Course: Human Development and Learning (8610) Semester: Spring, 2023

Assignment -02

Q.No.1 What is emotional development? Why is it important?

Ans-
Emotional development, emergence of the experience, expression,
understanding, and regulation of emotions from birth and the growth and
change in these capacities throughout childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.
The development of emotions occurs in conjunction with neural, cognitive, and
behavioral development and emerges within a particular social and
cultural context.
Infancy

The expression of emotions during infancy promotes the transition from

complete dependency to autonomy. The expression of interest promotes
exploration and cognitive development. Social (intentional) smiles and other
expressions of joy promote social interaction and healthy attachment
relationships with primary caregivers. The expression of sadness
encourages empathy and helping behaviour, and the expression of anger signals
protest and discomfort. Infants’ unique tendency to experience and express
particular emotions and the threshold for expressing those emotions is usually
referred to as their temperament or characteristic emotionality.

Researchers generally agree that neonatal (nonintentional) smiles are present

at birth and that social smiling and emotional expressions of interest appear as
early as six weeks of age. By four to five months of age, infants selectively smile
at familiar faces and at other infants, and their caregivers begin to share positive
emotional exchanges with them.

Researchers disagree in their explanations of the development and time of

emergence of discrete negative emotional expressions. Consistently with the
view that infants express negative emotions in early infancy, scientists have
shown that infants perceive and respond differentially to the negative emotional
expressions (e.g., sadness, anger) of others by the age of four months.

During the second six months of life, as infants gain rudimentary cognitive
and memory capacities, they begin to express particular emotions based on
context. Emotions begin to emerge dynamically as the infant begins to take a
more direct role in emotional exchanges with caregivers. The emotional bond
Course: Human Development and Learning (8610) Semester: Spring, 2023

with the caregiver is increasingly important, as infants seek support for

exploration and look for signals of danger.
Toddlerhood and early childhood

During the toddler period, in conjunction with rapid maturation of the frontal
lobes and the limbic circuit in the brain, recognition of the self emerges. As a
result, the toddler strives to become more independent, and the expression of
anger and defiance increases in that struggle for autonomy. The ability
to differentiate the self from others also promotes basic empathetic behaviour
and moral understanding. By the end of the second year of life, toddlers respond
to negative signals from others, and they have specific emotional responses to
their own negative actions. The emotions that emerge with a
rudimentary conception of the self are often called self-conscious emotions and
include shame, embarrassment, guilt, and pride. Some self-conscious emotions,
such as pride and guilt, do not emerge until toddlers and young children have
learned to conceptualize internalized standards of behaviour.

As children enter preschool, they begin to label their own emotions and rely on
discourse about emotions within the family to facilitate their understanding of
basic emotions. Young children first distinguish happiness from negative
emotions and then begin to distinguish negative emotions such as sadness,
anger, and fear from each other. They begin to recognize these emotions in
facial expressions, and then, as they enter middle childhood, they begin to
understand situational determinants of emotions. An understanding of
emotional subjectivity also develops as children learn that what makes one child
happy may not make another child feel the same way.

The emergence of emotional self-regulation is particularly important during

early childhood and occurs in the context of family and peer relationships. Open
expression of positive emotions and warm, supportive relationships between
parents and children promote effective emotional self-regulation. On the other
hand, frequent expression of negative emotions in the family and
harsh, punitive disciplinary responses increase the experience of distressing and
dysregulated emotions that may lead to psychopathology. Appropriate peer
relationships characterized by shared play activities are also important for the
development of emotional regulation during early childhood. Children gain
emotional understanding and the capacity for empathetic and helping
behaviour from well-regulated emotional exchanges with peers.
Middle and late childhood
Course: Human Development and Learning (8610) Semester: Spring, 2023

During middle and late childhood, stable self-concepts based on the child’s
typical emotional experiences emerge. With the increased capacity for self-
reflection, children gain an understanding of their self-conscious emotions. As a
result, the consistent experience of patterns of self-conscious emotions has an
impact on the child’s self-concept. For example, the tendency to experience
shame rather than guilt in response to negative transgressions affects the child’s
emergent self-esteem and may encourage a tendency to respond with
aggression or violence.

Also during middle and late childhood, children begin to understand that a single
situation or event can lead to the experience of multiple, mixed emotions. For
example, older children understand that a goodbye party for a sibling who will
leave for college is likely to be both a happy and a sad event for the child and his
sibling. This capacity likely emerges with the cognitive capacity to understand
multiple aspects of a situation, called decentration.

Children also learn emotional display rules as they progress through middle and
late childhood. For example, a child learns to look happy even though she feels
upset when a friend or family member gives her an undesirable gift. The use of
display rules tends to increase as children begin to consider what consequences
their actions may have for others. Display rules are used judiciously, and the
likelihood of suppressing negative emotion depends on a number of factors,
including the child’s gender, the likely recipients of the expression, the specific
context, and the child’s cultural

Q.No.2 Discuss the factors which may affect moral development

Ans-

Influences on Moral Development

Like most aspects of development, influencing factors are multifaceted. Moral

development is strongly influenced by interpersonal factors, such as family,
peers, and culture. Intrapersonal factors also impact moral development, such
as cognitive changes, emotions, and even neurodevelopment.

Interpersonal Influences

Children’s interactions with caregivers and peers have been shown to influence
their development of moral understanding and behavior. Researchers have
addressed the influence of interpersonal interactions on children’s moral
Course: Human Development and Learning (8610) Semester: Spring, 2023

development from two primary perspectives: socialization/internalization

(Grusec & Goodnow, 1994; Kochanska & Askan, 1995; Kochanska, Askan, &
Koenig, 1995) and social domain theory (Turiel, 1983; Smetana 2006). Research
from the social domain theory perspective focuses on how children actively
distinguish moral from conventional behavior based in part based on the
responses of parents, teachers, and peers (Smetana, 1997). Adults tend to
respond to children’s moral transgressions (e.g., hitting or stealing) by drawing
the child’s attention to the effect of his or her action on others and doing so
consistently across various contexts.

In contrast, adults are more likely to respond to children’s conventional

misdeeds (e.g., wearing a hat in the classroom, eating spaghetti with fingers) by
reminding children about specific rules and doing so only in certain contexts
(e.g., at school but not at home) (Smetana, 1984; 1985). Peers respond mainly
to moral but not conventional transgressions and demonstrate emotional
distress (e.g., crying or yelling) when they are the victim of moral but not
conventional transgressions (Smetana, 1984). Children then use these different
cues to help determine whether behaviors are morally or conventionally wrong.

Research from a socialization/internalization perspective focuses on how adults

pass down standards of behavior to children through parenting techniques and
why children do or do not internalize those values (Grusec & Goodnow, 1994;
Kochanska & Askan, 1995). From this perspective, moral development involves
children’s increasing compliance with and internalization of adult rules,
requests, and standards of behavior. Using these definitions, researchers find
that parenting behaviors vary in the extent to which they encourage children’s
internalization of values and that these effects depend partially on child
attributes, such as age and temperament (Grusec & Goodnow, 1994). For
instance, Kochanska (1997) showed that gentle parental discipline best
promotes conscience development in temperamentally fearful children.
However, the same parental responsiveness and a mutually responsive parent-
child orientation best promote conscience development in temperamentally
fearless children. These parental influences exert their effects through multiple
pathways, including increasing children’s experience of moral emotions (e.g.,
guilt, empathy) and their self-identification as moral individuals (Kochanska,
2010).

Moral Development in the Family

In the formation of children’s morals, no outside influence is greater than that

of the family. Through punishment, reinforcement, and both direct and indirect
Course: Human Development and Learning (8610) Semester: Spring, 2023

teaching, families instill morals in children and help them to develop beliefs that
reflect the values of their culture. Although families’ contributions to children’s
moral development are broad, there are particular ways in which morals are
most effectively conveyed and learned.

Justice

Families establish rules for right and wrong behavior, which are maintained
through positive reinforcement and punishment. Positive reinforcement is the
reward for good behavior and helps children learn that certain actions are
encouraged above others. Punishment, by contrast, helps to deter children from
engaging in bad behaviors, and from an early age helps children to understand
that actions have consequences. This system additionally helps children to make
decisions about how to act, as they begin to consider the outcomes of their
behavior.

Fairness

The notion of what is fair is one of the central moral lessons that children learn
in the family context. Families set boundaries on the distribution of resources,
such as food and living spaces, and allow members different privileges based on
age, gender, and employment. The way in which a family determines what is fair
affects children’s development of ideas about rights and entitlements, and also
influences their notions of sharing, reciprocity, and respect.

Personal Balance

Through understanding principles of fairness, justice, and social responsibilities,

children learn to find a balance between their own needs and wants and the
interests of the greater social environment. By placing limits on their desires,
children benefit from a greater sense of love, security, and shared identity. At
the same time, this connectedness helps children to refine their own moral
system by providing them with a reference for understanding right and wrong.

Social Roles

In the family environment, children come to consider their actions not only in
terms of justice but also in terms of emotional needs. Children learn the value
of social support from their families and develop motivations based on kindness,
generosity, and empathy, rather than on only personal needs and desires. By
Course: Human Development and Learning (8610) Semester: Spring, 2023

learning to care for the interests and well-being of their family, children develop
concern for society as a whole.

Morality and Culture

The role of culture on moral development is an important topic that raises

fundamental questions about what is universal and what is culturally specific
regarding morality and moral development. Many research traditions have
examined this question, with social-cognitive and structural-developmental
positions theorizing that morality has a universal requirement to it, drawing
from moral philosophy. The expectation is that if morality exists, it has to do
with those values that are generalizable across groups and cultures.
Alternatively, relativistic cultural positions have been put forth mostly by
socialization theories that focus on how cultures transmit values rather than
what values are applied across groups and individuals.

Q.No.3 Discuss language development at preschool and kindergarten level.

Ans-

Language development in children: what you need to know

Language development is an important part of child development.

It supports your child’s ability to communicate. It also supports your child’s

ability to:

• express and understand feelings

• think and learn
• solve problems
• develop and maintain relationships.

Learning to understand, use and enjoy language is the first step in literacy, and
the basis for learning to read and write.

How to encourage early language development in children

The best way to encourage your child’s language development is to do a lot of

talking together about things that interest your child. It’s all about following
your child’s lead as they show you what they’re interested in by waving, babbling
or using words.
Course: Human Development and Learning (8610) Semester: Spring, 2023

Talking with your child

From birth, talk with your child and treat them as a talker. The key is to use many
different words in different contexts. For example, you can talk to your child
about an orange ball and about cutting up an orange for lunch. This helps your
child learn what words mean and how words work.
When you finish talking, pause and give your child a turn to respond.

As your child starts coo, gurgle, wave and point, you can respond to your child’s
attempts to communicate. For example, if your baby coos and gurgles, you can
coo back to them. Or if your toddler points to a toy, respond as if your child is
saying, ‘Can I have that?’ For example, you could say ‘Do you want the block?’

When your child starts using words, you can repeat and build on what your
child says. For example, if your child says, ‘Apple,’ you can say, ‘You want a red
apple?’

And it’s the same when your child starts making sentences. You can respond and
encourage your child to expand their sentences. For example, your toddler
might say ‘I go shop’. You might respond, ‘And what did you do at the shop?’

When you pay attention and respond to your child in these ways, it encourages
them to keep communicating and developing their language skills.

Reading with your child

Reading and sharing books about plenty of different topics lets your child hear
words used in many different ways.

Linking what’s in the book to what’s happening in your child’s life is a good way
to get your child talking. For example, you could say, ‘We went to the playground
today, just like the boy in this book. What do you like to do at the playground?’
You can also encourage talking by chatting about interesting pictures in the
books you read with your child.

When you read aloud with your child, you can point to words as you say them.
This shows your child the link between spoken and written words, and helps
your child learn that words are distinct parts of language. These are important
concepts for developing literacy.

Language development: the first eight years

Here are just a few of the important things your child might achieve in language
development between three months and eight years.
Course: Human Development and Learning (8610) Semester: Spring, 2023

3-12 months

At three months, your baby will most likely coo, smile and laugh. As they grow,
your baby will begin to play with sounds and communicate with gestures like
waving and pointing.

At around 4-6 months, your baby will probably start babbling. Baby will make
single-syllable sounds like ‘ba’ first, before repeating them – ‘ba ba ba’.

Babbling is followed by the ‘jargon phase’ where your child might sound like
they’re telling you something, but their ‘speech’ won’t sound like recognisable
words. First words with meaning often start at around 12 months or so.

If your baby isn’t babbling and isn’t using gestures by 12 months, talk to your GP
or child and family health nurse.

12-18 months

At this age, children often say their first words with meaning. For example, when
your child says ‘Dada’, your child is actually calling for dad. In the next few
months, your child’s vocabulary will grow. Your child can understand more than
they can say. They can also follow simple instructions like ‘Sit down’.

18 months to 2 years

Most children will start to put two words together into short ‘sentences’. Your
child will understand much of what you say, and you can understand most of
what your child says to you. Unfamiliar people will understand about half of
what your child says.

If your child doesn’t have some words by around 18 months, talk to your GP or
child and family health nurse or another health professional.

2-3 years

Your child most likely speaks in sentences of 3-4 words and is getting better at
saying words correctly. Your child might play and talk at the same time.
Strangers can probably understand about three-quarters of what your child says
by the time your child is three.

3-5 years
You can expect longer, more complex conversations about your child’s
thoughts and feelings. Your child might also ask about things, people and
Course: Human Development and Learning (8610) Semester: Spring, 2023

places that aren’t in front of them. For example, ‘Is it raining at grandma’s
house, too?’

Your child will probably also want to talk about a wide range of topics, and their
vocabulary will keep growing. Your child might show understanding of basic
grammar and start using sentences with words like ‘because’, ‘if’, ‘so’ or ‘when’.
And you can look forward to some entertaining stories too..

5-8 years

During the early school years, your child will learn more words and start to
understand how the sounds within language work together. Your child will also
become a better storyteller, as they learn to put words together in different
ways and build different types of sentences. These skills also let your child share
ideas and opinions. By eight years, your child will be able to have adult-like
conversations.

Q.No.4 Elaborate 'learning as modification of behavior'.

Ans-
So we have hit that dreaded part of the summer. That part, where instead of
just beach days you can almost see your classes around the corner. Many
fellow high school seniors are just experiencing (if they haven’t already) that
universal “oh no I’m actually applying to college” as the Common App opens.
And it can all feel a little overwhelming sometimes.

As students in 2022, we are faced with constant pressure. There’s pressure for
academic success, stemming from your parents… or even yourself. There’s
pressure to look a certain way or act a certain way. There’s pressure from all
these apps to have that idyllic lifestyle we all see constantly promoted to us.
Life is not surrounded by perfect moments though – that’s not reality.

There are weeks when it feels like every single teacher has given me a test to
study for but somehow, I still have to make time for my part-time job and a
million other little things. There are days I feel like I could cry from all the
pressure building up. There are even minutes when I seriously consider fleeing
the country just to avoid all this stress.

There are ways to overcome it though and as we get back into this school year,
I wanted to share what gets me through my anxiety.
Course: Human Development and Learning (8610) Semester: Spring, 2023

The first thing I always look towards is my friends. I’m never going through
anything truly alone, and I know it’s a cliche saying, but it’s a cliche for a
reason. They have the same tests as me, they’re applying to colleges right now,
and they know what it’s like to fight with siblings. I know I can always lean back
on them, and they can expect the same from me.

The second thing I do when I’m overwhelmed is procrastinating. Now, I’m NOT
recommending procrastinating but procrastinating taught me that the only
way I can overcome these moments is by working through them. I make lists of
what needs to get done and do some serious triage. Then I go through the list
one at a time and tackle these projects.

My last suggestion is to remove yourself from the situation for a minute and
try to just get some perspective. This is just one hour, one day, or one week in
your life; sometimes we need to just remind ourselves that there will be a next
week or that this test is not the “end-all-be-all” we make it out to be.

It seems like whoever said “it gets easier” was seriously lying to us. I don’t
know if it necessarily gets easier, it feels like as I get older it just gets infinitely
more complicated, but it does get better in a lot of ways. If you’re someone
who feels like they struggle with anxiety also, try to keep these few tips in
mind. Also, remember that there are resources for your mental health beyond
just the ones mentioned above.

Make Change

Having spent several years in public education, I’ve often wondered what traits,
skills, and strategies help students become successful. I am by no means an
expert, but I do believe I can draw some connections between student practices
and “success” as best we can measure it. At the Tyler Clementi Foundation,
success means being an Upstander and encouraging others to do the same by
acting with integrity, kindness, empathy, and compassion; it also means
working tirelessly to create inclusive environments in their school, workplaces,
or faith communities. In essence, their goal is to make positive change in their
community.

Our Youth Ambassadors program brings together students from around the
country to plan anti-bullying actions in their communities. My role as the
program manager is to educate and coach students toward planning successful
events, campaigns, and projects. Part of that work includes identifying how
Course: Human Development and Learning (8610) Semester: Spring, 2023

bullying is a problem, to whom/where it occurs, and how to best encourage

Upstander behavior. Across various school and community contexts, our Youth
Ambassadors are deeply invested in kindness, empathy, and compassion for
others, regardless of their real or perceived differences. So what does it take to
be successful in change-making work? These are some of the skills and habits
that have enabled students to succeed in bringing about positive change. Skills
and habits that, I would guess, also encourage success in their academic,
professional, and personal lives.

Lead by Example, Be Community-Minded, and Set Clear Goals

Our Youth Ambassadors truly exemplify the positive change that they hope to
see in their schools, workplaces, and faith communities. They treat others with
respect, kindness, compassion, and always strive to do the right thing.

They also think locally by working to identify specific problems facing students
in their communities. Not all students experience bullying, but many still see it
is a serious problem that deserves our attention. Our students are most
successful when they focus on those most negatively impacted by bullying and
harassment.

Finally, they set clear goals for their anti-bullying work. Importantly, Youth
Ambassadors understand that planning a project will be nearly impossible
without a clear goal. As such, they work backwards from their end-goal to
complete detailed action steps while remaining focused on the big picture.

Stay Curious, Humble, and Positive

Upstanders are curious and humble about diversity, equity, and inclusion. As our
country becomes more diverse, successful young people understand the need
for inclusive spaces that promote affinity among peers. Students who are
successful in this work know that everyone’s experience is unique and a strong
community member seeks to understand the perspectives of those who are
different from them.

They stay focused on a positive message. Our student Upstanders understand

that positive change comes from positive messages. Therefore they work to
promote kindness, empathy, and compassion. Essentially, instead of getting
caught up in negative experiences with bullying, they encourage others to be
Upstanders.

Education and Effective Communication for Change

Upstanders understand that change comes through education and prioritize
effective communication strategies. While we certainly need policies and
Course: Human Development and Learning (8610) Semester: Spring, 2023

regulations to protect students from bullying, we believe that when people

understand the harmful effects of bullying, they will be more likely to show
kindness for others. Our students who are successful, use this theory of change
to educate their peers about why bullying is a serious issue worthy of their
attention.

When our Youth Ambassadors succeed, they are often thinking deeply about
how they are communicating. Growing up in the digital age, many of our
students have an innate understanding of communicating on social media and
through other new forms of digital communication. Part of our work is to
encourage them to think about their audience and how to best encourage them
to be Upstanders.

In outlining these skills and habits, I can’t help but think they would be worth
some reflection. I, for one, have learned a lot and been inspired by our Youth
Ambassadors. Whether you have a young child or work with students, these
habits of change-making are worth recognizing.

Q.No.5 Explain different areas of individual differences.

Ans-
Individual Difference
Man differs in his physical developments structurally and functionally. These
differences are seen in height, weight size of the body, structure of different
parts of the body, color of hair, skin, physical strength and precision.

Individual Difference in Psychology: Area # 2.

Mental Differences:
Mental difference are noticed in the form of perception, concept formation,
imagination, formation of imaging, memory and attention.

Difference in Intelligence:
Difference in intelligence level is seen in individuals into different categories
such as genius, gifted, superior, bright, averages, imbeciles and idiots on the
basis of their intelligence level.

Difference in Interests:
Interest differs from individual, to individual, man to woman, adolescent to
adult, society to society and culture to culture. Every man has his own interest.
Boys and girls greatly differ in their interests in choosing courses, books,
pictures, games and dresses.
Course: Human Development and Learning (8610) Semester: Spring, 2023

Difference in Attitudes:
As far as attitudes are concerned man differs from other. A person has different
attitude towards people, institution, customers and traditions, religions, and
social phenomena. A man tells/ thinks the laws of society as good and bad
depending on his attitude. Attitude forms in environment. Different persons
have different attitudes towards casteism, religion, regionalism, linguism,
political parties and administration.

Difference in Aptitude:
An aptitude is any special ability that is possessed by an individual. Men differ
their aptitude related to musical, poetic, mechanical, artistic, games and sports
etc.

Difference in Achievement:
Individual differs from others due to his achievement in various fields of life
related to academic, social, mental, emotional, moral, spiritual and intellectual.
This depends on previous experiences. Sometimes it is seen that one can achieve
much more than what is expected from them on the basis of their intelligence
level.

Personality Difference:
Person differs from other person due to his personality traits, temperaments,
qualities and behaviour. It is exhibited that some persons are extroverts and
some are introverts which are manifested by their activities.

Emotional Differences:
In case of emotions one differs from other. Some persons loose their emotions
and some persons do not loose their emotions. It is observed that someone
controls his emotions and others get irritate very quickly. On the other hand one
has the ability to control the emotions with patience and tolerance. In some
cases listening the serious facts one may start shading tears.

Social Differences:
Some social factors like co-operation, sacrifices, leadership, marriage ceremony,
any social function one individual differs from others in performing the social
functions. Someone feel hesitate to mix with others where as some are shy and
fail to mix with strangers.