked students to describe the historical
circumstances that led the United States to expand by acquiring two territories
(suggested territories are Ohio River valley, Louisiana Territory, Florida, Texas,
Oregon Territory, California, Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico), and to “discuss
the positive and/or negative effects of these acquisitions on the United States”
(NYS Board of Regents, 2014, p. 11). Stating that 1) there is something pos-
itive about taking over other People’s sovereign Nations; 2) referring to sover-
eign lands as territories—which implies empty land devoid of Nations, with
their social, political, and economic structures; and 3) the absence of asking
about the effects of these “acquisitions” on Hawaii or other “acquired” territ-
ories reproduce the value of might makes right and assumes that only
“advanced” cultures like the United States (the fittest) have the right to cultural
sovereignty. Imperial actions presented as a way of “expanding” territory, and
state assessments and transmission pedagogy that echo a might makes right
worldview are all rendered normative by reflecting the ubiquitous yet invisible
European worldview and cultural concepts that shaped and maintain them.
Together, mainstream content and pedagogical practices have resulted in a
school experience of programmed dysconsciousness or uncritical habits of
mind (King, 1991). After 12 or more years of this programming, most stu-
dents accept as normative and given such societal practices and outcomes as
the pursuit of unlimited wealth, past and present economic exploitation, and
vast inequalities in income and health care; U.S. imperialism and political,
economic, and military intervention in other countries; environmental abuse
and poisoned air, water, and food supplies; a linear view of progress that
obscures or marginalizes knowledge and achievements preceding the rise of
the Western world; the privatization of public spaces, including schools; and
ongoing wars, surveillance, mass incarceration, and state violence in the name
of national security (Alexander, 2012; Ayers, 2014; Bittman, 2012; Bullard &
Wright, 2012; Chomsky, 2013a & b; Davis, 2014; Engelhardt, 2015; Hedges,
2014; King & Akua, 2012; Klein, 2014; Mills, 1997; Parry, 2014; Pierce,
2014; Ravitch, 2013; Waln, 2014).
Widening the Cultural Field

In response to the culturally skewed character of content and pedagogy—and
the dysconsciousness they produce in U.S. schools and in the general society—
we suggest drawing worldview elements and cultural concepts from beyond the
Anglosphere. Let’s look at two examples, one related to education and the other
related to the environment. In the United States, educators have advocated the
practice of cooperative learning and environmentalists have advocated an end to
the irresponsible extraction of fossil fuels and other natural resources—the
former to reap the benefits of communal learning and the latter to reduce harm
to life on the planet (Johnson & Johnson, 1985; Klein, 2010, 2014; Slavin,
1983, 1987). However, the support needed to make such practices effective
does not exist in the European worldview that predominates in the societies
where these educators and activists labor. In fact, the success of cooperative
learning and environmental well-being is compromised by this worldview, with
its ontological orientations of Competition and Domination over Nature, epis-
temological orientation of excessive reliance on authority, and a value such as
only the strong survive. Over time, people holding these worldview elements
have manifested and expressed them through cultural concepts (e.g., competition
as essential to making progress; nature as hostile, alien, and needing to be controlled) that
in turn shape and maintain isolated learning and destructive environmental
practices.
Traditional African and Indigenous worldview elements and cultural con-

cepts would better support the above changes sought by educators and environ-
mentalists (Cajete, 1994; Dixon, 1971; Hall, 1994; Karenga, 1999, 2006b;
Simpson, 2011). These elements include 1) ontological orientations such as Col-
lectivity (the well-being of the group supersedes the needs of individuals who
benefit because the group benefits), Wholeness (all life viewed as one intercon-
nected phenomenon), Interdependence (self is constructed in the context of
reciprocal interactions with others), and Harmony (a natural rhythm and move-
ment that exists among all living things); 2) epistemological orientations such as
relational knowing (learning from reciprocal interactions), symbolic imagery,
and intuition-reasoning (learning from heart-mind knowledge, which are
together not separate); and 3) values such as community mindedness, equanim-
ity, and right action (Abímbólá, 1976a; Anyanwu, 1981a & b; Boykin, 1986;
Cajete, 1994; Dixon, 1971, 1976; Gyekye, 1987; Ikuenobe, 2006; Mohawk,
1993; Nkulu-N’Sengha, 2005; Nobles, 1976; Shenandoah, 1988; Simpson,
2011). It follows that people holding a worldview that includes Collectivity,
Cooperation, relational knowing, and community mindedness express this
worldview through a cultural concept such as knowing as a communal experience in
which everyone has something to contribute; and that this worldview and cultural
concept would support an educational practice such as cooperative learning.
Likewise, it follows that people holding a worldview that includes Harmony,
Wholeness, intuition-reasoning, and equanimity express this worldview through
a cultural concept such as perceiving the interconnectedness of all life including the
unseen world; and that this worldview and cultural concept would support a
movement attempting to protect the planet. However, in our current situa-
tion—with traditional African and Indigenous knowledge marginalized in the
academic literature, virtually absent in school knowledge, including teacher
preparation, and well below the radar in the knowledge base of most people—
the worldview and cultural concepts that could transform school and other soci-
etal practices remain inaccessible at best and hidden or distorted at worst.
Cultural Concepts
We have already referred to a number of African cultural concepts in this
chapter. Table 5.1 below lists these and other African cultural concepts discussed
throughout this volume. This list, while partial, offers a number of concepts
drawn from consistently held patterns of traditional African thought—practiced
over centuries—that are alternatives to the cultural concepts that have produced
and maintain the programmed school experience of dysconsciousness described
above. The African cultural concepts listed in Table 5.1—and referred to
throughout this volume—are known through their practice, since they have
been consistently enacted and refined across time and location by African people
in ways that express their worldview. In this sense, cultural concepts represent
TABLE 5.1 African Cultural Concepts*
1 sharing responsibility for communal well-being and belonging

2 perceiving the interconnectedness of all life including the unseen world
3 the inherent right of freedom
4 the inherent worth of all humans
5 being responsible to bring good into the world through actions that are ethical, just, generous,
compassionate, and peaceable
6 pursuing freedom and justice as communal responsibilities
7 pursuing knowledge as inseparable from pursuing wisdom
8 love, dignity, and decency as shared by all
9 the authentic authority of eldership
10 knowing as a communal experience in which everyone has something to contribute
11 inquiring (the acknowledgment of not knowing) as a source of true knowledge
12 knowing that cultural sovereignty is a common right of all peoples
13 exhibiting self-determination that considers the needs of the collective
14 gaining knowledge for the purpose of bringing goodness, harmony, and balance into the
world
15 demonstrating concern for human welfare through actions based on community mindedness
and service to others
16 sharing freedom as a human entitlement
17 protecting childhood as a collective responsibility (each child is everyone’s child) and
18 viewing nature as whole and complementary (not contradictory), including the material and
social worlds
Notes
* See Abímbólá, 1976a; Anyanwu, 1981a & b; Aptheker, 1951/1969; Asante, 2009; Bennett, 1975;
Boakye-Boaten, 2010; Fu-Kiau, 2001; Gyeke, 1987; Ikuenobe, 2006; Karenga, 1999, 2005,
2006a & b; Nkulu-N’Sengha, 2005; Senghor, 1964; Tedla, 1995; and Waghid, 2014.
an African mode of existence that is communal and recognized by African

Diasporan people throughout the world.
Worldview: Central Tendencies of Cultural Groups

If educators are going to widen the cultural field by using cultural concepts
from beyond the Anglosphere—such as those in Table 5.1—we need to under-
stand how these concepts are related to specific conceptions of the world called
worldview. Examining culture through the worldview of its members, however,
has raised concerns by some scholars that to do so reifies and essentializes culture
by ignoring individual and intra-cultural differences (Allwood, 2011; Davidhe-
iser, 2008; Hwang, 2011). These concerns rightly exist given the well-
documented deployment of categorical schema by Europeans and their
descendants who—over the last several centuries—have essentialized race and
culture by developing entire branches of science and using other disciplines to
institutionalize overgeneralizations and stereotypes like viewing colonized and
subjugated groups as less evolved and pathological and their oppressors as more
advanced and virtuous (Blaut, 1993; Gould, 1981; Mills, 1997; Rodney, 1982;
Shields, 2004; Wilder, 2013). Thus, discussing European, African, Indigenous,
Asian, or other worldviews may be discomforting to those who read the discus-
sion as a rigid and totalizing representation of cultures and world regions. The
scholars of worldview we cite throughout this volume identify diverse world-
view characteristics as consistently observed in cultural concepts and practices
over time, but make no claim that these characteristics are held in common or
to the same degree by all members of any culture or society or that they are
biologically based. Instead they suggest that cultures have observable central ten-
dencies, and that knowledge of these tendencies is useful in understanding the
ideas, productions, and practices of specific cultures and world regions. One
example may suffice.
The idea and phrase “survival of the fittest” originated in a European
context. Englishman Herbert Spencer (1864) coined the phrase to further
describe the concept of natural selection, which was part of the evolutionary
theory presented by Charles Darwin (1859) (also an Englishman). This phrase
was used later by Darwin (1869) in his fifth edition of On the Origin of Species.
Survival of the fittest soon became an economic and biological construct—as
well as a social theory, as seen in Social Darwinism—that since then has influ-
enced the work of European and European-identified scientists and philoso-
phers (Mills, 1997; Williams, 2000). In diverse disciplines, “survival of the
fittest” has been used to describe the actions of individual members of a group
or species competing to survive, that is, competing at the levels of individual
and group fitness (von Sydow, 2014). Thus, it was in British thought and prac-
tice that an idea like “survival of the fittest” had resonance and took root, not in
Yoruba or Haudenosaunee or Bântu-Kôngo or Lakota thought and practice. In
these and other traditional African and Indigenous societies one is more likely
to find an idea like Survival of the Group, in which the group is seen as the
source of everyone’s strength, with individual well-being depending on group
survival. For example, in various African cultures, this way of being or onto-
logical orientation is a central tendency aptly described by John Mbiti (1990) in
this way: “I am, because we are; and since we are, therefore I am” (p. 106). As
part of worldview, Survival of the Group is expressed in African and Indigenous
cosmological assumptions, philosophies, and observable practices of communal-
ism that are still evident today (Anyanwu, 1981b; Gyekye, 1987, 1998; Grande,
2004; Fayemi, 2009; Fu-Kiau, 2001; Simpson, 2011; Waghid, 2014).
Bear in mind that to identify varying worldview elements and cultural con-
cepts in Ewe and Songhoy cultures or the continent of Africa, in Nishnaabeg
and Cherokee cultures or the Indigenous continent of the Americas, or to do
the same in Britain, Germany, or the continent of Europe, is a heuristic frame-
work for exploring the central tendencies of those cultures and world regions.
Worldview is a dynamic concept and individuals and intra-cultural groups are
not bound by it—only to live and work in ways determined by the predomi-
nant worldview tendencies in their culture (Gyekye, 1997). We suggest that
eurocratic (and eurocratic-thinking) scholars who continue to levy the charge of
essentialism in order to deny the validity of identifying a group’s shared world-
view and cultural concepts have dysconsciously accepted European worldview
elements and cultural concepts as given. Thus, Individualism (a way of being),
excessive reliance on authority (a way of knowing), only the strong survive (a
value), and competition as essential to making progress (a cultural concept) are simply
normative within this worldview—as long as these worldview elements and cul-
tural concepts go unnamed. Once named and viewed in comparison to African
and Indigenous worldview and cultural concepts, eurocratic scholars (as self-
proclaimed referees) cry an essentialist foul. Thus, attempts to understand cul-
tural differences as more than idiosyncratic are rejected by those who
dysconsciously accept a European worldview and cultural concepts as norm-
ative, not only for themselves and their descendants, but for all others.
All Worldviews Are Not the Same

The central tendencies of African and European worldviews—and the cultural
concepts that are observable manifestations and expressions of each worldview—
can be examined side-by-side, with each providing examples that fit its cultural
context. However, that is where their equivalence ends. That which is African
predates that which is European by millennia, which means that the former—
while denigrated for the past 500 years by the latter—has a much longer trajectory
of evolving its cultural concepts and practices (Akbar, 1984). For example, the
African concept of perceiving the interconnectedness of all life including the unseen world
(#2 in Table 5.1) is found in a trove of African philosophies, cosmologies, and
spiritual practices that are thousands of years old (Abímbólá, 1976a & b; Anyanwu,
1981a & b; Karenga, 1999, 2006a & b). Only since the early to mid-20th century
has “modern” science, in the form of quantum physics, proposed and sought to
verify that all living things are an integrated whole—that there is an “unbroken
wholeness of the totality of the universe” (including its observers) that forms a
web of life sustained by nature (Bohm, 1980, 1989, 1990; Bohm & Hiley, 1975,
p. 103; Capra, 1996, 2007; S. Goodwin, personal communication, November,
12, 2005; Wolf, 1981/1989, 2011). Maulana Karenga (2006b) describes the
African cultural context from which perceiving the interconnectedness of all life including
the unseen world, sharing freedom as a human entitlement, and other cultural concepts
have evolved:
It is Africans who stood up at the dawn of human history and spoke the
first human truth, searching intently for the meaning and motion of
things. It is they, too, who in the quest to understand what it is to be
human first defined humans as bearers of divinity and dignity. Moreover,
it is Africans who first insisted on the interrelatedness and oneness of

being, the sacredness of life, and the integrity of the environment. It is
Africans who first advocated freedom for the oppressed, justice for the
wronged and injured, and cooperative harvesting and sharing of the
world’s good for everyone.
(p. 248)
Thus, it is Africans who first developed these cultural concepts and introduced
their outcomes to the world, which were either taken in part by others such as
the Greeks who studied philosophy as well as advanced science and mathemat-
ics in Kemet or “rediscovered” later—as in quantum physics—through different
epistemologies (Bernal, 1987; Diop, 1967, 1985; Hilliard, 1995). In either case,
examining available knowledge with integrity makes accurate scholarship pos-
sible, which is necessary to identify sources that have long been obscured or
denied. Our point here is that being the known source of a concept and prac-
ticing and refining it longer than others suggests that all worldviews and what
they produce are not the same, that is, are not equivalent in the depth of know-
ledge they offer and the guidance they can provide to transforming educational
systems.
Using Other Worldviews and Cultural Concepts

While we are presenting the praxis of Teaching for Freedom as a model based
on African worldview, cosmologies, philosophies, and cultural concepts, this
does not preclude other worldviews and what they provide from being used in
this praxis. Vietnamese culture offers an example related to its concept of self
and the relationship of self to others and the natural environment. In the Viet-
namese language, there are several words for the personal pronoun “I”—each
referring to one’s relationship with others based on factors such as age, gender,
status, kinship, formality, feelings, and attitude (Nguyễn Vũ Hoàng, 2009). For
example, tôi (“I”) is used in polite speech to establish a relationship of willing-
ness to be of service to another; tao (“I”) is used when talking to a family
member; ta (“I”) is used when the speaker has higher status; and mình (“I”) is
used in an intimate relationship, such as between a husband and wife (Berrigan
& Nhat Hanh, 1975; Nguyễn Vũ Hoàng, 2009). In other words, there is a rela-
tional cultural concept within the Vietnamese language—one that guides indi-
viduals to establish their specific connection to others during communication.
This reflects a worldview in which people are understood as interdependent,
and a related cultural concept of self as defined in relation to others.
Similarly, in the Buddhist tradition, Thich Nhat Hanh (2001, 2008), who is
a Zen Master, Vietnamese spiritual leader, peace activist, and author explains
that there is no separation between oneself and the social or natural environ-
ment. In this volume’s Chapter 2, Leopold Senghor (1964) explains the same
concept of identifying “with the Other” (p. 73)—whether person or object—an

experience of commonness and connection. Both men’s worldview is informed
by the ontological orientation of Wholeness in which all life is viewed as one
interconnected phenomenon. Their cosmological assumption is that the world
is complementary, without dualities or fixed opposites that separate each of us
from what and who we observe and experience. Thich Nhat Hanh (2008)
claims that “[t]he environment is you” (p. 17), meaning that there is a recipro-
cal relationship in which you create the environment and it creates you. Breath-
ing in and breathing out is the way he describes how you are continuously in
both places—how you are the environment and the environment is you. His
call for mindfulness and a “collective change of consciousness” (2008, p. 20) to
avoid planetary destruction draws upon Vietnamese cultural concepts in Bud-
dhism such as unconditional love for all beings (Nhat Hanh, 2001, p. 69) and the
connection and continuity between all that exists and has existed. The way in which
the Vietnamese language conceptualizes our individual selves in relation to
others and the ways in which Buddhist practice views human relations with the
social and natural worlds suggest that Vietnamese culture offers cultural concepts
that—when “re-membered” with democratized content and emancipatory ped-
agogies—can also be used to transform mainstream school practices.
Learning Through Heritage Knowledge and Cultural Knowledge

The Afrocentric praxis of Teaching for Freedom is an inclusive model of demo-
cratic praxis with the capacity to bring knowledge and examples of African as
well as other People’s cultures into the school experience. The worldviews and
cultural concepts of each culture exist in the heritage knowledge or group
memory of its members (Clarke, 1994; King, 2006). Thus, all cultures have her-
itage knowledge that “holds” cultural legacies and patterns that can inform what
is taught and how it is taught. Let’s return to Harriet Tubman for a moment,
and take a closer look at how teachers and students can gain knowledge about
the African worldview and cultural concepts at the foundation of her emancip-
atory actions. Her worldview included Collectivity, Collective Responsibility
(contributing to the well-being of the group), community mindedness, and
Justice, which shaped the cultural concepts she embodied (e.g., the inherent right
of freedom, pursuing freedom and justice as communal responsibilities, demonstrating
concern for human welfare through actions based on community mindedness and service to
others). Tubman’s worldview and cultural concepts, which were part of her heri
tage knowledge or group memory, were experienced and practiced by her
ancestors (Ikuenobe, 2006; Gyekye, 1997; Karenga, 1999, 2006b). Her African
Diasporan cultural community had developed and practiced philosophies of
communalism, values of right action and equanimity, and cultural concepts such
as those above as well as sharing freedom as a human entitlement, and perceiving the
interconnectedness of all life including (ancestors in) the unseen world, which Tubman
called upon during her numerous journeys to freedom and her role as an army
scout (Anyanwu, 1981a & b; Fu-Kiau, 2001; Karenga, 2006b; Nkulu-N’Sengha,
2005).
Teachers can have access to students’ heritage knowledge that includes the
worldview, philosophies, cosmologies, and cultural concepts within their
culture(s). As teachers and students learn about or recover content about histor-
ical figures, events, cultural concepts, and accomplishments within their families
and cultural communities, this content expands their heritage knowledge. When
teachers and students learn about the worldviews, philosophies, cosmologies,
cultural concepts, and content of cultures other than their own, the knowledge
they gain is called cultural knowledge. Thus, when students of African ancestry
learn about Harriet Tubman they are building on and expanding their heritage
knowledge, while other students are gaining cultural knowledge. The know-
ledge that all students gain is not only about what Tubman did, but about her
worldview and the cultural concepts that are a foundation for her actions.
Figure 5.2 below shows how African cultural concepts that informed Harriet
Tubman’s actions come from specific worldview elements; and how these
worldview elements and cultural concepts shape the development of emancip-
atory pedagogies. Along with “re-membered” content, these emancipatory ped-
agogies expand some students’ heritage knowledge and assist other students in
gaining cultural knowledge. In this way, all students have access to the same
worldview elements, cultural concepts, content, and pedagogies. While Figure
5.2 references African Diasporan culture and Harriet Tubman, it is applicable to
any cultural group and topic. The figure is accompanied by a narrative that
describes how emancipatory pedagogies are outcomes of African worldview
elements and cultural concepts.
Let’s follow the thread in Figure 5.2 related to the practice of emancipatory
pedagogies. In terms of African worldview, the ontological orientation of Inter-
dependence, the epistemological orientation of relational knowing, the values of
equanimity and right action, the Maatian Virtue of Reciprocity, and the Nguzo
Saba Principle of Self-Determination work together to maintain cultural con-
cepts that view (1) demonstrating concern for human welfare through actions based on
community mindedness and service to others; (2) knowing as a communal experience in
which everyone has something to contribute; and (3) inquiring (the acknowledgment of
not knowing) as a source of true knowledge. Teachers can use these African cultural
concepts to shape and support specific emancipatory pedagogies to teach all stu-
dents any topic. For example, teachers use the pedagogies called Locating Stu-
dents, Question-Driven Pedagogy, and Culturally Authentic Assessment when
they view knowledge as communal, inquiry as a source of true knowledge, and
assessment as a way to involve students and families in real-world demonstra-
tions of concern and service to their communities. These teachers understand
that curriculum is co-created and builds on what students know (individually
and culturally) as they reciprocally interact to name and define their ideas based
African Worldview Elements
(bearing influence on Harriet Tubman and on
emancipatory pedagogies)
Ontology—e.g., Collective Responsibility, Interdependence
Epistemology—e.g., intuition-reasoning, relational knowing
Values—e.g., equanimity, right action
Virtues (Maat)—e.g., Justice, Reciprocity
Principles (Nguzo Saba)—e.g., Self-Determination, Purpose
African Cultural Concepts

(manifested in Tubman’s actions and/or in
emancipatory pedagogies)
• the inherent right of freedom
• pursuing freedom and justice as communal responsibilities
• the interconnectedness of all life including the unseen world
• demonstrating concern for human welfare through actions based
on community-mindedness and service to others
• knowing as a communal experience in which everyone has
something to contribute
• inquiring (the acknowledgment of not knowing) as source of
true knowledge
Emancipatory Pedagogies
(practices used to teach all students)
• Locating students (students’ cultures “hold” information that can
center them in learning)
• Question-driven pedagogy (asking students thought-provoking
questions that build on what they know)
• Culturally authentic assessment (asking students to
demonstrate/perform knowledge based on standards—including
community-informed standards—developed with parents to
assess student learning)
Building on and Expanding Learning about other Cultures

Heritage Knowledge through Cultural Knowledge
• Group memory of worldview • Learning about African worldview
elements (e.g., Collective elements (e.g., Collective
Responsibility, Interdependence) Responsibility, Interdependence)
• Knowing and/or learning about a • Learning about a related African
related African cultural concept: cultural concept: an inherent right
the inherent right of freedom of freedom
• Learning from “re-membered” • Learning from “re-membered”
content that—as an African woman content that—as an African woman
—Tubman knew that Black people —Tubman knew that Black people
had never given up their right to be had never given up their right to be
free. So, after emancipating herself, free. So, after emancipating herself,
she returned many times to the she returned many times to the
South to guide hundreds of others South to guide hundreds of others
to freedom. to freedom.
FIGURE 5.2 Learning Through Heritage Knowledge and Cultural Knowledge.

on critical questions. You saw how Ms. Hart—guided by her mentor Ms. Sin-
gleton—demonstrated these and other emancipatory pedagogies in Chapter 2.
By using these pedagogies, practitioners of Teaching for Freedom build upon
and expand the heritage knowledge of all students at the same time as giving stu-
dents opportunities to be centered as they gain cultural knowledge about other
cultures.
Conclusion
As discussed in this chapter, the central tendencies of European worldview
represent a narrow cultural field that is unable to transform the dysconsciousness
or uncritical habits of mind that predominate in mainstream schooling. We
provide several examples that show what European and African worldviews
produce in terms of content and pedagogy—including a section that describes
the central tendencies of worldview as a heuristic framework. Understanding
worldview as the central tendencies of a culture or world region counters euro-
cratic concerns about essentializing culture that serve to further marginalize the
worldviews of cultures outside the Anglosphere. To exemplify the pedagogical
practices that African worldview can produce, we provide a list of African cul-
tural concepts—drawn from consistently held patterns of traditional African
thought and practice—as alternatives to the cultural concepts that have shaped
current mainstream school practices. While the Afrocentric praxis of Teaching
for Freedom is a model based on African worldview, philosophies, cosmologies,
and cultural concepts, this does not exclude other worldviews and cultural con-
cepts as seen in our example of Vietnamese language and Buddhist philosophy.
By including diverse worldview elements and cultural concepts—and therefore
all students, teachers, and families in the school experience—Teaching for
Freedom models how to produce cultural continuity and agency for all groups
of students who learn either by expanding their heritage knowledge or by
gaining cultural knowledge.
In the next and final chapter, we present several Diasporan topics and show
how Ms. Singleton and Ms. Hart teach one of the topics by “re-membering”
several African cultural concepts with democratized content and emancipatory
pedagogies. By using the Afrocentric praxis of Teaching for Freedom, they prepare
students to engage differently with knowledge of the past and to grapple with the
challenging exigencies that they and their families identify in their community.
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6
PRACTICING CULTURAL
CONCEPTS AND CONTINUITY
In an emancipatory approach, teachers and students arrive at answers; we

create and construct answers by thinking together. There are no scripts because
you can’t script thinking. . . . [H]aving to contemplate questions and construct
answers through interaction is already a part of an African American and Indi-
genous American cultural base. When children come to school and are told
the answers, there is no purposeful work to do.
Susan Goodwin, “Emancipatory pedagogy,” 2004, in Goodwin & Swartz,
Teaching Children of Color: Seven Constructs of Effective Teaching in Urban Schools,
pp. 38–39
Contemporary examples of traditional African educational and socialization
beliefs and practices survive and thrive in Africa and the African diaspora. Only
through study can we come to know, understand and utilize those practices.
Only through study can we live up to the quality of the master teachers of the
past.
Asa G. Hilliard, III, SBA: The Reawakening of the African Mind. 1997, p. 78
This final chapter looks at cultural concepts in practice—how they were used in
their original historical contexts and how we can use them in the classroom
today. We present several African Diasporan topics, identify the cultural con-
cepts that shaped these topics, and show how two practitioners of Teaching for
Freedom use African cultural concepts and emancipatory pedagogies to deepen
students’ understanding of content and of themselves. You will also observe
how these teachers provide learning experiences that include families in sustain-
ing cultural continuity—a continuity that is visible in the African Diasporan
topics themselves. For example, the same cultural concepts exhibited today by
African American advocates of environmental justice were exhibited by African
Practicing Cultural Concepts and Continuity 135
men and women who liberated themselves from enslavement 300 to 400 years
ago, by the Jeanes teachers in rural schools and communities 100 years ago, and
by participants in the Montgomery Bus Boycott 60 years ago. In other words,
the cultural concepts that shaped these occurrences and gave them meaning
have endured across time and place.
Identifying Cultural Concepts

In our view, understanding the meanings of past events—which is found in a
culture’s worldview and cultural concepts—and drawing lessons from those
meanings in the present is the primary purpose of learning history. Established
historical organizations claim learning history is for the purpose of fostering
engaged citizenship, understanding how change shaped the world as we know
it, expanding critical thinking, and inspiring through example (NCSS, 2013,
2014; AHA, 2013). While these reasons have merit, they are not primary, since
they provide no direction for connecting events to the contexts in which they
occurred. It is as if history, in this established view of its purpose, happened
outside of culture—outside of the contexts where we can find the meanings of
past events. We propose that meanings reside in the heritage knowledge (group
memory) of each culture and that these meanings are identifiable in the cultural
concepts that shape what people do and how they live their lives. For example,
when environmental justice advocates of African ancestry act to protect their
communities from industrial contamination, their actions are influenced by
African cultural concepts such as sharing responsibility for communal well-being and
belonging, demonstrating concern for human welfare through actions based on community
mindedness and service to others, and protecting childhood as a collective responsibility.
These concepts explain what the actions of these advocates mean—that in an
African worldview, everyone shares the responsibility to protect the well-being
of the community through service to others. These and other African cultural
concepts also explain what the actions of the Jeanes teachers, the Montgomery
Bus Boycott participants, and other African Diasporan people and events mean.
Later in this chapter, we step back into the classroom to see how Ms. Singleton
and Ms. Hart use the praxis of Teaching for Freedom to teach a lesson on the
environmental justice movement. They engage students and families in learning
not only about this movement, but about what it means—shared responsibility
and service to others—in order to enact these meanings in their own
community.
Below are descriptions of three African Diasporan topics. Throughout each
description, we identify a number of cultural concepts that shaped the topic. As
you read these accounts, notice that sharing responsibility for communal well-being
and belonging—which is the first African cultural concept listed in Table 5.1 in
Chapter 5—is present in each topic. This is such a fundamental cultural con-
cept—one that is informed by all of the elements in an African worldview as
136 Practicing Cultural Concepts and Continuity
discussed in Chapter 1—that it can be used to shape the teaching of any topic
that locates African people as subjects and substantive participants in the socio-
political, economic, and cultural phenomena of their time. Our first topic is the
formation of early African Diasporan communities in the Americas whose
members chose freedom and cultural preservation over enslavement and subju-
gation. Note that the number of each African cultural concept identified in the
description of a topic is placed in parentheses and corresponds to the numbered
cultural concepts listed in Table 5.1 in Chapter 5.
Freedom and Cultural Sovereignty

Beginning in the 16th century, the people from diverse Nations in Africa who
were enslaved in the Americas brought their worldview, philosophies, cosmolo-
gies, and cultural concepts and practices with them. Thus, they embodied cul-
tural concepts such as the inherent right of freedom, pursuing freedom and justice as
communal responsibilities, and knowing that cultural sovereignty (or the maintenance
of culture) is the right of all Peoples (see #3, #6, and #12 respectively in Table
5.1). These cultural concepts were manifested in varied forms of resistance,
including self-liberation and the building of self-sustaining free African com-
munities (Fick, 1990; Hart, 1985/2002). Thousands of men and women—some
of royal ancestry—liberated themselves and formed organized hidden com-
munities throughout the Americas beginning in the 16th century. Through self-
determination, they chose freedom not only from enslavement, but freedom to
maintain culture on their own terms as a common right and responsibility
(Hilliard, 1995; Piersen, 1993). In Jamaica and the United States, these libera-
tionists were called Maroons (Hart, 1985/2002). For over 200 years, there were
Maroon communities in South and North Carolina, Virginia, Louisiana,
Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, and Alabama (Hilliard, 1995). One such Maroon
community was composed of several settlements located in the bayous sur-
rounding New Orleans. Juan St. Maló, who was the well-supported 18th
century African leader of these Maroons, inspired enough resistance to threaten
the stability of the local plantocracy (Hall, 1992). While Maroon communities
like the one named after St Maló were typically under assault by plantation
owners and colonial military forces, free and enslaved Africans who viewed
sharing freedom as a human entitlement formed networks of information and sup-
plies in support of these free communities (see #16 in Table 5.1).
In Puerto Rico and Panama, self-liberated men and women were called
Cimarrones; in Colombia and Cuba, Palenques; and in Brazil, Quilombolas
(Hilliard, 1995). Palmares, begun in the late 16th century, was the name of a
fortified Quilombo community of over 15,000 people in Pernambuco, Brazil,
that governed itself for almost 100 years (Gomez, 2004; Kent, 1965). Bantu-
speaking Angolans established Palmares, and their descendants lived there
along with other people of African descent—both free and self-liberated, poor
immigrants of diverse cultural origins, and Indigenous people (Anderson, 1996;

Kent, 1965). Zumbi Dos Palmares—an Angolan leader of this African state from
1675–1694—continuously resisted Portuguese military attempts to destroy Pal-
mares. Similarly, François Makandal, of the Kôngo—who was enslaved in Saint
Domingue in the early decades of the 18th century—organized and led a
massive uprising of thousands of Maroons and free Africans in 1757. Known as
an excellent herbalist, doctor, and orator, his vision of emancipation encouraged
his fellow freedom seekers to fight the French in an effort to overthrow them
40 years prior to the Haitian Revolution of 1791 (Fick, 1990). The men and
women who liberated themselves and formed—or were born into—re-created
African societies throughout the Americas were standard bearers of cultural
sovereignty. They were communally oriented, meaning that their self-
determination to live free was not individually focused. Rather they exhibited
self-determination that considered the needs of the collective (see #13 in Table 5.1). In
addition to self-sustaining free communities being an important form of resist-
ance to the system of slavery, they also exemplify cultural continuity through
their demonstration of the African cultural concept of sharing responsibility for
communal well-being and belonging (see #1 in Table 5.1).
Isabella Dorsey: Each Child is Everyone’s Child

Every community can name women and men who exemplify the values, prin-
ciples, and virtues held in common by community members. Such is the case in
the Black community of Rochester, New York, where a woman named Isabella
Dorsey lived in the early 20th century. Ms. Dorsey was known as a woman
who made sure that no child was without a home. In this way, she exemplified
her African ancestors who viewed each child in the community as everyone’s
child (Swartz, 2012). Her practice of the African cultural concept of protecting
childhood as a collective responsibility indicates the cultural continuity between her
African ancestry and her life in the Diaspora (see #17 in Table 5.1).
While most children in Isabella Dorsey’s community lived with and were
cared for by their parents, grandparents, or other relatives, some children’s
parents or family members were either too sick to care for their children or had
passed on. When this happened, Ms. Dorsey, with the support of her husband,
Thomas Dorsey, took these children into her home. Soon the Dorsey home
near downtown Rochester was not large enough to accommodate their
growing family, and they moved to a larger home in the country. Their stay in
this new home near Lake Ontario was short lived, since Rochester and sur-
rounding communities were no exception in terms of the presence of white
supremacy racism (Swartz, 2012). Segregation and severely limited housing, job,
and educational opportunities were regularly experienced by Black residents.
These unjust and unethical practices were either supported by law or by custom,
and by the attitudes and actions of most White people. As a result, the Dorsey
family was forced to move from their country home to another home closer to
the city (Du Bois, 1994). With the help of people in the Black community and
a few White supporters, the Dorsey family found and purchased this new home.
Black community support for the Dorsey home was very strong. Commu-
nity members such as Reverend Dr. James E. Rose, pastor of the well-known
Mt. Olivet church, supervised the Dorsey home, and in addition to his own
medical practice, Dr. Charles T. Lunsford took care of the medical needs of the
Dorsey children (Dorsey, n.d.). These men embodied the African cultural
concept of demonstrating concern for human welfare through actions based on community
mindedness and service to others (see #15 in Table 5.1). They, along with the
Dorseys, also enacted the African cultural concept of sharing responsibility for com-
munal well-being and belonging through their collective efforts to create opportu-
nities for children to know that they belong—that they are loved and cared for
by their community (see #1 in Table 5.1). Their actions indicate their aware-
ness that the well-being of children makes the future health of a community
possible.
These residents of Rochester’s Black community also exhibited self-
determination that considers the needs of the collective (see #13 in Table 5.1). For
example, Dr. Lunsford was a self-determined man as he pursued a medical
degree and later a practice in Rochester, but his self-determination also con-
sidered the needs of the community as he spoke out about the lack of justice
for Black people in Rochester (Du Bois, 1994; Jacobson, 1985). In the 1920s
and 1930s, no hospitals in Rochester would hire Black doctors or nurses, and
the University of Rochester Medical School would not admit Black students.
Dr. Lunsford met numerous times with medical school officials, but they
would not agree to make any changes. Yet, he persisted and, due to his
efforts, Edwin A. Robinson was eventually accepted as a student and became
the first Black person to graduate from the University of Rochester Medical
School in 1943 (Lunsford, n.d.). As a man of African ancestry, Dr. Lunsford’s
consistent actions—and the manner in which he pursued them—reflected his
heritage knowledge. He knew that people are responsible to bring good into the
world through actions that are ethical, just, generous, compassionate, and peaceable (see
#5 in Table 5.1).
Over the years, many children lived at the Dorsey home, which functioned
like a small community. Children learned about caring for each other, and
everyone did something to add to the well-being of this large family. Thus, Isa-
bella Dorsey taught her children about sharing responsibility for communal well-being
and belonging (see #1 in Table 5.1). She also modeled love, dignity, and decency as
shared by all (see #8 in Table 5.1). In these ways, Ms. Dorsey followed in the
tradition of her African ancestors, who made sure that no child was ever
without a home and that each child was everyone’s child.
African American Leadership in the Environmental Justice

Movement
Who lives in a community where one in five households has someone suffering
from a respiratory illness (Stephenson, 2014)? This is your reality if you live in
Port Arthur, Texas, a historically Black community surrounded by four oil
refineries, six chemical plants, one international incineration facility, and one
pet coke plant (Hunt, 2014). These industries stretch for miles—a “petrochemi-
cal landscape” that constantly emits poisons into the air, earth, and water
(Stephenson, 2014, p. 25). While the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
finally acknowledged that the toxins released into the air in Port Arthur are
dangerous, this was only due to efforts by local residents and leaders like Hilton
Kelley, who founded the Port Arthur Community In-Power Development
Association in 2000. Kelley and other community members used the courts to
force the EPA to upgrade its rules for petroleum refineries (Stephenson, 2014).
Like other people in communities across the country who have responded to
the disproportionate pollution that exists in urban and rural communities of
color, the commitment of Port Arthur’s residents to environmental justice dem-
onstrates the African cultural concept of sharing responsibility for communal well-
being and belonging (see #1 in Table 5.1) (Bullard, 1994, 2005; Ferris, 1994;
Hunt, 2014; Russell, 2011; Stephenson, 2014).
For more than three decades, similar conditions have been documented and
environmental justice efforts have occurred in places like Richmond, California,
Gainesville, Georgia, Dearborn, Michigan, Northeast Philadelphia, Pennsyl-
vania, Northeast Houston, Texas, West Dallas, Texas, East and South Central
Los Angeles, California, South Tucson, Arizona, Alsen and Mossville, Louisi-
ana, Chicago’s South Side, Illinois, and Southwest Detroit, Michigan, where
residents have come together to protect their families and communities (Bullard,
1990; 1994; Gomez, Shafiei, & Johnson, 2011; Hayoun, 2015; Gutiérrez, 1994;
Hunt, 2014; Shabazz, 2013; Solnit, 2014; UCC Commission for Racial Justice,
1987). Many of these communities are called fence-line communities since they
share a fence line with the industries that poison them (Gomez et al., 2011;
Stephenson, 2014).
Theresa Landrum has always lived in Southwest Detroit since being a small
child in the 1960s. Steady expansion of petroleum, recycling, and other indus-
tries in her Black community has resulted in her neighborhood being the most
polluted in all of Michigan, with high rates of cancer and respiratory illnesses
(Hunt, 2014). Landrum’s parents died of cancer, she is a cancer survivor, and
many of her neighbors are sick. Expansion of these unwanted industries in
Black communities is due to victories of the mainstream environmental move-
ment to keep them out of White middle- and lower-income communities
(Bullard, 1990). In fact, the mainstream environmental movement has shown
little interest in the particular conditions faced by urban communities (Collin
& Collin, 2005). In the face of these realities, Landrum is one among many
women of color in the country who are leaders and participants in the move-
ment to end environmental injustice (Gomez et al., 2011). She speaks out at
community meetings and testifies at EPA hearings about the non-enforcement
of environmental regulations by local officials, several who have been involved
in scandals related to their dealings with the corporations responsible for the
pollution (Bukowski, 2010). As a community leader, Theresa Landrum works
to change not only environmental injustice, but the environmental racism that
attempts to define her community. This form of racism results in the official
sanctioning of contamination in communities of color through the failure to
enforce regulations and laws that would remove life-threatening poisons from
the environment (Chavis, 1993). By resisting environmental racism, Landrum
embodies the African cultural concept of demonstrating concern for human welfare
through actions based on community mindedness and service to others (see #15 in
Table 5.1).
Academic/activist Robert D. Bullard (1990) provided early direction for the
environmental justice movement by documenting landfill sitings, lead smelters,
garbage incinerators, and other toxic chemical facilities that contaminate the air,
soil and waterways in the South. He continues to work with local leaders and
communities to document how protection from environmental abuse unequally
impacts the life chances of people of color. Their actions reflect such African
cultural concepts as sharing responsibility for community well-being and belonging,
exhibiting self-determination that considers the needs of the collective, demonstrating
concern for human welfare through actions based on community mindedness and service to
others, and knowing that cultural sovereignty (in the form of environmental integ-
rity) is the common right of all Peoples (see #1, #13, #15, and #12 respectively in
Table 5.1).
Segregated housing patterns that result in the geographic proximity of poor,
working class, and more affluent Black people mean that race more than class
predicts harmful exposure to combined pollutants in the sections of towns,
cities, and suburbs where Black people live (Bullard & Wright, 2012; Moffat,
1995). Case study research offers extensive data that detail this environmental
racism (Bullard, 1994, 2005). Actually, current environmental practices provide
more protection to industries that pollute African American, Native American,
and Latino communities than to their residents (Bullard & Wright, 2012). While
these communities are less responsible for environmental contamination, they
experience more outcomes from this contamination than other communities.
According to Bullard (1994), current environmental practices reflect
the dominant environmental protection paradigm [that] 1) institutional-

izes unequal enforcement [in communities of color compared to White
communities]; 2) trades human health for profit; 3) places the burden of
proof on the “victims,” not on the polluting industry; 4) legitimates
human exposure to harmful chemicals, pesticides, and hazardous sub-

stances; 5) promotes “risky” technologies, such as incinerators; 6) exploits
the vulnerability of economically and politically disenfranchised com-
munities; 7) subsidizes ecological destruction; 8) creates an industry
around risk assessment; 9) delays cleanup actions [which take longer in
communities of color]; and 10) fails to develop pollution prevention as
the overarching and dominant strategy.
(p. xvi)
These outcomes have literally defined an agenda for environmental justice activ-
ists in communities of color. This human rights agenda has been building over
several decades to include educational programming, legal challenges, lobbying,
and holding the EPA accountable for enforcement of its own policies, regula-
tions, and initiatives; participation in local, state, and national policy making;
inter-community networking and building coalitions with other civil rights
organizations to defeat local legislation that would, for example, support build-
ing garbage incinerators in urban communities of color; and public protests and
demonstrations that can raise awareness about environmental racism (Bullard,
1990; Gutiérrez, 1994; Hall, 1994). In terms of the long range, Bullard and col-
leagues are pursuing freedom and justice as communal responsibilities (see #6 in Table
5.1). To do this they are developing leadership for the protection of African
American communities in the next generation of scholars/activists—students
from HBCUs (Historically Black Colleges and Universities) who are participat-
ing in efforts to end environmental racism in their communities.
As a strong indicator of African Diasporan cultural continuity, participants in
the environmental justice movement consistently embody several other cultural
concepts practiced by their African ancestors: perceiving the interconnectedness of all
life; being responsible to bring good into the world through actions that are ethical, just,
generous, compassionate, and peaceable; and protecting childhood as a collective responsib-
ility (see #2, #5, and #17 respectively in Table 5.1). These cultural concepts are
evident in the actions of men and women from neighborhood organizations,
civic clubs, and parent groups who have come together to protect the health
and well-being of their children and families. They fully understand what is at
stake if they don’t.
“Re-membering” Cultural Concepts in the Classroom

As you know from Chapter 2, Ms. Hart is quite adept at connecting emancip-
atory pedagogies to democratized content due to years of mentoring by Ms.
Singleton, who is a veteran colleague. As demonstrated in Ms. Hart’s practice of
emancipatory pedagogies such as Eldering, Locating Students, Question-Driven
Pedagogy, and Culturally Authentic Assessment, she has learned that being
knowledgeable—not only about a topic, but about the students she is teaching—
leads to asking open-ended questions, building upon students’ cultural charac-

teristics, co-creating curriculum with students, and engaging families in
developing assessments that include community-informed standards and expec-
tations. Ms. Hart also learned how African cultural platforms, which carry
African worldview, philosophies, cosmologies, and related cultural concepts,
inform and support each of the emancipatory pedagogies she uses in her class-
room. We have just learned that Ms. Hart and Ms. Singleton are planning a unit
that guides students to not only learn about past and current events, but to use
the cultural concepts that inform those events to act in the present.
Developing a Unit on the Environment

Toward the end of her unit on Black Community Building, Ms. Hart began to
discuss a possible unit on the environment with Ms. Singleton. Around the
same time, both teachers were reviewing and giving us feedback on sections of
our upcoming book, and after reading about the environmental justice move-
ment, they decided to co-develop and co-teach an interdisciplinary unit on
environmental justice that would combine content and standards in social
studies, English Language Arts (ELA), and science. They were unable to find a
grade-level text that provided the information they were looking for, so they
adapted content from our manuscript and the sources we cited to write a
student text at grade level and to develop lesson plans. The two teachers framed
their text for students with Afrocentric concepts and wrote it using culturally
informed principles (see Tables 1.1 and 1.2 in Chapter 1). They also discussed
how to connect several African cultural concepts to the content and emancip-
atory pedagogies they would be using. They wanted students to experience
African Diasporan continuity in the actions of African American men and
women who have been advocating for environmental justice. They also
sketched out some assignments that could involve students and families in using
African cultural concepts in their own lives. We asked if we could observe one
of their lessons and share our observations with readers. Ms. Singleton and Ms.
Hart agreed, but suggested that we first ask our readers to consider what a unit
on this topic might look like.
Your Unit on Environmental Justice

Ms. Hart and Ms. Singleton offered several suggestions and questions to guide
your thinking about a unit on environmental justice. Ms. Singleton suggested
that you review this chapter’s account of African American Leadership in the
Environmental Justice Movement (above) in preparation for finding or writing
text for students that is framed with Afrocentric concepts and written with
culturally informed principles. She explained how important it is to have “re-
membered” (democratized) student materials, how they fit with emancipatory
pedagogies, and how together they enhance students’ sense of belonging

through either building on and expanding their heritage knowledge or facilit-
ating their acquisition of cultural knowledge. While the experience of writing
content to grade level is good preparation for planning a unit, she emphasized
that you will not always have time to do this, so first see if culturally informed
materials are available. If you do need to write student text, Ms. Hart suggested
that you work with a partner or in small groups to share the writing. She
explained that this is a good time to discuss and take notes about which eman-
cipatory pedagogies you might use with each section of text you are writing.
Ms. Singleton agreed and offered the following questions:
When you are writing or reviewing the student materials you will be
using, what do you need to know, be able to do, and be like to use the
emancipatory pedagogy called Eldering? Where might you use the eman-
cipatory pedagogy called Locating Students to build upon students’ cul-
tural characteristics? [If you aren’t sure what these characteristics are,
re-read the section titled “Locating Students—an Emancipatory Peda-
gogy” in Chapter 2 as well as explore some of the citations in that
section.] For example, how might you connect Nguzo Saba Principles
such as Unity and Collective Work and Responsibility to Hilton Kelley
and the Port Arthur Community In-Power Development Association’s
use of the courts to force the EPA to strengthen its rules for petroleum
refineries? How can connecting Nguzo Saba Principles to content center
students? What kinds of open-ended questions might you ask students so
you can build on what they know [Question-Driven Pedagogy]? An
example could be something like, “What might people in fence-line
communities be thinking when they decide to confront powerful indus-
tries that are poisoning their communities?” All students will have
thoughts about this that you can build on during instruction. Also, in
what ways can you encourage students to draw upon their heritage know-
ledge or cultural knowledge as they are learning new information [Mul-
tiple Ways of Knowing]? What ideas do you have for engaging parents
and family members in authentically assessing what students have learned
[Culturally Authentic Assessment]? Since this unit is interdisciplinary,
what curricular topics, materials, and standards might you select for each
subject area?
As you are thinking about what a unit on environmental justice might look
like, Ms. Hart suggested that you review the list of African cultural concepts in
Table 5.1 in Chapter 5. She would like you to consider the following questions
after you explain—to yourself and someone else—how you see several of these
concepts being embodied in the actions of African American environmental
justice leaders like Hilton Kelley, Theresa Landrum, and Robert D. Bullard:
How would you use several African cultural concepts to show that the
actions of environmental leaders of African ancestry represent African
Diasporan continuity? Since we’re not trying to be teachers who just tell
students what to think, which emancipatory pedagogies can you use to
guide students to “discover” these examples of African Diasporan con-
tinuity? How might you involve students and families in using several
African cultural concepts to shape responses to environmental or other
injustices that might be occurring in their own communities? And how
can families be part of developing authentic assessments that include
community-informed ideals and standards?
If, as you are writing your student text and responding to the above suggestions,
you have any questions, you can send them to [email protected].
With input from Ms. Singleton and Ms. Hart, we will provide feedback.
Classroom Observation
We decided to observe the lesson in which Ms. Singleton and Ms. Hart
planned to introduce the unit’s final assessment. For the previous two weeks—
in ELA, social studies, and science—students had been learning about the
environment and the environmental justice movement. The student text
written by Ms. Singleton and Ms. Hart served as the primary text for ELA and
social studies. For science lessons, they identified a few online sources and
trade books about the effects of toxic waste sites, industrial emissions, frack-
ing, and radiation on the air we breathe, the water we drink, and the soil in
which our food is grown; and what can happen to organs in our bodies when
we are exposed to these toxins (Bryan, 2004; Kukreja, 2015; Food and Water
Watch, 2014; UCC Commission for Racial Justice, 1987). Students examined
evidence of greater exposure to environmental contamination in communities
of color, and discussed how environmental racism is a civil rights issue. They
also learned about the actions of African American leaders and community
members throughout the country who have been challenging industrial con-
tamination in the courts, building coalitions across communities and with civil
rights organizations, and engaging in public protests and demonstrations to
raise awareness about environmental injustice. Ms. Singleton and Ms. Hart
presented these actions to students as expressions of African cultural concepts
such as sharing responsibility for communal well-being and belonging, perceiving the
interconnectedness of all life, and demonstrating concern for human welfare through
actions based on community mindedness and service to others. By learning that
African cultural concepts are expressed in the actions of environmental leaders
and community members, students gained access to what these actions mean.
In particular, they learned that all life is interconnected and that we are col-
lectively responsible to serve and care for each other.
TABLE 6.1 African Cultural Concepts and Environmental Justice
• sharing responsibility for communal well-being and belonging (1)

• perceiving the interconnectedness of all life including the unseen world (2)
• being responsible to bring good into the world through actions that are ethical, just, generous,
compassionate, and peaceable (5)
• pursuing freedom and justice as communal responsibilities (6)
• knowing that cultural sovereignty is a common right of all Peoples (12)
• exhibiting self-determination that considers the needs of the collective (13)
• demonstrating concern for human welfare through actions based on community mindedness and
service to others (15)
• protecting childhood as a collective responsibility (each child is everyone’s child) (17)
While the irrefutable evidence of unequal protection of communities of

color was troubling to everyone, learning how African cultural concepts shaped
the practices of African American leaders and community members—and how
these concepts had been practiced for centuries—made change seem possible.
Table 6.1 above lists eight African cultural concepts that were manifested in the
actions of environmental justice leaders and community residents. (Note that
the numbers following each concept refer to its placement in the original list of
18 African cultural concepts in Table 5.1 in Chapter 5.)
Throughout the unit, Ms. Singleton and Ms. Hart shaped their pedagogy
with other African cultural concepts, such as pursuing knowledge as inseparable from
pursuing wisdom, inquiring as a source of true knowledge, and gaining knowledge for the
purpose of bringing goodness, harmony, and balance into the world. The two teachers
also designed a culminating project to involve students and families in demon-
strating concern for human welfare through actions based on community mindedness and
service to others—that is, in using what some of their new knowledge means in
community-enhancing ways. They were introducing this final project to their
combined classes as we arrived. Vignette 6.1 describes what occurred.
VIGNette 6.1
Observing the “Re-membering” of African Cultural

Concepts in the Classroom
Ms. Singleton
Class, we’d like you to meet Dr. King and Dr. Swartz, who have come to
observe our class today.
Class (in unison)

Good afternoon, Dr. King and Dr. Swartz.
Dr. King
Good afternoon, everyone! We want to thank your teachers for inviting us
into your classroom. We have heard so many good things about what you
are doing and we’ve been looking forward to this visit.
Ms. Hart
Welcome! We’re so glad to have you. Our two classes have been working
together on a unit about environmental justice, and today we are talking about
our final project. This project will be a way for students to continue learning as
they show each other, their families, and us what they have already learned.
Ms. Singleton
We have been studying about the environment and how industries and
government practices are responsible for polluting Black, Native American,
and Latino communities. We’ve learned what African American residents
and leaders have done to end this abuse, and how their actions are shaped
by cultural concepts that are centuries old. (Turning to the students) Let’s
share some of this with our visitors. What are a few examples of African cul-
tural concepts that we have seen in the actions of African American leaders
and community members in the environmental justice movement?
Terrel
They think everyone deserves a good place to live, a place where you don’t
get sick from breathing the air.
Andrea
They work hard to make things good and decent for everyone, not just for
some people.
Jada
People thought that children should be safe, and to do that people should
work together.
Larissa
The people we learned about, they try to do the right things. They care
about people and want things to be fair.
Ms. Hart
Yes, and how do we know that these concepts are African—that they are
African cultural concepts?
Rob
I think because as African people we have a way of looking at things like
everyone should have justice. Then we make a plan like Mr. Kelley did so it
can happen.
Marcos
I know Latino people that think like that—maybe because we have African
ancestors.
Ms. Singleton
Yes, Marcos, what you are saying is true. There are many examples all over
the world of people of African ancestry who have worked for freedom and
justice, and still do.
Christine
What I read said that Mr. Kelley went to court to have better air because he
thought all people deserved it, and that was a way of looking at things that
African people had.
Ms. Singleton
Yes, Christine, you can know that these cultural concepts are African by
reading about it.
Kanokwan
In my neighborhood at home* we try to make sure that everyone is OK. If
someone isn’t OK, then we try to make things better. This is like one of the
African ideas we learned about.
Ms. Hart
Yes, so how do cultural concepts get from one part of the world to another?
Rodney
People bring it with them. It’s part of who they are.
Zaki
I agree. My family is from another part of the world and we brought our
ideas about things to this country.** Since we are here, our ancestors are
here with us too. We think that people should be the ones to say what goes
on in their own town. Other people shouldn’t come in and try to take over
and change things.
Ms. Hart
Yes, cultural concepts shape how people think and what they do. And
wherever people move, they bring those concepts with them. It is the
African cultural concepts you have all described that give people like Hilton
Kelley, Theresa Landrum, and Robert Bullard the strength to challenge big
industries and the government agencies that protect them.
Ms. Singleton
As I listen to this conversation, I realize that in talking about what we know
we are also talking about who we are. So how can we show that we care
about the well-being of our community? How can we use African cultural
concepts to make some change that is needed in our community?
Sharesse
We should do something to take care of children who maybe don’t have a
home or food to eat.
Rob
We could try to find out if the air and water in this city are polluted. Then
we could tell the EPA like Ms. Landrum did.
Terrel
Yeah, but the EPA doesn’t always help. Mr. Bullard said that sometimes the
EPA doesn’t make industries follow their regulations.
Tiffany
That’s true but we could write a petition or maybe speak at a City Council
meeting. If we find out that a company or the city is poisoning the air or
water, we could organize a march and get our parents and people they
know and some of our teachers and lots of kids to come.
Ms. Hart
I really like the way you are using what you have learned about environ-
mental injustice to think about what we can do in our own community.
(Pointing to the Nguzo Saba poster) I’m seeing the Principles of Umoja
[Unity], Kujichagulia [Self-Determination], and Nia [Purpose] at work here.
Elena
And if we do some kind of project we’d be using Ujima [Collective Work
and Responsibility] too.
Ms. Singleton
That’s right, and using Nguzo Saba Principles about how to conduct our-
selves will help us to put the very old African cultural concepts we have
been talking about into practice.
Ms. Hart
So, let’s say we followed up on Rob’s idea about seeing if the air and water
in our city are polluted. Which African cultural concepts would we be
putting into practice? (Ms. Hart points to another poster that lists the
African cultural concepts related to the unit on environmental justice and
waits as students take time to review the list). [See Table 6.1 above.]
Several students
Most of them. Every one of them. All of them.
Ms. Singleton
Yes! So if we’re going to use any of these ideas—and maybe some other
ones—we’re going to need help from our families. They all know about the
environmental justice unit we’re doing, and many family members have
already participated in homework assignments and in-class activities. We

also have copies of the survey results that some of Ms. Hart’s students and
parents conducted as a final project for their unit on Black Community Build-
ing. They asked residents what they thought were the most pressing needs
in our community.
Ms. Hart
Well, we have a lot to work with. So let’s get into small groups to talk about
how we can work together to make some change that is needed in this com-
munity. If your group has ideas that are not in the list of survey results, add
them to the list. See if your group can agree on one or two ideas and then
we’ll get back together to come up with a list of possible projects. We want
you to take that list home tonight and get some input from your family. They
might have other ideas or some suggestions about ideas on the list. Then
tomorrow, we’ll use the Principle of Kuumba [Creativity] to figure out what
we’re going to do so that our community is “more beautiful and beneficial
than we inherited it.” That’s how Maulana Karenga—the man who developed
the Nguzo Saba Principles and Kwanzaa—describes Kuumba.
Ms. Singleton
Yes, and whatever we decide to do, it will be a way for us to bring good
into the world through community-minded service to others and to show
how all life is interconnected. In that way we’ll be using African cultural
concepts just like the people we learned about.
* Home for Kanokwan is a town in southern Thailand called Phang Nga.
** Zaki’s family is Hausa from the town of Bwi in Kebbi State, Nigeria.
In this demonstration of the praxis of Teaching for Freedom, Ms. Singleton and
Ms. Hart used several emancipatory pedagogies to engage students in learning.
Can you identify where the pedagogies of Eldering, Locating Students, Multiple
Ways of Knowing, and Question-Driven Pedagogy were used? (See Table 1.2
in Chapter 1 to review descriptions of these pedagogies.) Can you see how
African cultural concepts—which are part of the African cultural platforms
described in Chapter 2—shaped and support these emancipatory pedagogies?
For example, inquiring (the acknowledgment of not knowing) as a source of true know-
ledge is a cultural concept in the philosophy of the Baluba People (a Bantu
People of Central Africa), which is part of the African cultural platform that
supports Question-Driven Pedagogy. As seen in this vignette, the demonstrated
knowledge and expertise of Ms. Singleton and Ms. Hart (Eldering), their open-
ended questions that invited everyone to contribute (Question-Driven Pedagogy),
their centering of students culturally and individually (Locating Students), and
their encouragement of heritage knowledge and cultural knowledge (Multiple
Ways of Knowing) created ways for students to deepen their understanding of
other African cultural concepts related to being community minded and to justice
being a communal responsibility. It was also clear in our observation of this lesson
and lessons in Chapter 2 that these teachers take every opportunity to connect
families to curriculum and assessment. Practitioners of Teaching for Freedom
know that families “hold” and convey culture in the form of heritage knowledge
(group memory), including worldview, cultural concepts, and community-
informed ideals and standards. By connecting the heritage knowledge of families
with “re-membered” content and emancipatory pedagogies, these practitioners
create learning contexts in which African Diasporan cultural continuity can be
experienced and sustained. In addition to these observations, we noticed how Ms.
Singleton and Ms. Hart manifested an African cultural concept at the heart of
Teaching for Freedom: pursuing knowledge as inseparable from pursuing wisdom. They
kept the knowledge these students were gaining about threats to community well-
being linked to their development of good sense about how to use that know-
ledge, that is, how to discern the relationship between what is and what can be.
Conclusion
The Afrocentric praxis of Teaching for Freedom is an educational model in
which teaching and learning occur in the context of culture. Practitioners of
this praxis view themselves as connected to the cultural communities to which
their students belong. They consciously locate all students—and the cultures and
groups they represent—as subjects in the curriculum and pedagogy of school-
ing. In so doing, these practitioners teach students not only how to read, write,
compute, and become informed citizens, but how to speak for and define them-
selves, identify meaning in the cultural concepts that have shaped events in the
past and present, and recognize cultural continuity across time and place.
Throughout this volume, we have invited you to learn about:
• the elements of African worldview and the philosophies, cosmologies, and

cultural concepts that people with this worldview have developed and
maintained (Chapters 1, 2, and 5);
• African cultural platforms that support emancipatory pedagogies (Chapter 2);
• replacing standard instructional content with “re-membered” (democra-
tized) content that is framed with Afrocentric theoretical concepts and
written with culturally responsive principles (Chapters 1 and 3);
• how the central tendencies of diverse worldviews—and their related cul-
tural concepts—shape school and other social practices (Chapter 5);
• using African cultural concepts to transform mainstream school practices
when they are “re-membered” with democratized content and emancipa-
tory pedagogies (Chapter 5);
• how African cultural concepts shape numerous African Diasporan topics
(Chapters 3, 4, and 6); and
• how cultural concepts carry meaning and sustain cultural continuity across
time and place (Chapters 4, 5, and 6).
You can use the knowledge you have learned to become practitioners of
Teaching for Freedom—to build upon and expand students’ heritage knowledge
and support students in gaining cultural knowledge by learning about the cul-
tures of others. As you learn to Teach for Freedom, you will prepare students,
with the support of their families, to gain and use knowledge that can build
community in the classroom and in neighborhoods by sharing responsibility for
well-being and belonging, demonstrating concern for human welfare through actions based
on community mindedness and service to others, and gaining knowledge for the purpose of
bringing goodness, harmony, and balance into the world.
Encore
The following culminating activity asks you to use many of the concepts,
culturally informed principles, and emancipatory pedagogies presented through-
out this volume. We provide a vignette of “re-membered” student text about
segregation and the Montgomery Bus Boycott as a context for using these con-
cepts, principles, and pedagogies. This two-page excerpt is located in a chapter
from a “re-membered” middle school U.S. history textbook (in conceptualiza-
tion) that represents a rethinking and rewriting of content about the Civil
Rights movement of the mid-20th century. The vignette is printed below in
black and white. For information about receiving one or more color copies of
these two pages, write to [email protected]. After reading the text
in Vignette 6.1, we invite you to work with a partner, in small groups, or by
yourself to do the following:
1 Locate where at least three Afrocentric theoretical concepts were used to

frame the student text (see Table 1.1 in Chapter 1).
2 Locate where at least three culturally informed principles were used to
write the text (see Table 1.2 in Chapter 1).
3 Identify at least three African cultural concepts you see represented in the
text and where (refer to Table 5.1 in Chapter 5 for a list of these concepts).
4 Select which emancipatory pedagogies you would use to teach the text (see
Table 1.2 in Chapter 1 and Ms. Hart’s use of these six pedagogies in
Chapter 2). How would you explain these selections to a colleague?
Following Vignette 6.2 is a template for this activity (Table 6.2) that you can
enlarge or redraw. Examining a “re-membered” text in this way is an authentic
assessment that can help to clarify many of the concepts, principles, and pedago-
gies presented in this volume. It is this volume’s encore, and we ask you to
perform it.
VIGNette 6.2
The Unjust System o f Segregatio n
Segregation is a violent system that has dominated

life in the United States. A s you read in chapter 14,
Black people gained legal rights after the Civil
War through Amendments to the U.S.
Constitution. This period o f time was called
Reconstruction. However, by the end o f this
period, white plantation owners and former
Confederate leaders had taken back power in
Southern States. They established segregation in
order to take away the rights that Black people had
Inside o f the bu s th at R o sa P arks w as riding
gained. Even though slavery was legally ended, W h en S h e W a s a r r e s t e d . Photograph by Derek kt w
these White men did eveiything they could to
maintain white supremacy. p lan n in g to end b u s segregatio n . L ead ers were
Until the m id-20th century, sch o ols, rest- looking for ju s t the right c a se . Over 42,000 Black
room s, libraries, restau ran ts, transportation, people lived in M ontgom ery in the early 1950s and
and all public places were segregated. For all had bad experiences riding the buses. They were
example, segregation laws made Black people sit disrespected by the bus company, bus drivers, White
in the back section o f all buses in the South. I f a patrons, and the police.
bus was crowded, Black people had to get out o f At this time, R osa Parks was the secretary o f the
their seats and stand so that white people could sit Montgomery N AA CP and leader o f its youth division.
down. To pay, they had to get on the bus at the She had been working for equal rights for Black people
front door and then get o ff the bus and board at the for many years. In 1943 a driver put her o ff a bus for
back door. If they refused to follow these unjust refusing to board at the back. Ms. Parks also studied at
rules, they were thrown o ff the bus or arrested. the Highlander Folk School where she and other leaders
Segregation w as unethical because it denied learned methods o f organizing for Civil Rights.
Black people their civil and human rights. This On December 1, 1955, R osa Parks w as riding a bus
system separated Black and White people by law home from work. When the bus driver told her to give
and custom in every area o f life. A s you will read up her set to a white man, she refused. The driver
in chapter 23, its effects are still with us today. called the police and Ms. Parks was arrested. Later she
said, "When I made that decision, I knew that I had
W orking to End Bus S egregatio n
the strength o f my ancestors with me.”
Like their African ancestors, Black leaders in The very next day Jo Ann Robinson and two o f her
Montgomery, A labam a knew that everyone was students handed out 50,000 fliers calling for a boycott
entitled to justice, so they were working together o f the buses on December 5th— the day Ms. Parks
to end segregation on the buses. Jo Ann went to trial. Other community leaders agreed to begin
Robinson, a teacher at A labam a State College, the bus boycott around the case o f R osa Parks. They
led a group called the W om en’ s P olitical knew that having justice was the responsibility o f the
C ouncil (W PC). In 1949 the WPC began whole community. They also knew that Rosa Parks
planning a bus boycott. Another group, the w as the right person, because she had the courage to
National Association for the Advancement o f stand up under pressure— even when threats were
Colored People (N A A C P ) w as also involved in made on her life.
The M o n tgo m ery B u s B oy co tt to continue the boycott. They knew that

segregation w as wrong, and that everyone was
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. w as a new minister
entitled to dignity and decency. These were
in town. Once the boycott started, he agreed to
brave men and women. M any lost their jo b s and
lead it because community leaders chose him.
were threatened with violence for participating
With support from the W PC, the N A A C P , and
in the boycott.
the Black community, the bus boycott lasted
While the boycott w as going on, Black
381 days. Thousands o f Black people walked to
leaders in Montgomery filed a court case against
work every day in good and bad weather.
bus segregation. It went all the way to the
Teachers, housekeepers, laborers, shop keepers,
Suprem e Court o f the United States. The Court
clerks, and students— people from all w alks o f
finally ruled that bus segregation was
life— took part. On the first day o f the boycott
unconstitutional. The boycott ended once the
there were alm ost no B lack people on the buses.
Court ruling w as delivered to officials in
That night 7,000 B la c k p eople m et and agreed
Montgomery on December 20, 1956. The next
day B lack people rode the buses in Montgomery
after more than a year. Acting for ju stice and
being community minded brought an end to bus
segregation in Montgomery and the nation.
S o m e W hite p eo p le resp o n ded with
v io le n c e , sh o o tin g at b u se s and bom b in g
B la c k leaders’ hom es and churches. But Dr.
King, other African American leaders, and
citizens continued to follow the practices o f
their African ancestors. They worked to build
com m un ities w here everyone w as entitled to
ju stic e and freedom and everyone belonged.
Ms. Rosa Parks a n d Dr. M artin Luther Kina, Jr. ca. 1955
This is a picture o f the Dexter Avenue B aptist

Church today. In 1954, Dr. M artin Luther King, Jr. w as
the full-time p a s to r o f this Church in M ontgomery,
Alabam a. On Decem ber 4, 1955—j u s t a fe w days
afte r M s. R osa Parks w as arrested — Dr. King held
a m eeting in the ba se m e n t o f this Church. Leaders
who were presen t a g re e d to g o a h e a d with the
bu s boycott. They also fo rm ed the M ontgom ery
Im p ro vem en t A sso ciatio n (MIA) to p lan a n d
o rg an iz e the b o y c o tt. This Church re m a in e d a
planning site f o r fu tu re Civil Rights action s after
the M ontgom ery Bus Boycott ended.
Photograph by Coiin Mutchler

TABLE 6.2 Activity Template: Identifying Concepts, Principles, and Pedagogies
Identifying Concepts, Principles, and Pedagogies
1 Locate where at least three Afrocentric theoretical concepts were used to frame
the student text (see Table 1.1 in Chapter 1).
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2 Locate where at least three culturally informed principles were used to write the
text (see Table 1.2 in Chapter 1).
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3 Identify at least three African cultural concepts you see represented in the text
and where (see Table 5.1 in Chapter 5).
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
4 Select which emancipatory pedagogies you would use to teach the text (see
Table 1.2 in Chapter 1 and Ms. Hart’s use of these six pedagogies in Chapter 2).
How would you explain these selections to a colleague?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
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About the Authors
Joyce E. King, Ph.D., holds the Benjamin E. Mays Endowed Chair for Urban
Teaching Learning and Leadership at Georgia State University and is Professor
of Educational Policy Studies and affiliated faculty in the Department of African
American Studies. Her research and publications address a transformative role
for culture in teaching and teacher preparation, Black Studies curriculum theo-
rizing, community-mediated research, and dysconscious racism, the term she
coined. King has international experience teaching, lecturing, and providing
professional development in Brazil, Canada, China, England, Jamaica, Japan,
Kenya, Mali, New Zealand, and Senegal. She is the 2014–2015 president of
AERA.
Ellen E. Swartz, Ph.D., is an independent scholar and education consultant in

curriculum development and the construction of culturally informed instruc-
tional materials for K-12 teachers and students. As the former Frontier Chair in
Urban Education at Nazareth College, Dr. Swartz conducted research on the
knowledge base of preservice teachers in urban education as part of identifying
how teacher educators can more effectively prepare teachers for urban schools.
She has also published in the areas of education history, emancipatory pedagogy,
and the concept of “re-membering” as an approach to achieving more compre-
hensive accounts of the past.
Index
Page numbers in italics denote tables, those in bold denote figures or vignettes.
Abel, J. 87, 100, 102 African Diasporan cultural continuity:

Abímbólá, W. 9 absent in mainstream content 114–15;
abolition movement, role of Black men in emancipatory pedagogy 94, 151; in
and women 71 environmental justice movement 141;
accurate scholarship: as culturally informed in Harriet Tubman 65; in Jeanes
principle 42–5; experiencing the teachers 88
principle of multiple ways of knowing “African epistemology” (Nkulu-
through 43–5; using the principle in N’Sengha) 28
Black Community Building 42–3 African epistemology: concepts included
Adams, H. 43 in 2, 3; element of worldview 2, 3, 32;
Adinkra symbols 51–2 and multiple ways of knowing 44–5
Africa, cultural legacy of 5 African Nations: and cultural sovereignty
African American Cultural Dimensions, 136; European provocation of 69;
Boykin’s 3, 41 indigenous voice of 67; knowledge
African American leadership, in the and specific skills of 70–1; practices of
environmental justice movement 6–7
139–41 African ontology: in African worldview
African cultural concepts: in African 2, 3, 126; concepts included 2;
Diasporan topics 136–41; in the connected to Afrocentric concepts
classroom 141–5, 150–1; and 13–14; examples of 34; gathering
environmental justice 135, 145–9; as together in harmony 103; the nature
expressions of worldview and cultural of existence in 2
continuity 11, 112–14, 119, 120, 154; African worldview: brought by people
and Harriet Tubman 124–5, 126; as enslaved in the Americas 136; cultural
influencing emancipatory pedagogy 28, framework 2–4; cultural knowledge 4–5
36; and meaning 135; source of 122–3 (see also cultural knowledge); elements
African cultural platforms: communal 3, 13–14; heritage knowledge 4;
responsibility 55–7; culturally practiced by ancestors 124; presence of
authentic assessment 50–3; eldering ancestors 147; relationship between
36–8; listed 32 freedom and 6–9
Index 159
Afrocentric theoretical concepts 13–14; Black community building: and

examples 17; which define Afrocentricity 29–30; agency and
emancipatory intent and character 13 self-sufficiency 45; culturally informed
Afrocentricity: Black Community Building principles 30; evidence of inclusion 31;
and 29–30; concepts and worldview 13; final unit assessment 48–50; and the
culturally informed principles and history of Black migration in the U.S.
emancipatory pedagogy 15–18; 42–3; and parental knowledge of
overview 9–12; recognition of cultural Kwanzaa Principles 39; portrayal of
connection 40 historic events 45; using the principle of
Against Epistemic Apartheid (Rabaka) 87 accurate scholarship 42–3; using the
agency: absent in the grand narrative of principle of inclusion in 31; using the
slavery 67; assumptions about 71; in principle of representation in 38
Black towns 45; for community Black intellectual tradition 1, 5, 9, 15,
well-being and belonging 11; among 68
teachers and students 5, 16, 19, 21, 46, Black migration to the Midwest 42, 47
48, 115; modeled by Teaching for Black towns: descriptions of 31, 38, 43,
Freedom 127; of Jeanes teachers 103; 45, 47–8, 53–4; established 30; teaching
outcome of black history research 94 about 33, 33–5, 39–40, 48–50
Akan communal standards 52 Blackmon, D. A. 87
Akan concepts 51–2 Boas, F. 92
Americans: A history of the United States, The book groups, example of pedagogical use
(Fenton) 74 49
Americas, the: land theft and genocidal Boykin, A. W. 3, 38, 41
depredations suffered by the Indigenous Buddhism 123–4
peoples of 68 Bullard, R. D. 140–1, 143
Amoyi Awodele’s description of Yoruba
teachings 8–9
ancestors, place in African worldview 124, capitalism, slavery and the emergence of
147 69
Anderson, J. 98–9 Catholic Church, justification of
Anyanwu, K. C. 53, 55 European induced wars among African
Appleby, J. 73 Nations 69
Arab practices of enslavement 67 chattel slavery: compared to domestic
Armstrong, Samuel C. 90 servitude 70; the European institution
Asante, K. W. 52 70; justified by false dominant cultural
Asante, M. K. 1, 10, 12 assumptions 71; roots of the European-
Association for the Study of Negro Life driven system 69
and History 92–4 Chirhart, A. S. 89
Atlanta Compromise speech, B. T. Cimarrones 136
Washington’s 91 Civil Rights movement 90, 141, 144, 151
authentic authority of eldership, the classrooms: connecting to community 52;
(African cultural concept) 28, 115, experiencing the classroom in cultural
120 terms 41, 141–51; ideas about what the
axiology, definition 3 classroom should look like 38–40; as a
place of belonging 58
Baluba proverb 47 collective consciousness: C. G. Woodson
Bântu-Kôngo proverbs 57 and the Jeanes teachers 92; defined 13;
being responsible to bring good into the Jeanes teachers’ use of the concept 89,
world through actions that are ethical, 95–8
just, generous, compassionate, and collective humanity: absence of the
peaceable (African cultural concept) principle in the grand narrative of
120, 141, 145 slavery 72; as culturally informed
best practices 11–12 principle 53–7
160 Index
collective responsibility: definition 2; the U.S. annexation of Hawaii 117;

Jeanes teachers’ use of the concept using other worldviews and 123–4;
98–101; protecting childhood as a 135, Vietnamese 123; widening the cultural
137–8, 141 field 118–24; worldview, examining
communal responsibility: African cultural culture through (see also African
platform 55–7; community oriented worldview; worldview)
features 55; definition 54; as cultural concepts in the classroom:
emancipatory pedagogy 57; classroom observation 144–50;
experiencing the principle of collective interdisciplinary unit on the
humanity through 54–7; teachings 55 environment 142; preparing an
communalism 3, 41, 121, 124 environmental justice unit 142–4
community-oriented features 55 cultural continuities: as heritage
competition as essential to making knowledge 4; experienced through
progress 113, 118, 122 pedagogy 29; in Black towns 48;
continuity, practicing cultural concepts disrupted by master script 76;
and 134–54 “re-membered” 64, 80–1; retained
convict leasing 92, 99 69–70
Cooper, A. J. 89 cultural dimensions, Boykin’s research 41
cooperation, place in African ontology 2 cultural knowledge: defined 4, 125;
cooperative learning, and traditional impact of teachers’ learning and use of
African and Indigenous worldviews 119 4; importance of incorporation into
critical thinking: Akan symbolism 51–2; as teaching practice 5; learning through
culturally informed principle 47–53; 124–7
experiencing through culturally cultural legacy, African Diasporan 5; of
authentic assessment 48–53; function of community building 43; disconnection
the principle 47; the grand narrative of from 12; of justice 104; exemplified by
slavery’s role in blocking 70, 75, 77; the Jeanes teachers 108–9
role of learning history 135; stimulating cultural sovereignty, as the right of all
48 people 136
cultural concepts: African see African culturally authentic assessment: African
cultural concepts; African American cultural platform 50–3; community
leadership in the environmental justice oriented features 55; concepts mirrored
movement 139–41; and African in African worldview 50; as
compared to European worldviews emancipatory pedagogy 48–53;
122–3; in the classroom see cultural epistemic features supporting the
concepts in the classroom; pedagogy of 53; experiencing critical
disconnection from content and thinking through 48–53; teachers’ use
pedagogy 113–15; dysconsciousness in of 125
the Anglosphere 115–18; embodied by culturally informed principles: accurate
Harriet Tubman 124; in the scholarship 42–5; application to the
environmental justice movement 141; grand narrative of slavery 67; collective
examples 114; as expressions of a humanity 53–7; content and pedagogy
European worldview 113; fate of in 16–17; critical thinking 47–53; and
mainstream schooling 113; freedom and emancipatory pedagogy 15–18; example
cultural sovereignty 136–7; identifying 17–18; inclusion 31–8; indigenous
115–41; learning through heritage voice 45–7; listed 32; representation
knowledge and cultural knowledge 38–42; used to describe the enslavement
124–7; protecting childhood as a of African people 77
collective responsibility 137–8; culturally informed teaching, benefits of
“re-membering” 112–27; 41
“re-membering” in the classroom
141–50; and the shaping of pedagogical Darwin, C. R. 121
practices 115–16; and teaching about Davis, J. 93
Index 161
death, in Akan cosmology 51 environmental justice: African cultural

demonstrating concern for human welfare concepts and 145; preparing a classroom
through actions based on community unit 142–4; teaching unit 145–9
mindedness and service to others environmental justice movement: cultural
(African cultural concept) 112, 120, concepts embodied by participants 141;
124, 125, 126, 135, 138, 140, 144, 145, using Teaching for Freedom to teach a
151 lesson on 139–41
differentiated instruction 12 environmental racism 140–1, 144
Dillard, H. 103 epistemology: definition 2; see also African
disconnection, experienced by students of epistemology
African ancestry 42 equity, teacher activism and struggles for
divination, definition 2 101–3
domestic servitude: African conception Europe: discarding of domestic servitude
70; various forms existing in mid-15th 69; exploitation of African peoples’
century Europe and Africa 69 knowledge and skills through system of
Dopamu, A. P. 9 slavery 71; transfer of wealth from
Dorsey, I. 137–8 Africa to 67
Douglass, F. 73 European cultural concepts 113, 115, 116,
Drake, F. C. 77 117, 118, 122
Du Bois, W. E. B. 88–9, 91–2 European ontological orientations 12, 116,
dysconscious racism, definition 68 117–18
dysconsciousness: in the Anglosphere European slave trade: results of the
115–18; antidote for 68–9; the concept “enterprise” 67–8; see also slavery
of 68; definition 42; programming and European slave trading, African resistance
acceptance of societal practices 118 to 69
European worldview: compromising of
eldering: African cultural platform 36–8; cooperative learning and environmental
community oriented features 55; well-being by 118; elements 115, 116;
defining 37; as emancipatory pedagogy shaping of U.S. pedagogical practices by
33–8; experiencing the principle of 12; value of individual mindedness 12
inclusion through 33–8; vignette of the excessive reliance on authority 118, 122
pedagogy 33–5 exhibiting self-determination that
elders, Ikuenobe on 36–7 considers the needs of the collective
eldership, ethical aspect in indigenous (African cultural concept) 112, 120,
African education 37 140, 145
Emancipation Proclamation, Lincoln’s 72 existence, the nature of in African
emancipatory pedagogies: communal ontology 2
responsibility 54–7; culturally
authentic assessment 48–53; eldering Fairclough, A. 101, 108
33–8; S. Goodwin’s observations 134; families: as carriers of culture 39, 151;
listed 32; locating students 38–42; engaged in instruction 40, 47–50, 125,
multiple ways of knowing 43–5; 127, 134–5, 142, 144, 145–9; and
question driven pedagogy 45–7; culturally authentic assessment 52; and
“re-membered” 10 the environment 139, 141; and heritage
emancipatory pedagogy: connecting and cultural knowledge 125, 151; and
culture to content and 28–58; culturally Jeanes Teachers 95–7, 99, 106; and
informed principles and 15–18 Kwanzaa Principles 4; relationship to
empathy 2, 7, 34, 44, 46 teachers 39, 50; and Songhoy elders 55;
enslavement: Arab practices 67; absence of and Teaching for Freedom model 18,
cultural continuity in teaching about 36, 55, 58, 113, 150
African people in the Americas 114; Fayemi, A. K. 55
racist justification 71 Foresman, S. 74
environment, interdisciplinary unit on 142 Franklin, J. H. 98
162 Index
freedom: and cultural sovereignty 136–7; Herring, Lucy Saunders 104–6

enslaved Africans’ understanding of 7–8, hidden communities, formation of by
9; as inherent right 112, 115, 124, 136; enslaved African people 136; see also
Yoruba teachings 8 Maroons
Fugitive Slave Act (1850) 75 Hilliard, A. G., III 134
Fu-Kiau, K. K. B. 55–6 Hine, D. C. 93
history, primary purpose of learning 135
Gage, Thomas, petition to 64 history of African people, representation
gaining knowledge for the purpose of in the curriculum 114
bringing goodness, harmony, and Hwehwemudua 51, 52
balance into the world (African cultural
concept) 120, 145, 151 Ikuenobe, P. 36, 55
Gender and Jim Crow (Gilmore) 101 imperialism: as presented in New York
Ghana 77, State Regents exam 117
Gilmore, G. E. 100, 101–2 inclusion: as culturally informed principle
Goodwin, S. 52, 134 31–8; experiencing the principle
grand narrative of slavery: and its through eldering 33–8
assumptions 65–8; collective humanity, indigenous voice: as culturally informed
absence of the principle 72; continued principle 45–7; experiencing the
presentation of 64–5; and the corporate principle through question-driven
delivery of Harriet Tubman 74–6; pedagogy 45–7
erasure of the resistance role of African industrial education 91; the aim of 91,
people 71; errors and distortions, 98–9; Hampton-Tuskegee model 90–1;
identifying 67; impact of the role of U.S. philanthropy 92; V.
unrelenting presence 68; indigenous Randolph’s advocacy 93; see also
representation, lack of 67; perpetuation Hampton-Tuskegee philosophy;
by master scripts 72; perpetuation of the Rosenwald schools
racial superiority ideology through 71; inherent right of freedom (African cultural
racist shaping 71; reframing 68–72; concept) 112, 115, 120, 124, 126, 136
scholarship omissions 70; vignette 66 inherent worth of all humans (African
grand narratives, master scripts, and time cultural concept) 120
72–3
inquiring (the acknowledgment of not
GTEA (Georgia Teachers and Education
knowing) as a source of true knowledge
Association) 90
(African cultural concept) 114, 120,
Gyekye, K. 55
125, 126, 151
interconnectedness: as African
Hale, S. 73
cosmological assumption 44; as African
Hall, G. M. 9
Hampton Institute 89 cultural development 122–3; the
Hampton-Tuskegee philosophy 90, 92–3, concept of 44–5; place of in African
98–9 ontology 2; see also perceiving the
harmony, African ontological definition 2 interconnectedness of all life including
Hawaii, U.S. annexation: pedagogical the unseen world
perspective 117 intuition-reasoning: defined 2, 44; an
heart knowledge, as an epistemology 14; epistemology 14, 32, 34, 119, 126
in an African worldview 44
heritable epistemologies held by people of Jeanes, A. T. 87, 90
African ancestry 43–4 Jeanes Teachers (McClure) 87
heritage knowledge: as birthright of Jeanes teachers: and B. T. Washington’s
African Americans 4; defining 4; educational philosophy 91–2; C. T.
importance of incorporation into Jordan 97; and the fight against white
teaching practice 5; learning about supremacy ideology 92; first Jeanes
Harriet Tubman and the expansion of supervisor 90; growing interest 90;
125; learning through 124–7 Herring’s development of in-service
Index 163
training programme 107; Herring’s Kwanzaa Principles see Nguzo Saba

responses to ethical challenges 107–8; (Kwanzaa Principles)
Jordan’s methods and innovations
97–8, 100; legacy of hope 108–9; L. Landrum, T. 139–40, 143, 147
Haynes Session 104, 105–6; L. Langston, Oklahoma 45
Saunders Herring 104–6; M. McIver language: cultural perspective 55–6; and
102; namesake 87; ostensible function heritage knowledge 8–9, 53; H. O.
88; Randolph’s methods and Maïga on 55; and understanding the
challenges 95–7; “reading” African concept of slavery 70
Diasporan cultural continuity in learning environments, research on 41
emancipatory pedagogy 94–108; learning history, primary purpose 135
“re-membering” the 87–109; Lincoln, A. 72
resistance to racialized curricular locating students: as African cultural
inequality 99–102; and the right to platform 40–2; community oriented
self-determination and freedom 92–4; features 55; definition 38; as
teacher activism and struggles for emancipatory pedagogy 38–42; as the
equity 101–3; in their own words subjects of instruction 15; teachers’ use
103–8; use of in British colonial and of 125
missionary schools 92; V. Randolph 95 love, dignity, and decency as shared by all
Jeanes teachers and Afrocentric theoretical (African cultural concept) 120, 138
concepts: collective consciousness 95–8; Lunsford, C. T. 138
collective responsibility 98–101; lynching 92
reclamation of cultural heritage 103–8;
subjects with agency 101–3 Maafa: definition 5; obstructions to critical
Jim Crow 54, 87–9, 101–3 examination of 71
Johnson, A. 92 Maat: definition 3–4; an element of African
Jordan, C. T. 97 worldview 3, 13–14; and the Jeanes
Journal of Negro History 92, 94 teachers 104, 108, 109; related to cultural
concepts 125, 126; view of humans 6
Karenga, M. 6, 9, 31, 112, 122 Maat, the Moral Ideal in Ancient Egypt
Kelley, H. 139, 143, 147 (Karenga) 112
Kente cloth 77 McCabe, E. P. 43
King, J. E. 68, 157 McClure, P. 87–8, 95, 96
knowing as a communal experience in McIver, Marie 102
which everyone has something to Maïga, H. O. 55
contribute (African cultural concept) Makandal, F. 137
28, 114, 119, 120, 125, 126 Maroons: leader 136; uprising 137
knowing that cultural sovereignty is a Matemasie 51, 52
common right of all Peoples (African Mazama, A. 10
cultural concept) 115, 120, 136, 140, Mbiti, J. S. 121
145 miseducation, dysconscious racism as
knowledge: African people came to the outcome of 68
Americas with 71; ethical dimension Modupe, D. S. 10
in African societies 37; heritage motivation: enhancement of by culturally
and cultural 4–5 (see also heritage informed teaching 41; increasing
knowledge; cultural knowledge); through student participation 49
marginalization of African/Indigenous multiple ways of knowing: as African
knowledge in the academic literature cultural platform 44–5; community
and school knowledge 119 oriented features 55; defining 43; as
Konadu, K. 67 emancipatory pedagogy 43–5;
Ku Klux Klan, Black responses to the experiencing the principle of accurate
actions of 45 scholarship through 43–5
Kwanzaa 4 Myers, L. J. 10
164 Index
NAACP (National Association for the proverbs: of the Akan 37; of the Baluba
Advancement of Colored People) 90 47; of Bântu-Kôngo 56–7; in Odù Ifá 6;
nature of existence, in African ontology 2 place in the cultural platform 32, 36,
“negro” education, maintenance of white 56; source of epistemology 3
supremacy through 88 public spaces, privatization of 118
Negro History Bulletin 94 pursuing freedom and justice as communal
Negro History Movement 94 responsibilities (African cultural
Nguzo Saba (Kwanzaa Principles): examples concept) 113, 120, 124, 126, 136, 141,
of classroom use 39–40; parental 145
knowledge of and Black Community
Building 39; the Principles 4 quantum physics 122
Nhat Hanh, T. 123–4 question-driven pedagogy: African cultural
Nkulu-N’Sengha, M. 28, 37, 47, 51, 113 platform for 47; community oriented
Norrell, R. J. 91 features 55; defined 16, 55; as
Nsaa 51, 52 emancipatory pedagogy 16, 19, 28,
Nzinga, Queen of Matamba 69 45–7, 126; experiencing the principle of
indigenous voice through 45–7; listed
Odù 103 32; teachers’ use of 125, 143, 145–9,
Odù Ifá: African worldview elements 149–50
evident in 6–8, 108; ethical teachings Quilombolas 136
6
On the Origin of Species (Darwin) 121 Rabaka, R. 87
only the strong survive: value in European racism: environmental 140–1, 144; of
worldview and cultural concepts 115, Southern White planter 88
116, 118, 122 Randolph, V. E. 90, 93, 95–7
ontology: in African worldview 2, 3, 14, reciprocity 4, 6–7, 12, 54, 56–7, 112, 125
126; definition 2 reclamation of cultural heritage:
open-ended questions, examples of 143 Afrocentric concept 14, 30, 79; framing
of the Harriet Tubman story 80; Jeanes
Palenques 136 teachers’ use of the concept 103–8
Palmares 136 Reconstruction: conditions following
parent involvement, adjusting ideas about 88–9, 95; and migration 29, 43, 46; in a
the meaning of 39 “re-membered” account 17–18;
peonage 92, 98 Washington’s belief about 91
perceiving the interconnectedness of all relational knowing: as epistemology 2, 3,
life including the unseen world (African 14, 32, 43, 119, 125, 126; expression
cultural concept) 115, 119, 122, 124, of African worldview 2, 3, 113, 114,
141, 144 126; in the classroom 46; of Jeanes
performance: as instructional approach 52; teachers 98; in pedagogy 16; in
normalcy of 52 Yoruba thinking 7
Persistence and Sacrifice (Abel) 87 representation: as culturally informed
Plessy v Ferguson Supreme Court decision principle 38–42; experiencing the
88 principle through Locating Students
Port Arthur Community In-Power 38–42; using the principle in Black
Development Association 139, 143 Community Building 38
Principles: place in the African resistance: to conquest and enslavement
worldview 4; see also culturally 53, 69, 71; of Jeanes Teachers 89, 103,
informed principles; Nguzo Saba 109; as related to cultural concepts
(Kwanzaa Principles) 136–7; of White people who supported
protecting childhood as a collective Harriet Tubman 80
responsibility (each child is everyone’s Robinson, E. A. 138
child) (African cultural concept) 120, Rockefeller, J. D. 88
135, 137, 141, 145 Rose, J. E. 138
Index 165
Rosenwald, J. 88, 98 6, 7, 67; European disruptions of 69;

Rosenwald schools 97, 99–100, 102 language of 55–6, 70
Spencer, H. 21
SBA: The reawakening of the African mind standardized assessment: cultural roots 113;
(Hilliard) 134 compared to culturally authentic
Scott Foresman publishers 74, 76–7 assessment pedagogy 52
segregation: the Dorsey family’s Still, W. 9
experience of 137; in housing patterns Story of the Negro Retold, The (Woodson)
140; Plessy v Ferguson 88; presentation 72, 74
in “re-membered” student text 151; student learning, assessing through
vignette 152–3 community informed standards and
self-determination: as Afrocentric concept expectations 48
14, 30, 67; as cultural concept 112, 120, subjects with agency: Afrocentric concept
137, 138, 140, 145; examples of 73, 76, 14, 17, 30, 67, 79, 94; Jeanes teachers’
79, 80, 89, 101, 136, 138; Jeanes use of the concept 101–3
teachers and the right to freedom and survival of the fittest: European worldview
92–4; and the maintenance of cultural (ontological orientation) 12, 113, 117;
concepts 125; Nguzo Saba Principle 4, Herbert Spencer and Charles Darwin
13–14, 125, 126, 149; in the Odù Ifá 7; 121
in “re-membered” accounts 17, 38, 53; survival of the group: African worldview
role of the Maroons 136 (ontological orientation) 3; and the
self-liberated men and women: Harriet Jeanes Teachers 108, 109; in traditional
Tubman 75; names for 136 African and Indigenous societies 121
self-sufficiency: in Black Community Swartz, E. E. 157
Building 45; in Jeanes teachers 100 symbolic imagery: as epistemology 2–3, 3,
Semmes, C. E. 10 32, 119; as expressed in cultural
Senghor, L. S. 44 concepts 114; in heart knowledge 44
Session, L. Haynes 104, 105–6
share cropping 98–100 teacher activism, and struggles for equity
sharing freedom as a human entitlement 101–3
(African cultural concept) 29, 120, 122, Teaching children of color: Seven constructs of
124, 136 effective teaching in urban schools
sharing responsibility for communal (Goodwin/Swartz) 134
well-being and belonging (African Teaching for Freedom: African Diasporan
cultural concept) 2, 28, 113, 135, cultural continuity 21, 65, 113–15, 127,
137–9, 144 137, 141–2, 151; and African
Singleton, B. 43 worldview 6, 11; Afrocentric praxis 11,
Slater, J. 88 151; becoming practitioners of 151–4;
slavery: academics and 68; classroom and cultural continuity 4, 80–1, 151;
discussion about Black people’s defined 1, 36; education as a shared
expectations of life after 43–4; responsibility 58; and Harriet Tubman
classroom discussions about what 55, 65; and heritage and cultural
happened after abolition 46; different knowledge 64, 124–7; and the Jeanes
conceptions of 70; and the emergence Teachers 87–8, 95, 103; and meaning
of capitalism 69; exploitation of African 113; as a model 5, 18, 127, 150; need
peoples’ knowledge and skills through for the praxis in student and teacher
71; Lincoln’s attitude towards 72; learning 64; in other worldviews 123–4,
resistance to 71; see also cchattel slavery; 127; teaching a lesson on the
grand narrative of slavery environmental justice movement
Slavery By Another Name (Blackmon) 87 through 139–50; teaching a
Smith Fletcher, J. 43 “re-membered” text (content and
social interaction 12 emancipatory pedagogy) 28–58
Songhoy: African and Indigenous Nation Tedla, E. 37
166 Index
test-driven scripted curriculum, the “re-membering” of African cultural

preponderance of 12 concepts in the classroom 145–9;
textbooks: justifications for slavery in 72; “re-membered account of Harriet
presentation of Harriet Tubman 74; Tubman 78–9; “re-membered” account
review of 19th-century to present 65; of segregation and the Montgomery
what master scripts do 73 Bus Boycott 152–3; use of eldering
transfer of wealth, from Africa to Europe pedagogy 33–5
67 violence 46, 54
transmission pedagogy 11, 52, 115; and virtues (Maatian): in African worldview 2,
teaching about the annexation of 3, 3, 7, 13–14, 126; in Jeanes Teachers
Hawaii 117–18 108, 109
Tubman, Harriet: African worldview 76, voting rights 90
79, 80; and African cultural concepts
124, 126; Afrocentric concepts and Waghid, Y. 55
culturally informed principles 77, 80; Washington, B. T. 89–91, 98
benefits of cultural continuity in the wealth, transfer of from Africa to Europe
presentation of 4; biographers’ omission 67
of any discussion of her African ancestry Wells, I. B. 89
77; corporate delivery of 74–6; cultural westward movement 31, 48
continuities, “re-membering” 64–81; in white racial superiority: grand narrative of
cultural knowledge; 4–5; as forerunner slavery and the normative belief
of Teaching for Freedom 55; Ghanaian structure of race 71; omitted in the
enstoolment 77; in heritage and cultural master script from textbooks 73
knowledge 124–5, 126; learning about white supremacy: assumption of the right
and the expansion of heritage to dominate 67; and the denial of
knowledge 125; “re-membered” Black education 91; distortion of
vignette 78–9; representation in school conceptualizations of African Peoples
materials 65; U.S. status 74; worldview 10; and the intentional provision of
and cultural concepts 124 sub-standard education 88; Isabella
Tuskegee Institute 89, 92; see also Dorsey’s experience 137; Jeanes
Hampton-Tuskegee philosophy teachers and the fight against the
ideology of 92; Jeanes teachers’
Ubuntu 103, 108 struggle against the regime of 101;
Underground Railroad 8–9, 74–5, 80 maintenance of through “negro”
Underground Railroad: Authentic narratives education 88; methods of challenging
and first-hand accounts, The (Still) 9 the ideology 89; using black history
United States, role of Black men and research and teaching to combat 94;
women in the abolition movement 71 Washington’s accommodation or
contradiction of 91; Woodson’s fight
values, African 3, 3, 38, 40, 119, 124, 125; against the ideology 92
of the Akan 51; in Black towns 48; white supremacy racism 5, 91, 137
communal 5, 56; connection to African wholeness 2, 119, 124; definition 2; see
worldview 13–14, 126; in definition of also interconnectedness
culture 2; in Odù Ifá 6–7; European Williams, M. 92
116; of Jeanes teachers 95, 103, 108; in wisdom: Akan proverbs 37; eldership and
language 55; in proverbs 56 37; the relationship between knowledge
viewing nature as whole and and pursuit of 37
complementary (not contradictory), Woodson, C. G. 9, 65, 72, 74, 89, 91,
including the material and social worlds 92–5, 109
(African cultural concept) 120 Work, M. N. 92
vignettes: Amoyi Awodele describes his worldview: beyond the Anglosphere 119;
father’s Yoruba teachings 8–9; the defined 2; central tendencies of cultural
grand narrative of slavery 66; observing groups 120–2; as dynamic concept 121;
Index 167
dysconscious acceptance of European knowledge 4, 5, 124–5, 126; not all the

elements and cultural concepts 122; same 122–3; Vietnamese 123–4; see also
European cultural concepts 115, 116; African worldview
European worldview 12, 113, 114,
115, 117–18, 127; examining cultural Yoruba ethical teachings 6–9; see also Odù
differences through 120–2; and Ifá
freedom 6–9; and heritage and cultural

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THE AFROCENTRIC PRAXIS OF

TEACHING FOR FREEDOM

Ellen E. Swartz is an independent scholar and education consultant in curriculum

Joyce E. King and Ellen E. Swartz

ISBN: 978-1-138-90493-4 (hbk)

A Note about the Cover Image viii

1 Introduction: “Re-­membering” More 1

3 Harriet Tubman: “Re-­membering” Cultural

4 “Re-­membering” the Jeanes Teachers 87

5 “Re-­membering” Cultural Concepts 112

6 Practicing Cultural Concepts and Continuity 134

About the Authors 157

In early discussions related to this volume, we were thinking of it as a sequel to

and performance related to the use of culturally informed instructional materials,

Boykin, A. W. (1983). The academic performance of Afro-­American children. In J.

requested research materials. Finally, we acknowledge teachers and students

In a previous volume, “Re-­membering” History in Student and Teacher Learning:

1 Ontology is the study of being, of what existence and human relationships

Elements of African Worldview*

Ontology Epistemology Axiology Virtues Principles

(ways of being, (ways of (nature and (standards of (concepts of

FIGURE 1.1 Elements of African Worldview.

(use of proverbs, gestures, rhythms, metaphors, and affect) (Abímbólá, 1976;

Justice, Harmony, Balance, Order, Reciprocity, and Propriety (Asante,

Heritage Knowledge and Cultural Knowledge

Worldview and Freedom

the great goods of freedom, justice, love, family, friendship, sisterhood,

Notice the ontological and epistemological orientations of Collectivity,

Amoyi Awodele Speaks

Additional evidence of this African conceptualization and experience of freedom

made visible through African People’s development of

Afrocentric Theoretical Framework

is grounded in African worldview and composed of

The Afrocentric Praxis of Teaching for Freedom

FIGURE 1.2 Afrocentric Praxis of Teaching for Freedom.

Communal Responsibility. Together, “re-­membered” content and “re-­

today, especially with the preponderance of test-­driven scripted curriculum (Au,

Afrocentric Concepts and Worldview

TABLE 1.1 Afrocentric Theoretical Concepts and Worldview Elements

Afrocentric Theoretical Concepts African Worldview Elements

Collective Consciousness—This As an epistemology, Collective

TABLE 1.1 Continued

Centrality/Location—Placing Africa The concept of Centrality/Location is

Understanding how Afrocentric concepts are shaped by the elements of an

Culturally Informed Principles and Emancipatory Pedagogy

T1.2 Culturally Informed Principles: Content and Pedagogy

Inclusion—This principle refers to Students experience inclusion when they

Critical Thinking—This principle refers Students experience Critical Thinking

order of leadership based on knowledge, expertise, and location (standing place)

Accurate Scholarship, Critical Thinking, and a Collective Humanity) frame and

Journeying Toward Freedom

theory and culturally informed principles to “re-­member” or put back together

Chapter 4, “ ‘Re-­membering’ the Jeanes Teachers,” examines a much

concepts to shape their presentation of content and selection of pedagogies.

history without global domination. Retrieved from www.asante.net/articles/47/maat-­and-

Dixon, V. J. (1976). World views and research methodology. In L. M. King, V. J.

Idowu, E. B. (1973). African traditional religion: A definition. London: SCM Press.

Nkulu-­N’Sengha, M. (2005). African epistemology. In M. K. Asante & A. Mazama

It should be emphasized here that the specificity of African rationality is to be

worldview, cosmologies, philosophies, and related cultural concepts and practices

A Note about the Cover Image viii

1 Introduction: “Re-membering” More 1

3 Harriet Tubman: “Re-membering” Cultural

4 “Re-membering” the Jeanes Teachers 87

5 “Re-membering” Cultural Concepts 112

6 Practicing Cultural Concepts and Continuity 134

About the Authors 157

Boykin, A. W. (1983). The academic performance of Afro-American children. In J.

In a previous volume, “Re-membering” History in Student and Teacher Learning:

Communal Responsibility. Together, “re-membered” content and “re-

today, especially with the preponderance of test-driven scripted curriculum (Au,

theory and culturally informed principles to “re-member” or put back together

Chapter 4, “ ‘Re-membering’ the Jeanes Teachers,” examines a much

history without global domination. Retrieved from www.asante.net/articles/47/maat-and-

Nkulu-N’Sengha, M. (2005). African epistemology. In M. K. Asante & A. Mazama

While students experience these principles in the “re-membered” content of

knowledge’s sake (Gyeke, 1987; Ikuenobe, 2006; Karenga, 2006a; Nkulu-

Question-Driven Pedagogy—an Emancipatory Pedagogy

African Cultural Platform for Question-Driven Pedagogy

According to Mutombo Nkulu-N’Sengha

saa is a symbol of excellence, genuineness, and

Notice that the community-oriented features of Communal Responsibility are

Likewise, there is no word in Songhoy-Senni for “orphanages,” since there are

Boakye-Boaten, A. (2010). Changes in the concept of childhood: Implications on chil-

By using Afrocentric theoretical concepts such as Centrality/Location, Self-

A “Re-membered” Account of Harriet Tubman