International Journal of English Language,

Education and Literature Studies (IJEEL)

ISSN: 2583-3812 Journal Home Page: https://ijeel.org/
Vol-2, Issue-2, Mar-Apr 2023 Journal CrossRef DOI: 10.22161/ijeel

Pre-Modern Islam: The Practice of Tasawwuf and its

Influence in the Spiritual and Literary Cultures
Summaiya Kashif

Article Detail: Abstract

Received: 11 Feb 2023; The modern narrative of Islam is one which differs from the
Received in revised form: 07 Mar 2023; pre-colonial narrative. The practice of Tasawwuf is a sacred
one and not many people are aware of the actual core and
Accepted: 16 Mar 2023;
values of it. However, its concepts of Tawheed, Ihsan, and
Available online: 24 Mar 2023 Tahqiq have been present since pre-colonial South Asian
©2023 The Author(s). Published by Islam. This paper focuses on pre-modern South Asian
International Journal of English Language, Islamic traditions along with the influence of Tasawwuf
Education and Literature Studies (IJEEL). This is during the Mughal era and their evolution with time by
an open access article under the CC BY license comparing them to global Islamic traditions while outlining
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). some similarities as well by exploring the literary culture.
This paper argues how Islam now is a rigid system but that
Keywords— Tasawwuf, Modern Islam,
had not always been the case and also rebuttals the claims of
Pre-colonial Islam, Mughals, Literature,
western historians.
Spirituality, Tawheed, Ihsan, Tahqiq.

1. Introduction concepts in pre-modern Islam by exploring the texts

The modern narrative of Islam or rather the and lectures studied in this course. The second half of
modernization of Islam believed that religion had this paper will focus on comparing South Asian
been tainted by “Hindu” influences and that the Islamic traditions with other global Islamic traditions
Quran and Sunnah, (the acts performed or narrated and the differences and similarities found amongst
by the Prophet P.B.U.H) – needed to be used as the them. While also relating the different cultures of the
main fundamental sources to reform Islam in the Islamic culture with the Mughal’s worldview. Finally,
modern context without these influences. It has been I will study the influence of poetry on Islamic values
made into a rigid and binary system where if you do throughout history and to this day.
not follow it exactly, then you are believed to be
wrong. If you are found guilty of indulging in 2. Truth behind the Spread of Islam
something haram (prohibited in Islam) then you are
It is a popular misconception that Islam was
labeled as a “bad” Muslim. However, this was not
spread through conquests and people were forced
always the case. Pre-modern South Asian Islamic
into conversion. This myth was spread by western
traditions were not always this rigid and before
writers in the 18th – 21st century along with the
colonization, these traditions and Islamic culture
belief that the purpose of these conquests was the
were considered to be a worldly and sophisticated
Islamization of these areas. This could not be further
blend of the religion’s core values of peace and
humility. than the truth as the Caliphate circles wanted to keep
Islam amongst the elites and only expanded their
In this paper, I will first discuss how Islam economic and political power through their swords.
spread in pre-modern times and rebuttal the claims Moreover, in reality, Islam started to spread by Shi’a
stated by western historians. I will also explain the Isma’ili preachers known as Da’is who set out to
pre-colonial narrative of the Indian Muslims share and promote the Islamic message. However, it
regarding Islam and the role of Sufi thoughts and was the Sufis who traveled extensively and it was

Article DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijeel.2.2.2

©International Journal of English Language, Education and Literature Studies (IJEEL) 6
 Kashif, International Journal of English Language, Education and Literature Studies (IJEEL), 2023, 2(2)
Mar-Apr 2023

through their work and dedication that the current Quran and Sunnah but after much analysis and
Muslim populations of Asia and Africa were brought investigation, included the cultural ideas they got
towards the faith of Islam (Winter, 2017). from other sources than the Prophet P.B.U.H. The
The term “Sufism” used by western openness and acceptance of these new ideas in the
historians is defined as viewing Islam from a mystical Islamic worldview helped evolve the Islamic
point of view. Hereby, in the paper, the word traditions and cultures (Zayd, 2006). For them,
“Tasawwuf” will be used to denote “Sufism” and religion could not be put in a box and it was not
these practices. Unlike the modern narrative of Islam, limited to one view as it was diverse. The Sufis believe
Tasawwuf is not a rigid system. There are several that there is not a single correct way to reach God
Sufi orders or silsilas in which mystical knowledge instead the number of roads you can take to reach
that is acquired by the founders of that God is as many as the number of people who seek
particular silsila is passed onto its followers. For God meaning everyone can have a unique and
example, the “Chishtiyya” silsilah is said to be different way to reach God. This can be understood
founded by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti. Unlike, the through the poem Hadiqatu’l – Haqiqa by Abu’l
modern Islamic “firqas” or sects of Islam, these Majd Majdud Sana’I in which he narrated the tale of
different silsilas existed in harmony and there was no the elephant and blind men. When the blind men
hostility amongst them as the Sufis believed that a were asked to assess and guess what they were
spiritual influence could be limited to a particular dealing with by touching them, all of them came up
crowd or territory. The main goal of these silsilas was with different answers. As they all touched a different
to promote the simple life of the Prophet P.B.U.H and part of the elephant none of their answers matched.
his followers and to practice abstinence along This showed how if we just accept reality as we are
with Zikr, the different ways to remember God than told and not look into the different and diverse views,
just the conventional prayers. The Sufis were able to then we choose to remain ignorant (Rizvi, 1921).
spread Islam through their acts of kindness and by Similarly, pre-modern Indian Muslims had various
helping anyone regardless of their religion in times of ways of viewing religion and although there were
need. Their kanqahs, a place they would use for differences between these views, all of them were still
spiritual reformation - was always open to everyone, accepted which is similar to the Sufi order of the
and through their prayers and selfless actions, people different silsilas; they can be different from one
were motivated and inspired to join them (Buehler, another but the followers are not hostile with one
2022). another.

Contrary to what western historians believe

Islamic traditions were not foreign to contemporary 3. Concepts of Tasawwuf:
Indian elites. They did not specifically target the Just like the concept of silsila and the
Muslims but instead considered them to be one of the acceptance of new ideas within religion, there are
many sophisticated ethnic groups found in South other Sufi Islamic concepts that influence pre-
Asia. Pre-colonial Indian Muslims were continuously modern Islam. The concept of Tahqiq can be
looking for ways to expand Islamic culture and this understood through the story of the elephant and the
was not limited to just area but stretched towards blind men. Tahqiq is a term used to define all the
incorporating new ideas as well. Different sorts of diverse ways we can look at reality and when we do
capital be it economic capital through the conquering not just simply accept what we are told but do our
of territories to the intellectual capital absorbed from exploration and research as well. These diverse truths
these different areas led to the expansion of the pre- that we find come together and form the bigger
modern Islamic civilization. Modern religious picture or Whole Reality which is known as “Haqq”.
thinkers look for authentic answers and want religion This also helps us achieve ma’arifat which means to
to be original and not move away from its “roots”. learn through experience. We can observe the pre-
However, Islamic tradition developed and grew with modern South Asian Islamic view of embracing new
time as they moved to new lands and saw new ideas, cultures from different lands, new markets in
cultures. Before western colonization, Muslims were the Islamic worldview making it universal, meaning
not keen on restricting religion and deeming actions including everyone and that Islam is for all times and
as “Islamic” and “non-Islamic” as for them religion not restricted to just one territory, time, or space
or din was universal. Pre-colonial Indian Muslims (Vantanpour, 2020).
managed to not only set their ideas based on the

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Although in conventional modern Islam the one practices Tawhid that means he does not believe
emphasis is mostly on God’s anger or Jalal, this was in any other God. A common ground for pre-modern
not always the case. In pre-modern Islamic times, Indian Muslims and the Sufis is the thought that
much importance was given to God’s beauty there is only one God who created this universe and is
or “Husn”. Through different Sufi forms of zikr, such responsible for all of us and that His communication
as sama (remembering God through did not stop with the Prophet P.B.U.H instead that
music), qawwali, calligraphy, poetry, and other God at some point in our lives does communicate
forms we not only learn to find our with us be it through His creations, His rewards or
Creator’s husn everywhere but to appreciate it as punishments in this world. Not just the Sufis but
well. The way Sufis learned to appreciate and some of the pre-modern Muslim thinkers also believe
recognize beauty is known as “Tariqah”. If one wants that anyone who is sincere at heart and through his
to be a student and learn the practice of recognizing actions is capable of finding the Whole Reality
this husn and producing and creating it in all aspects or Haqq (ElSenossi, 2021).
of life means you have to be a Muhsin and be aware The first half of this paper is now complete
of Ihsan. A Muhsin is one that lives with Ihsan, and the focus will shift from defining the key features
meaning a person who remembers that God is aware of Tasawwuf and finding their place in the pre-
of all our actions, thoughts and feelings regardless of colonial South Asian Islam and will now focus on
us showing them in front of others or hiding them, South Asian Islamic Culture and the role of its
God always knows and as told by the Prophet literary and spiritual cultures not only throughout
P.B.U.H, “It is that you should serve Allah as though history but the effect it has even today.
you could see Him, and even though you may not see
Him yet He sees you.” To not acknowledge and to be
ignorant to the omnipresence of God is to be ignorant 4. Practicing Islam in Pre-Modern Islam:
of our purpose in this life. To act and live accordingly From understanding Tasawwuf and the
knowing that God is watching us is to differences between pre-colonial and modern Islam,
practice Ihsan. When one purifies one’s actions and one thing that we know for sure is that Islam is not a
thoughts and lives with not the fear of God but the monolithic religion. Even in South Asia, we observe a
motivation to seek His beauty, then only is he a contrast of Islamic traditions that are present not
true Muhsin. This practice of Tasawwuf led the pre- only due to differences in social status and class but
colonial Indian Muslims to be so inclusive and also traditions change according to the place and time
welcoming to new cultures and traditions other than we live in (Eaton, 2006). South Asian Islam is home
the ones taught through the Quran and Sunnah. to practices that have been thought of as
Contrary to what is believed today the goal was not to controversial and are not generally accepted in other
dismiss the Quran and Sunnah but to determine global Islamic traditions. An example of such practice
where to apply it and its scope in this vast field of can be of Tasawwuf.
knowledge (Lumbard, 2004).
The reason behind this can be is
Finally, a very important concept that that Tasawwuf consists of an inclusive and flexible
Muslims of all time can agree to is that system that is not so harsh. The belief in Saints and
of Tawhid. The pre-modern universal worldview of the different rituals and forms of Zikr the Sufis
Islam included believing that there is one God, one choose to perform is what makes them different from
truth, one reality, one universe, one world, and one the other global traditions. Rabi’a al-Basri, believed
humanity. The importance of Tawhid reflects itself as to be the first true Saint to the Sufis demonstrated
it is the first testimony of faith. To not only recite but what it means to worship God out of love for Him and
to believe in your heart and soul that “There is no god not due to the fear of His wrath. This notion was very
but God” (la ilaha illa Llah). Despite having different popular in pre-modern South Asian Islam and the
traditions, thoughts, and views, one thing that united stories and biographies of these Saints are what
all Muslims was that one day we all will return to our helped preserve their lessons. Along with the faith in
one God. God Himself has sent this revelation Saints, practices such as Sama, which is a popular
through different prophets with the specific purpose form of Zikr that is often met with criticism due to
to maintain this one truth (Lumbard, 2004). The the use of music to remember God but is one that has
modern Islamic concept of Tawhid just refers to the been highly influential. People all over the world,
belief that there is only one God and one must living whether they are Muslims or not enjoy listening to
according to the Quran and Sunnah meaning that if soulful Qawwalis and lose themselves in this

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Mar-Apr 2023

devotional form of music which helps purify not only yaktayi). Western historians have often shown Akbar
their thoughts but their minds as well (Bhutia, 2018). as a proud and greedy emperor who rejected Islam
Moreover, Sufis not only perform the obligatory and formed his own religion, “Din-i-Ilahi”. However,
prayers but just like the Prophet P.B.U.H and Ahl-al that was certainly not the case as based on a
Suffa, they perform other rituals and free prayers. translation of Ain-i-Akbari, document on the
For them, religion is not just what was dictated in the administration of the Mughal Empire under Akbar,
Quran and Sunnah but the different ways one can he simply stated that he had distanced from the
appreciate and remember God and His beauty (Rizvi, traditional and world Islam and had become closer to
1921). Even though, there are differences present the Divine-Faith which was the spiritual faith. Since
between South Asian and global Islamic culture some the Sufi religious authority was established before the
similarities can be found as well. The South Asian arrival of the Mughals, they simply incorporated
central Perso-Islamic culture which is found not only them within their lifestyle and coexist within the
in Lahore but has found its way to Delhi and Deccan, Mughal rule and it was not until Aurangzeb that this
we can observe several similar Persian traditions and was no longer the case as he instilled a very
styles (Eaton, 2006). traditional Islam (Nanavati, 2021).
Not just the spiritual influence but it
5. Sufi Culture through the Literary and important to study the influence of literary culture in
Mughal Lenses: the Islamic tradition. It was believed that literal
verbal expression is never enough to express our love
Similarly, the influence of the Sufi culture
for God and to praise His Beauty. The Sufis saw how
can also be seen in literature. It was because of the
the poets expressed their love for their beloved
Sufi influence on Persian poetry that Ghazals were
through ghazals and wanted to do the same to
given a proper form. Ghazal in Islamic cultures and
express their love for the Divine and to praise Him.
languages is very popular and is a term used for
Through this form of poetry, they wanted to feel what
romantic poetry which is written with a proper set of
it was like to become one with Him as for them God
rules. The first Persian ghazal where the influence
was their ultimate Beloved. Rumi, a Sufi master
of Tasawwuf can be seen is Sanāʾī’s ḡhazals. Sufi used ghazals to not only preach the teachings of God
beliefs and vocabulary became embedded in the but for mystical expression as well (Yarashater,
Persian cultural climate and were embraced widely 2006). It is no doubt that in pre-modern times one
by the people including literals (poets) of the was not identified by their religion and this is also
Ottoman Empire and Turkic Central Asia seen through Bulleh Shah’s, “Holi Kheloo’ngi Keh kar
(Yarashater, 2006). Bismillah.” In modern times playing Holi is
Along with poets, even the Mughal emperors considered a sin without any evidence but in pre-
were also influenced by the Sufis and they too modern South Asian Islam, it was considered a
incorporated some Sufi traditions or practices. celebration everyone could take part in. Just like
Humayun, the second Mughal emperor was a Bulleh Shah another famous Sufi poet, Amir Khusrau
dreamer and believed in the cosmological sciences. wrote a qawwali about the celebration of Holi, “Aaj
Not only did he consult the planets to determine the Rang Hai Re Maa” where he also talks about
color of his clothing but he also consulted them to celebrating Holi while simultaneously remembering
arrange his court’s schedule (Levrier-Jones, 2021). God (Safvi, 2021). As we have learned throughout
Both Humayun’s father and son were Murids – this paper, Islamic values have changed from pre-
disciples of the Sufi order. Akbar who was the latter is modern times to what they are today and this is
said to have experienced a spiritual moment while reflected in the art of poetry as well. Whereas at first
hunting. It is narrated that when the time of hunting we had poets writing about being lost in the love for
was near, Akbar suddenly was overwhelmed by a God, now we find poets writing about worldly matters
strong emotion and saw a divine flash of eyes which and problems. Although this is not always the case as
he believed was the Ultimate Truth or Haqq that was poetry describing love is still written but this theme
shown to him by God. Moreover, Akbar at his Ibadat of writing about loss is present in a lot of writings.
Khana (place of worship) at Fatehpur Sikri would Naseer Turabi’s famous ghazal, “Wo Hamsafar Tha”
invite Sufi scholars and scholars from different (Rekhta, 2020) is an example of a modern era poem
cultures and traditions to understand the signs where he expresses his sorrow over the loss of
of Tawheed, the meaning and nature of the signs of Bangladesh and wrote it quite beautifully as a
Oneness (fahm o fitrat-e nishaan-e farewell piece after the 1971 East Pakistan partition.

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6. Conclusion [7] Nanavati, M. (2021). Akbar, the great enigma. New

Acropolis Library. Retrieved from
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helping me understand religion critically and
41532401#:~:text=Sufism%20spread%20throughout%20the
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