Assignment of industrial /Organizational

psychology

Topic: -
Motivation
➢ Nature of motivation
➢ Theories of motivation
➢ Using motivation at work

Submitted to:
Ma’am Razma
Submitted by:
Group No 1
Maria Ghaffar (740)
Natalia Liaqat (737)
Faiqa Riaz (724)
Bushra Muqaddas (707)
Amina Murtaza (709)
Anam (708)

Government Municipal Graduate College Faisalabad

MOTIVATION Page 1
 “Motivation”
Definition: -
The word motivation comes from “mover” the Latin word meaning that “to
move”
Psychologists who study motivation focus on internal and external Influence that might
move a person. Motivation refers to the influences that govern the initiation, direction,
intensity, and persistence of behavior.
Motivation is the general term for the process of starting, directing and Concept that collects all the
internal mechanisms. Involved in,
a) Preference for one activity over another
b) Persistence of organized patterns of action towards relevant
c) Vigor of responses
Motivation refers to a set of physiological forces that influence behavior in three different
ways i.e.,
1. By changing our level of activity.
2. Directing our actions toward particular goals
3. By making us responsive our certain goal related stimuli.
Our motivated person shows an organized, directed pattern of behavior that includes these
three characteristics:
1. Motivation is a set of one or more conditions which activate the behavior
2. direct the behavior towards some goal and
3. Maintain behavior until the goal is reached
Homeostasis:
Process of internal equilibrium is called homeostasis.
It is the t of organism to maintain physiological system in a steady state. Harvard
psychologist, Walter Cannon, who developed the concept of homeostasis, suggested that
organisms constant change environmental and internal needs.
Cannon called this process so inspiring in both its complexity and effectiveness, that it was
said to reflect ‘wisdom of the body.
Factors Aspects of Motives:
The factors that direct and energize behavior are called motives. That each motive can be
analyzed in following factors
NEED DRIVE INCENTIVE EFFECT

Need:
Physiological deficiency in organism's body is called Need .
Need creates tension and imbalance in the body.
DRIVE:
Psychologists usually use the label "drive" to mean motivation for action that is assumed to
be primarily biological instigated as in hunger
”Robert Woodworth” introduced the Concept of motivation as an inner that determines
behavior he defines drive in biological terms as drive released from an organism store.
According to “Woodworth” drive is energy like the fuel in a vehicle, providing the energy
of movement, other mechanisms determine when and where the vehicle goes, as well as the
quality of the ride.
Psychologists vary in their usage of motivational concepts. Some refer to use the term
“need” only in-connection with biological demands, others think that “need" appropriate in
MOTIVATION Page 2
discussing psychological. While radical behaviorists such as Skinner reject all motivational
concepts, other learning theories, Such as Clark Hull and Neal Miller, propose strong
necessary link between motivation and learning they argue that an unmotivated organism in
passive, does not act, does not explore it environment and, therefore, does not learn about the
consequences or its deal value. Its psychological counterpart is drive, an aroused state or
urge, responding.
Incentive:
An external stimulus anticipated as a reward, which directs and incentive
energizes behavior, is considered incentive. It is the incentive which makes the organism
ready to face difficulties in the goal seeking. Some psychologists consider incentive as a co-
native aspect of motivation.
Effect:
Incentive causes the satisfaction. This satisfaction can be physical a well as
psychological. If this last part becomes positive or soothing, then organism becomes
homeostatic. In case of negative effect stress, anxiety or Irritability occurs, that indicates
motive is still unsatisfied. So organism has to restart all process.
Classification /types of motives
Needs drives instincts are the basic concept which is used by different psychologist as
motives.
Different types are given by psychologist like
1. Murray’s classification
2. Common classification
Murray’s classification:
Murray believed that there are many independent humans needs they are present in various
degree for us.
He classifies them in two categories: -
such as psychogenic which are
• As psychological or learned needs.
• Other group is of viscerogenic needs for food water and oxygen
Common Classification:
Motives are divided in two major categories as
➢ Primary motives
➢ Secondary motives
Primary motives:
1. Hunger
2. Air
3. Thirst
4. Tempratureregulation
5. Sleep motivation
6. Pain reduction
7. Sexual motive
8. Maternal motives
9. Oxygen motives
10.Fatigue reduction
11.Bowl and blader motive
12.

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Hunger:
Is powerful motive and the most studied one also hunger is one aspect of general process
which is required to maintain the body balance.
Water B .cannon was one of the first person who studied the stomach activity during
hunger .
Cannon experiment (cramps)
The rule of hypothalamus:
The hypothalamus is generally acknowledged to be the master control center for all
homeostatic process. Animal will not eat at all if lateral hypothalamus is destroyed.
The significant of thirst is more than hunger we would die several days deprived of water
more than 70 %of weight is accounted for by water.
It also necessary
• For survival
• Internal mechanism
• Thermostatic systems
• Water meter
Temperature regulation:
The ability to keep ourselves at the comfortable temperature is the prominent role of
homeostatic
Limits (our cell cannot function certain limit of temperature of above 45%)
Hypothalamus (the interior hypothalamus function like a thermostat )
Clothing (we put extra warm clothing when we feel cold and when we feel warm we take off
warm clothes or seek a cooler spot)
Sleep motive:
Sleeping is parallel to eating and drinking
• Body time
• Individual differences
• Lack of sleep
• Psychological patients
Analgesia:
Parents recusing their children from accident
Sexual motives:
Sex is also consider a powerful motive it is unlearn motive that humans share with other
species
Maternal motive:
It is unlearn motive that why not one tell the mother how to take care of her kids
Oxygen motive:
It is the most important motive which must be fulfilled at any cost. We Can’t survive
without it. Deprivation of oxygen, even for minutes, causes death. When we breathe we
inhale Oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide.
Psychological Fatigue:
Neurasthenia or psychological fatigue is a type of Psychological disorder.in which patient
complaints about the fatigue without any work and after taking a lot of rest, his fatigue is not
reduced

MOTIVATION Page 4
Fatigue reduction:
After doing some job or hard work task continuously for hour our body become fatigued
Lactic acid:
Thickness of blood
Bowl and bladder motives:
It is also called excretory motives in which left over of digestion process excretory out of
body after secretion, organism remain healthy and feels satisfied
Secondary motives:
Secondary motives, which are not basic, biological or directly related our survival, are the
learned, social.
Secondary motives are necessary and important as they are learned through socialization
everyone wants to meet these needs according to one’s own priority in unique manner
through socialization.
. There is a long list of secondary motives, but for our understanding we can distribute them
in following group
1. Social Motives2
2. Psychological Motive
3. General Motive
Social motive:
These are the motives which are related to our social life but all t motives are also
psychological in nature. Social motives compel the individual to live in a social group. As
humans are considered social animals they can’t live alone Social approval and social
comparison also include in this group
Social approval
It is fundamental purely psychological and social need the need to other approve of us and
other action. The pioneer investigators of the need for social approval are Douglas Crown
and this social need serves as psychological vitamin, which in turn this social need serve as
psychological vitamins which in turn produces feelings of appreciation and reward.
Social comparison:
Individual living in social group compares his self with others in all field of life as in status,
job, sports, money, power, king and disliking etc.
Psychological motives:
One can say whatever happens with individuals can be labeled as psychological but
different psychologists use this term in their own way.
Maslow explained his motivation theory and discussed the need of love and belongingness
self-esteem and self-actualization as psychological motives. He considered self-actualization
as the ultimate goal of the individuals
Let’s discuss in details ….
Affiliation:
Maslow explained it as a need to establish and maintain a relationship with other people.
Most people have this need of affiliation. People who are higher in affiliation need are
particularly sensitive to relationship with other.
Affiliation is a goal which is acquired by some other needs as to escape all avoids anxiety,
to win the approval of other people and strive for affiliation.

MOTIVATION Page 5
Self-esteem:
this motive is actually related to self-respect Doctor Who play pay much importance to this
need they can sacrifice for the shape of their self-esteem studies showed that in salt and
embarrassment are damaging for individual self-esteem so he tries his best put your Lord and
if individuals feels that his self-esteem is at risk then he feed inferiority complex
Self-actualization:
in Maslow hierarchy it is highest need self-actualization is conceived of as a need to fulfill
oneself to become Maslow explains that a self-actualizing person is self-awareness self-
accepting social responsive creative spontaneous and open to novelty and challenge and
other positive attributes
General motives:
there is a long list of general motives also this certification of 1 motive leads to nick next
actually cyclical social and general motive are interrelated power and achievement motive
are closely related but you will see aggression and power are also interdependent some
general motives become so dominant that they are treated as the best motive
Aggression:
Aggression is any physical or verbal behavior intended to halt or destroy
whatever done out of hospitality are as her calculated means to an end Baron and Richardson
define aggression as an act which is intended to harm another person
Fraud:
He proposed that aggression is immediate investible and universal
Causes:
Study showed that aggressive behavior is apparent through our biological system these
influence can be seen at three levels genetic neural and biochemical
Achievements:
Henry Murray defined the individual's needs for achievement as a desire for significant
accomplishment for mastering skills or ideas for control and for rapidly attaining a high
standard no people with a high need for achievement are motivated to master task by their
sport business operation intellectual activities the need for achievement is a stable learned
character Mystic in which rectification is obtained by striving for the attaining a level of
excellence put on the alright high achievement motivation is associated with feature
economic and occupational success.
low motivation
those who have low achievement motivation also prefer to success as success bring them not
joy but real life at having awarded failure people less motivated to achieve do not enjoy or
seek feedback and they tend to respond to failure by quitting.
power motive:
It is a tendency to want to speak impact control or influence on others in order to be seen as a
powerful individual it is represents an additional type of motivation
intensive and extensive motivation
can you two types of achievement motivation operate in
1. intensive
2. extrinsic

MOTIVATION Page 6
Intensive motivation:
motivation to engage in an activity for its own sake is called intrinsic motivation many of
behaviors for which we receive no pay that is doing volunteer work engaging in hobbies are
also involved intrinsic motive
Extrinsic motives:
Motivation extrinsic motivation is seeking external reward and avoiding punishment
standing participation is motivation to engage in an activity for some outside sequences
rather than for its own shake according to Edward daci and Richard Ryan intensive
motivation comes from an underlying need to demonstrate competition and debility to master
situation.
Over justification effect:
if people were suddenly paid for the task which were genetically motivated it evil decrease
the trust in the environment of the activity these phenomena is known as over justification
affected as the decrease interest seems to result from an unnecessary justification for doing
some time something that person already like to do.
Nature of motivation
Motivation is a psychological phenomenon which generates within an individual. A person
feels the lack of certain needs, to satisfy which he feels working more. The need satisfying
ego motivates a person to do better than he normally does.
Motivation is an action or word which influences others in
terms of culture, work, behavior, etc. Motivation is derived from the word motive, which
means a need with required satisfaction. The role of motivation is very high in any
organization or workplace. Motivation can benefit in different ways.
Theories of motivation
There have been many attempts to explain motivation. These attempts differ in their
explanation, as how motivation originates, what processes what processes occur, what is the
role of environment and the personality characteristics originates, the individual.
Psychologists want to know that motivation is a matter of puns drive? What specific
conditions activate behavior or propel an organism drive? Behavior propels an organism or
toward goal? Several theories resolve these problems.
Drive Reduction theory:
Drive theory was proposed by Clark Hull. Hull viewed motivation as necessary for learning
to occur and learning as essential for successful adaptation to the environment.
Like Freud, Hull emphasized the role of tension in motivation reduction as a reinforce. Hull
believed that most human behavior was motivated by learned drives resulting from
experience.
Drive reduction theory suggests that when people lack some basic biological requirement
such as water, a drive is produced to obtain that requirement. Drive is a motivational tension,
or arousal that energizes behavior to fulfill some need.
The main elements of this drive theory are as follows:
1. A biological need triggers a strong drive.
2. This nonspecific drive state energizes random activity
3. When drive tension reduces by random actions, organism stops being active.
4. Tension reduction is reinforcement which strengthens the association between the goal
stimulus and the successful response.

MOTIVATION Page 7
Drive reduction theory emphasizes the role of biological factors, but it is based on the
concept of homeostasis. Homeostasis is the tendency for animals and humans to keep their
physiological systems at a steady level, or equilibrium, by constantly adjusting themselves in
response to change.
According to drive reduction theory, an imbalance in homeostasis creates a need.
Need which is biological requirement for well-being, in turn create a drive. Drive is a
psychological state of arousal that prompts the organism to take action, to restore the balance
to reduce the drive.
For example, if we have no water for some time, the chemical balance of our body
fluids is disturbed, which creates a biological need for water. The psychological
consequences of this need are drive i.e. "thirst". And thirst motivates us to find and drink
water. After drinking, the need for water is satisfied and the drive to drink is reduced. Drive
pushes people to satisfy needs leads to drive reduction and return to homeostasis. Drive
reduction theory incorporates the influence of learning by distinguishing between primary
and secondary drives.
Drive reduction theory is able to account for far more behavior than instinct theory. If
is often noted that humans and animals do such things which obviously do not reduce any
primary or secondary drive. For example, curiosity is a drive; animals frequently explore or
manipulate what is around them even though these activities do not lead to drive reduction.
When new are placed in the environment, most animals smell, touch and manipulate them in
countless ways.
Rats will carefully explore every inch of a new maze; rats will also exert an
extraordinary effort to enter in a new environment, especially if it is complex and full of
novel objects (Beryline, 1960, Dumber, Earl and p Myers and Miller, 1954). Monkeys are
willing to ,pm,, ar 57 " adise, opportunity to satisfy their curiosity (Boles, 1975).
People are no less curious. Most of us check out anything that is and unusual. People
go to the new mall or museum, read the newspaper new travel around the world just to see
what there is to see.
Criticism:
Drive reduction theory has declined in popularity since the 1960s, because of two major
criticisms.
First, it cannot explain why we continue to engage in certain behaviors after our needs are
met. Why we eat a "Gulab Jaman" or "Ruse Malaise" at the end of lunch when we feel full;
why do we buy new scarf, even though we already have a lot.
Such behaviors are better explained by the concept of positive incentive than they are by the
drive reduction.
Second criticism is that drive reduction theory cannot explain why we sometimes seek ways
to increase our states of tension. People who are gliders, sky divers, or enjoy mountain
climbing describe their activities as increasing the level of arousal (Zuckerman, 1979).
Motivation does not directly lead to increased activity as was once thought. Instead,
motivated organism is predisposed to react to certain stimuli but is not automatically more
active or energized.
Drive theorists emphasize the energizing aspects of motivation. Like a machine,
a person must have energy in order to behave. Arousal of a motive provides the energy or the
drive necessary for executing some behavior.

MOTIVATION Page 8
High motivation means high drive, which in turn,' means more energy for pushing behavior,
which ultimately means more behavior, more vigorous behavior and more persistence of
behavior.
INSTINCT THEORIES
In the early 1900s, motivation was explained by the concept instinct. Human instincts were
thought to be similar to animal instincts, as the spider's instinct to weave a web.
Instinct is defined as an innate biological force that predisposes someone to behave in a
certain way, when specific environmental conditions, are present. Tinbergen (1989)
explained that instincts are automatic involuntary and unlearned behavior patterns that are
consistently "released in the presence of particular stimuli.
William McDougall and Sigmund Freud proposed the list 0f human instincts.
McDougall's list included acquisition, self-assertion, reproduction pugnacity, gregariousness,
curiosity, flight and self-abasement.
Freud's list included life instincts and death instincts. Freud has a rent view of
instincts. He thought instincts had neither conscious purpose different determined direction.
Different means of satisfaction can be learned; he believed that instinctive urges exist to
satisfy bodily needs, that they create a tension or psychic energy. This psychic energy
tension drives us toward activity that will bring satisfaction through reduction of the tension.
According to instinct theories, human behavior was controlled by these innate forces, rather
than by rational goal setting and decision making.
Criticism:
Instinct theories of motivation failed to explain the cause of behavior. Instincts were labels
not explanations.
Now it is generally agreed that the concept of instinct should be reserved for lower animals.
Human behaviors are thought to be much more influenced by learning than the concept of
instinct allows.
Instincts had become meaningless labels that merely described behavior. Saying that
someone gambles because of gambling instinct, watches T.V or films because of T.V
watching instinct and works hard because of work instinct, it explains nothing. Instinct
theory failed to acknowledge the fact that much of the human behavior changes as a result of
learning.
According to instinct theory, organisms are born with certain preprogrammed tendencies
that are essential for the survival of their species. Some instinct theorists have seen this
biological force as mechanistic, motivating behavior which is purposeless and beyond
individual's control.
Animals engage in regular cycles of activity that enable their species to survive.
Remarkable activities can be reported for most species of animals. Bears hibernate, army of
ants go on hunting expeditions, birds build nests, Spiders pin webs exactly as their parents
and ancestors did before them.
William James stated that humans rely on even more instincts than des animals do to guide
their behavior. Besides the biological instinct, he describe the human social instinct, such as
sympathy, modesty, sociability and For James, both human and 'animal instincts were
purposive
Researchers criticized that instincts were not explanations at all, not, not useful because they
overemphasized fixed inborn mechanisms where as much behavior was clearly modifiable
by learning.

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 INCENTIVE THEORY OF MOTIVATION
The incentive theory of motivation stresses the attracting or pulling power rewards appear to
exert on behavior. The emphasis is on reward and the conditions of reinforcement for
behaving.
Consequences:
Incentive theory rests on the assumption that the behaving. Consequences of its
behavior focuses attention on the circumstances we are attempting to obtain or those we are
trying to avoid.
Rewarding/Punishing Objects Incentive theory is primarily concerned With the objects,
events and states of affairs that. People find rewarding or punishing and is thus motivated to
achieve or avoid.
The emphasis is on the goals of behavior. Such an analysis of motivation leads researchers to
stud what it is that people are trying to acquire food, drink, love, fame, prestige money and
they try to avoid pain, anxiety, frustration, starvation, poverty' and the like Incentives are not
only objects to be obtained, such as money but may include complicated states of affairs,
such as receiving a promotion, winning an election, feeling satisfied with one's
accomplishments, earning the respect of colleagues and so on.
Research showed that organism can become energized by external stimuli rather than only
by inner condition. External stimuli often attract or repel us regardless of our inner state. The
sight of a chilled drink, hot coffee, and aroma of freshly backed pizza, sizzling chicken or
B.B.Q. can arouse to take appropriate actions, even when we are not impelled from within by
thirst, or hunger drive. External stimuli as mentioned above, serve as anticipated rewards are
called incentives.
Incentives refer to the activating and energizing effect on behavior that occurs before a goal
is reached. They characterize the reinforcement received because of apparent anticipation of
goals or rewards.
External cues that have been associated with reduction of a drive in the- past can motivate
behavior, even when no drive exists.
Research has demonstrated that even stimuli that have no biological utility can serve as
incentive not only for animals but for humans also.
Incentive theory emphasizes that environmental stimuli may motivate behavior by pulling
people towards them. According to incentive theory, people act in order to attain. positive
incentives and avoid negative 'incentives. Differences in behavior from one person to
another, or from one situation to another, can be traced to the incentives available and the
value each person places on them at a given time. The value of an incentive is influenced by
biological as well as cognitive factors. For example, food is more motivating incentive when
individual is hungry than when he is satiated.
In short, incentive theory places more emphasis on the reward, actually it is behavioral
reinforce that increases the likelihood of a response in an organism. But incentive theory also
takes the organism and its species into account.

MOTIVATION Page 10
 OPTIMAL AROUSAL THEORY
We have noted that people go out of their way to ride roller coasters, mountains, go to horror
movies and do countless other things that do climb any known drive (Csikszentmihalyi,
1975, Deci 1980). These do not redo ear appear to increase people's level of activation or
arousal. These indicate that people are sometimes motivated to reduce arousal and
sometimes seek to increase it.
Most theorists think of arousal as a general level of activation reflected in the state of
several physiological systems (Brehm and Self, 1989). According to this theory, we try to
maintain certain levels of stimulation and activity, increasing or reducing them as necessary.
If the levels of stimulation and activity are too low, we will try to increase them by seeking
stimulation.
Yerkes-Dodson Law:
Arousal theory provides an explanation for one of the oldest principles of
psychology i.e. Yerkes-Dodson Law, (1908). According to this law, a particular level of
motivational arousal produces optimal performance on a task: Performance on a simple task
usually benefits from higher levels of arousal than performance on more complex task does.
This principle applies to motivation in general. It means that optimal level of motivation
depends upon task difficulty. The more difficult or complex the task, the lower will be the
optimal motivational point (Hebb, 1955).
Measurement of Arousal:
Arousal level can be measured also. Normally arousal is lowest during sleep and
highest during periods of panic or extreme excitement. Arousal is increased by hunger, thirst
or other biological drives. It Is also elevated by very intense stimuli, by unexpected or novel
events and by caffeine and other stimulant drugs. People perform best and often fed best
when arousal is moderate.
Arousal theories of motivation suggest that people are motivated to behave in ways that
maintain their optimal level of arousal (Fiske and Maddi, 1961, Hebb 1955)
In general, people are motivated to increase their arousal when it is too low, and to decrease
it when it is too high. They seek excitement: when they are bored, and relaxation when have
had too much excitement.
After attending the classes in the morning and studying all afternoon, had might feel the
urge to see an exciting movie that evening. But if someone had spent the day playing
cricket, engaging in a hot political discussion and helping a friend to fix the car, may want to
relax. Indeed, people differ substances in the amount of arousal at which they are their
personal "peak" (Zuckerman, 1984).
Optimal arousal theory indicates that humans often act to increase deoe'nr2 rather than only
to reduce it This theory states that performance depends on both a preferred level of arousal
and the complexity of the task, (berlyne1960, 1967. Hebb, 1955). There seem to be a
general. preference urinating environment, neither too low, nor too high.

Individual Differences:
There is individual difference in preferences for complex versus simple stimuli. It is often
noticed that people are different in their preference for music, art, or leisure activities. There
is some optimal level of arousal for each organism; when below it, stimulation is sought,
when above it, stimulation is avoided.

MOTIVATION Page 11
 In short, motivation does not automatically mean arousal, energy and high activity.
However, we must be aroused in order to behave and so arousal activity and energy are a
part of motivated behavior.
Increasing motivation leads to an organism that is more sensitive, more reactive, or more
easily aroused. This arousal is necessary for the organism to react to stimuli.
OPPONENT PROCESS THEORY
This theory postulates that increase in arousal ultimately produces a calming reaction in the
nervous system and vice versa.
Yin and the Yang:
Long ago, Chinese philosophers suggested that there were • two
opposing forces in the universe the "yin and the yang" which influenced human behavior.
According to opponent process theory, stimuli that first produce increase in
arousal later produce an opposite calming reaction in the nervous system. Likewise, the
stimuli that first produce decrease in arousal later produce an increase in arousal.
When a man takes a "drug" that produces feelings of unusual happiness opponent process
work in the reverse way when the initial experience is negative.
When an individual is about to make his first skydiving jump from an airplane, his initial
experience will be fear. But there will also be an-opponent process at work, extreme pleasure
after the lump. Opponent process theory suggests that after each jump, the original process
(fear) will become weak, whereas opponent process; euphoric feeling is likely to increase.
In sum, opponent process theory helps explain why people hold strong motivation for
behavior that on the surface has few benefits. It is the opponent process, which maintains the
motivation to carry out the behavior.
COGNITIVE THEORIES
Albert Bandura, Bernard Wiener and others have used cognitive theories to explain human
motivation. Cognitive theories refer to what is taking place in our head, .such as beliefs
expectations and explanations. According to Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory,
beliefs and expectations greatly influence motivation.
Richard de Charms (1980) believes that motivation is influenced by one particular
belief, a sense of personal control or self-determination. Self-determination refers to a
person's belief that he or she is in control of what happens. The concept of self-determination
is an example of a motivating belief.
Attribution Theory:
According to Bernard Weiner (1986), individual is motivated by
his/her own explanations for his/her behavior. When we give explanations for our behavior,
psychologists refer to these explanations as attribution.
Weiner's attribution theory holds that people who attribute successes to their own abilities
and failures to their lack of effort are motivated to work toward goals. On the other hand,
people who attribute success to nothing more than luck and attribute, failure to personal
shortcomings, lose their motivation and give up trying to reach their goals.
According to cognitive theorists, our motivation to achieve some goal would increase if we
change our expectations, beliefs and attributions. Cognitive theorists believe that significant
human motivation comes not from objective realities, but from our interpretation of them.
Cognitive approaches to motivation put higher mental processes in charge of the acting self.
Julian Rotter's:

MOTIVATION Page 12
The importance of expectation in motivating behavior was developed in "Julian Rotter's
social learning theory" extended in ways of achievement and work motivation.
For Rotter, the probability that a person will engage in a particular behavior is determined by
his or her expectation of attaining a goal that follows that activity and the personal value of
that goal to that person.
This view, about a future happening, is based on a person's past reinforcement history which
has helped to develop a locus of control orientation.
A locus of Control:
A locus of control orientation is a belief that the outcomes of our actions are contingent on
what we do or events outside our personal control i.e. the internal control orientation or
external control orientation.
A similar concept has been developed by Fritz Heider (1958) who postulates that th-e
outcome of our behavior can be attributed to dispositional factors such as lack of effort or
un-sufficient intelligence in. case of poor grades, or it can be attributed to situational forces
such as an unfair test or a biased teacher.
These attributions influence the way we will behave, we are likely to try harder next
time, if we see our poor grades as a result of our lack of effort. But we may give up, if we see
it resulting from injustice or lack of ability (Dweck, 1975).
Maslow's Theory of Need Hierarchy:
Abraham Maslow suggested that a hierarchy of five basic classes of needs or motives
influence human behavior. He described that before more sophisticated higher order needs
can be met, certain primary needs must be satisfied. His model can be conceptualized as
pyramid in which the more basic needs are at the bottom and the higher level needs are at the
top. From the bottom to the top of Maslow's hierarchy these five groups of motives are as
follows:
Physiological Needs:
The more basic needs are described as prima drives, that is, need for oxygen, food, water,
sleep, sex and the like In order to move up the hierarchy, a person must have these basic
physiological needs met.
Safety Needs:
Safety needs come next in the hierarchy. it mean being cared for as a child and having a
secure income as an adults Maslow suggests that people need a safe, secure environment in
order ' to function effectively. Physiological and safety needs compose the lower order
needs.
Love and Belongingness:
When the basic lower-order needs are met a person can fulfill higher order needs, consisting
of love and belongingness. It includes the need to obtain and give affection and to be a
contributing member of some group or society. It indicates as being paii of various kinds of
social groups and participating in affectionate sexual and non-sexual relationship.
Self Esteem:
After basic needs are fulfilled, the person strives for esteem. That means to feel respected as
a useful and honorable
Self-Actualization:
After all this, the person is ready to strive for the highest level need, self-actualization,
which means becoming all that one is capable of. People motivated by this need explore and

MOTIVATION Page 13
enhance relationships with others. They follow the interests for intrinsic pleasure and are
concerned with issues affecting all people, not just themselves.
Criticism:
People do not always act according to his hierarchy, even when lower level needs are un-
met; some people continue to be motivated by higher levels in the hierarchy. Research has
not been able to validate the specific wedding of the stages of Maslow's theory. It has proved
difficult to measure; elf actualization objectively (Haymes, Green, Quinto, 1984, Weiss,
1991, Neher, 1991).
However, Maslow's model is important in two ways. It highlights the complexity of human
needs; it emphasizes the fact that until more basic biological needs are met, people are going
to be relatively unconcerned With lighter order needs.

Theory Main point

Instinct Innate biological instincts guide behavior.

Drive reduction Behavior is guided by biological needs and learned ways of

reducing drives arising from those needs..
Arousal People seek to maintain an optimal level of physiological
arousal, which differs from person to person. Maximum
Performance occurs at optimal arousal levels.
Incentive Behavior is guided by the lure of available rewards. Cognitive
factors influence expectations of the value of various rewards and
the likelihood of attaining them.

USING MOTIVATION AT WORK

WORK MOTIVATION
The motivation to work energizes the behavior, directs the behavior and guides the
individual to invent new solutions and strategies. This is one of - the most potent and
complex human motive and made to explain it.
Many attempts have been different theories and views have been discussed and analyzed to
understand this phenomenon. Psychologists are components of personality which can be
helpful in work motivation. How work can be made more interesting and promoting? How
workers can be satisfied? Theories of work motivation are based on different views of human
nature.
Views about Human Nature:
There are two distinct views about: human nature; these two views have been labeled as
theory X and theory Y,
Theory X:
The classical theory is based on beliefs that people are lazy, ignorant, selfish, prone to error
and motivated exclusively by money. Workers are considered dispensable "cogs" in the
organizational machinery. Therefore, jobs should be designed as simply as possible;
minimizing both intellectual qualifications and necessary training time. Workers need
constant supervision and extrinsic incentive to work.
Frederick W. Taylor (1856-1915) was the most notable proponent of theory X. He
developed a set of principle, to design work and manage workers in the most efficient way.

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Engineers and business executives had been bothered by the fact that an efficient technology
did not always increase productivity. So work and workers were approached as engineering
problems and as a solution their jobs were simplified and specialized and routinized.
While designing the jobs, role of successful involvement of workers in performing the tasks
were ignored. This theory was prevalent during early 10 1900s, while these views changed in
1920s and 1930s.
After that work places were acknowledged to be complex social settings where worker's
productivity was influenced by different factors other than the monetary incentives. Work
itself was viewed as a potential motivator offering avenues for achievement, personal growth
and sense of meaningfulness.
Theory Y:
This view came to limelight in 1960s. According to theory Y, people are basically creative,
responsible, intrinsically motivated to do good work to the extent that the work is
challenging.
(M.C. Gregor, 1960) Instead of being restricted workers should have their freedom
expanded; so that they have the Opportunity to be creative and achieve their full potential.
The goal of work more efficient was replaced by an emphasis on creating work force with
high morale.
Theories of Work Motivation:
Organizational psychologists have proposed many theories of work motivation. All these
theories can be categorized in terms of three basic approaches
a. Need theories focus on what energizes individual workers.
b. Cognitive theories describe the way motivation occurs.
c. Job design and goal setting offer practical applications for enhancing worker
motivation.
Need Theories:
Need theories are based on Maslow's theoretical approach. One of these is known as ERG
theory. ERG theory specifies only three sets of needs, i.e. Existence needs, related needs, and
Growth needs (Alderfer, 1972).
Existence needs are similar to Maslow's physiological and safety needs which include the
need for food, shelter, pay and safe working conditions.
Related needs are social in nature, emphasizing the need for clear and available interpersonal
communication.
Growth needs encourage development of one's true potential and correspond to Maslow's
self-actualization and esteem needs.
In contrast to Maslow, ERG theory assumes that higher level needs can become activated
before lower level needs are completely satisfied. Research is more supportive of ERG
theory than of Maslow's need hierarchy (Betz, 1982, Wahba and Birdwell, 1976).
Cognitive Theories:
Equity theory and expectancy theory both are called cognitive
theories of work motivation. These theories attempt to explain and predict how people will
respond under different working conditions. They assume that workers s engage in certain
cognitive activities, such as assessing fairness via social comparison processes or estimating
expected rewards associated with performance.

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Equity Theory:
This theory proposes that workers are motivated to maintain fair
relationships with other relevant persons (Adams, 1965). Workers take one of their inputs
and outputs.
Investments they may make to their jobs n called inputs and what they receive from their
jobs is known as output. They compare inputs and outputs of other workers. If the ratio
between the inputs and outputs of workers do not remain same, then problems occur
Inequity.
Since inequity is unpleasant, workers will be motivated to restore inequity by changing that
relevant inputs and outputs. These changes could be behavioral or psychological as well.
Research as supported the prediction of equity one Delia theory (Carrel and Dittrich, 1978)
One study showed that underpaid clerical workers were less productive over Paid workers
were" more productive, than equitably paid workers. Similarly college students who were
given additional responsibilities plus a high states job title, maintained high levels of
performance, whereas students who we big re given additional responsibilities but no title,
dramatically reduced their performance (being under payment inequity) (Green berg and
Ornstein, 1983).
Expectancy Theory:
This theory proposes that workers are motivated when they expect that their effort and
performance on the job will result in desired outcomes (porter and Lawler, 1968, Vroom,
1967)
In other words people will engage in work they find attractive (leads to favorable
consequences) and achievable. Expectancy theory emphasizes three components,
Instrumentality, valence and expectancy.
Instrumentality refers to the perception that one's performance will be rewarded Valence
refers to the perceived attractiveness of particular outcomes. Expectancy refers to the
perceived likelihood that a worker's efforts will result in successful performance. According
to this theory, workers rationally and logically assess the probabilities of these three
components and combine them in a multiplicative manner, rather than merely summing them
additively.
Highest levels of motivation result when all three components have high probabilities;
whereas lowest levels result when any single component is zero. This theory distinguishes
between motivation and performance, indicating that factors such as skill ability and job
opportunities can influence performance, in addition to motivation. Poor performance does
not necessarily result from low motivation.
Job Design and Goal Setting:
Goal setting refers to the intention to work toward an explicit goal. It Is Primary motivating
force in work behavior and task effort because goals direct and focus attention, mobilize
effort, increase persistence and encourage a person to work out appropriate strategies
(Lethem and Yukl, 1975, Steer and Porter 1974). Specific challenging goals lead to higher
performance than either easy goals or the vague goals.
For a goal to be an effective motivator, the following conditions must be met
a) It must be specific and challenging to the worker
b) The worker must have adequate ability to achieve
c) Feedback must be available about progress towards the goal
d) Tangible rewards must accompany goal attainment
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 e) The management must be supportive of worker's needs and problems of the worker
must accept the goal as a personal intention (Locke et al., 1981).
In an organization where management sets group goals, a worker can still set his or her own
personal goals and standards.
Job Design:
The goal of job design is to identify the characteristics of work that make it enjoyable and
motivating and then to use this knowledge in designing jobs.
In studying job design as a motivator, organizational psychologists emphasize the potential
intrinsic value of work.
Job enlargement, in which a number of similar tasks are combined, was one of the first
attempts to make work more intrinsically interesting to workers. Job enrichment in which,
the tasks that are combined are of different scope and responsibility.
Job characteristics model is a recent approach, which has attempted to specify what makes
one job more intrinsically interesting than another. (Hack man and Oldham, 1980) Five core
job characteristics are believed to affect worker motivation.
Skill, variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and job feedback.
In general most intrinsically interesting jobs are those that involve lots of different skills and
activities, all of which fit together to form a complete "whole" that has .a meaningful impact
on other people.

Reference
An approach to phycology vol.1 by

“Rakhshanda shahnaze”

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