Metallic Materials. Topic 3. Metal Forming I Metal Forming Fundamentals

Metallic Materials.
Topic 3: Metal Forming I

CIENCIA E INGENIERÍA DE MATERIALES
AEROSPACE MATERIALS II
METALLIC MATERIALS. TOPIC 3. Metal Forming I
Metal Forming Fundamentals
Introduction
Parameters that affect plastic deformation
Effects of plastic deformation
Work hardening
Cold working
Recrystallization annealing
Hot working
Warm working/ Isothermal forming
Superplasticity
Dpt. Materials Sci. and Eng. and Chemical Eng. UC3M Aerospace Materials II
Metallic Materials. Topic 3: Metal Forming I
1. Introduction
What is METALFORMING by plastic deformation?
Metal Forming: Uses forces applied by various tools and dies to

plastically shape solid metal from simple starting geometry into
complex configurations
MAIN CHARACTERISTICS
▪ It uses force to deform the metal plastically
▪ It erases casting structure
◼ Avoids solidification problems (porosity)
▪ It promotes a texture that improves service characteristics (CW)
▪ Less scrap, better use of metal.
1. Introduction
Possible CLASSIFICATIONS of metal forming processes

(different criteria) :
▪ Size and shape of workpiece: Bulk/Sheet Forming processes
▪ Type of operation: Primary/Secondary metalworking
▪ Temperature: Hot/Cold/Warm working processes
•Cold working  T< 0,3 Tm

•Warm working  T= 0,3-0,6 Tm
•Hot working  T> 0,6 Tm
•Isothermal working  T= constant
𝑨𝒊 −𝑨𝒇
Percent of cold work (CW%) = ∙ 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑨𝒊
Where Ai is the original cross-sectional area of the metal and

Af is the final cross-sectional area after deformation
1. Introduction
▪ Permanent plastic deformation:
▪ It takes place when the atoms slip against each other.
▪ Slip occurs along specific crystallographic planes that depend on the structure
▪ Affected by different parameters: crystal structure, composition, melting
temperature, grain size
Dislocation ~ Line defect that allows atomic slip along crytallographic

planes at relatively low stresses. The movement of a dislocation from one
side of the crystal to the other allows the complete slip of the crystal
along a crystallographic plane
4
TAYLOR. ,GI . Proc. Roy. Soc. A,

145, 362 (1934).
OROWAN, E, . Z. Phys. 89, 634
(1934).
The first TEM was demonstrated by Max Knoll

and Ernst Ruska in 1931, with this group
developing the first TEM with resolution greater
than that of light in 1933 and the first commercial
TEM in 1939. In 1986, Ruska was awarded the
Nobel Prize in physics for the development of
transmission electron microscopy
The first practical TEM, originally installed

at IG Farben-Werke and now on display at
the Deutsches Museum in Munich,
Germany
Interacción Y-Al-Ti
Dpt. Materials Sci. and Eng. and Chemical Eng. UC3M [email protected]
Trabajo Investigación 8
Aerospace Materials II
Universidad
Carlos III de Madrid
www.uc3m.es
In-situ annealing TEM
600 °C
9
2. Parameters that affect plastic deformation
➢ Crystal structure of the metal: number of slip systems, critical resolved shear
stress.
FCC –{111}<110>- 12 ➔ Al, Cu, Ni
BCC –{110}<111>- 12 ➔ Fe, Cr, Mo, steel
HCP – {0001}<1010> ➔ Mg, Co, Ti
Dislocations move more easily in FCC and HCP crystals than in BCC but HCP crystals lack
enough independent slip systems to accommodate an arbitrary plastic deformation, which
gives rises to ductility problems.
➢ Composition: solid solution hardening
➢ Grain size: Grain boundaries act as obstacles to dislocation motion:
➢ Melting temperature: depends on bond strength (high Tm, ↑ E)
W Fe Zn Pb Sn
BCC BCC HCP FCC FCC
3422 ºC 1538 ºC 419 ºC 327 ºC 232 ºC
Dpt. Materials Sci. and Eng. and Chemical Eng. UC3M Aerospace Materials10
II
3. Effects of plastic deformation
The forming process cause changes in materials, both at a macroscopic and
microscopic levels. They are related between them
Microscopic level
• Slip occurs along slip planes and dislocation are created
• Dislocation density increases
– From ~104 dislocacions/mm2 in an annealed material
– To ~1010 dislocacions/mm2 in a deformed material
• Dislocations become entangled and interfere with each other. Dislocation
pinning
• Grain distortion. Grain boundaries impede dislocation movement
•
3. Effects of plastic deformation
The forming process cause changes in materials, both at a macroscopic and
microscopic levels. They are related between them
Macroscopic level
• Increase in hardness and strength
Not deformed
• Decrease in ductility
• Decrease in thermal and electrical conductivity.

• Decrease in corrosion resistance
• Anisotropic properties (highest strength is achieved
in axial direction)
Fe-0.6C Deformed
After drawing
Normalized
4. Work hardening
Work/Strain Hardening → What is it ?
 The increase in hardness and strength produced by cold plastic deformation

or cold working.
A material hardened through plastic deformation requires greater forces to be applied for
further deformation Larger presses and machines of greater capacity are required
 If it is considered in the part/process design  during processing the strength and
hardness of the material   initial material cost ↓
Tensión
% Trabajo
en frío
Deformación
4. Work hardening
800
Real
(MPa)
Verdadera Real stress-strain curve:

Tensión MPa
700
M'
•
represents the actual stress to
600 M
Hollomon •
which the material is subjected
Stress
500
Nominal
Engineering
400
Stress-strain curve: doesn’t
300 consider the changes in cross-
200
sectional area as specimen
elongates.
100
0
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35%
Deformación
Strain
True stress-strain (, ) curve is basic for plastic
deformation processes, and there are models on it.
n indicates the strain-hardening
True stress-strain curves (, ) capacity of a material (for higher n,
 = K n can be represented by the
equation (Hollomon equation)
the material becomes stronger and
harder as is it strained).
K: strength coefficient. Usually related to composition (net distortion due to solid solution)
n: work hardening (or strain hardening) exponent Usually related to structure and previous
thermo-mechanical treatments.
4. Work hardening
Typical Values for K and n at Room Temperature
 = K n
ln  = ln K + n ln 
The strain hardening coefficient is Metal Crystal n K (Mn.m-2)
relatively low for HCP metals but is higher structure
for BCC and particularly for FCC metals.
Titanium HCP 0.05 1200
Metals with low strain-hardening
coefficient respond poorly to cold working Annealed alloy BCC 0.15 640
steel
n=0
Quenched and BCC 0.10 1570
Tensión
tempered
Stress
n=0.2
medium carbon
n=0.3
steel
Molybdenum BCC 0.13 725
Copper FCC 0.54 320
Cu-30%Zn FCC 0.50 900
n=1 Austenitic FCC 0.52 1520
stainless steel
Strain
Deformación
n (FCC) ><? n (BCC) ><? n (HCP)
Dpt. Materials Sci. and Eng. and Chemical Eng. UC3M Aerospace Materials15
II
4. Work hardening
Temperature effects on work hardening (strain hardening)

▪ If  T  Yield strength, tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, and fracture
point decrease or relocate with higher temperature (UTS,E, y) 
▪ Vibrational energy of individual atoms increases with temperature
◼ slip becomes easier
◼ ductility and toughness increases 
▪ From a certain T, metal behaves as a perfect plastic material:
➔ n=0 ➔  n→1  y→K
n→1
n→0
4. Work hardening
Sensitivity to deformation rate
◼ Strain-rate: rate at which the material is
deformed 
 =
t
Increasing strain rate greater forces are
required to produce plastic deformation→
(strain-rate hardening)
Sensitivity to strain rate:
 = C m log(σ y)=log (C)+m・log(ε)
C: Strength coefficient (similar to K)

m= strain-rate sensitivity exponent
m ↑ with temperature ↑ (sensitivity of strength-to-
strain rate ↑ with temperature↑)
The effect of strain rate on the ultimate tensile
strength for aluminum. As temperature ↑, the
• At room temperature, strain rate effects are almost slopes of the curves ↑; thus, strength becomes
negligible. more and more sensitive to strain rate as
• At high strain rates, the effect of T is less pronounced. temperature↑.
4. Work hardening
Typical Ranges of Strain and Deformation Rate in Metal Forming Processes
Typical ranges for m for metals:

Cold working: up to 0.05
Hot working: 0.05 to 0.4
Deformation rate
Process True strain (m/s)
Cold working
Forging, rolling 0.1–0.5 0.1–100
Wire and tube drawing 0.05–0.5 0.1–100
Explosive forming 0.05–0.2 10–100
Hot working and warm working
Forging, rolling 0.1–0.5 0.1–30
Extrusion 2–5 0.1–1
Machining 1–10 0.1–100
Sheet-metal forming 0.1–0.5 0.05–2
-4 -2
Superplastic forming 0.2–3 10 -10
18
5. Cold Working
✓ Good surface finish- low roughness and clean (oxide removal)- and
dimensional control – narrow tolerances
✓ Strength, hardness, fatigue and wear resistance increase
✓ Additional finishing processes may not be needed.
↓ Large stresses and therefore more powerful equipment is required.

↓ Only a limited amount of cold work can be undertaken before the material fails
↓ Brittle materials cannot be cold worked at all (tungsten, silicon carbide, glass)
↓ Intermediate anneals may be required
↓ Undesirable residual stress may be created
↓ Ductility is reduced
Where Ai is the original cross-sectional
𝑨𝒊 −𝑨𝒇 area of the metal and Af is the final
Percent of cold work (CW%) = ∙ 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑨𝒊 cross-sectional area after deformation
Designation:
• Annealed ‘O’ no cold work
• Carried out below recrystallization temperature. • 1/4 hard = 25% of the maximum
• Grain structure is distorted (texture). cold work possible, “pinch pass”
• Anisotropic properties with highest strength in axial • 1/2 hard and 3/4 hard designations
direction. • Fully work hardened = no ductility
left
• Dislocation population is increased (dislocation locking)
6. Recrystallization Annealing
Recrystallization Annealing: Heat treatment during which some or all of the
strengthening effects of cold working (work hardening) are intentionally reversed.
Applied to cold worked (work hardened) metals.
Stages:
1. Recovery
2. Recrystallization
3. Grain growth
Recrystallization temperature: Minimum

temperature required for complete
recrystallization in 1 h (0.4-0.5 Tm)
Temperature at which the material recovers

the initial properties (prior to cold-working).
Hot working: T>Tr (no work hardening)

Schematic illustration of the effects of recovery,
Cold working: T<Tr (work hardening)
recrystallization, and grain growth on mechanical
properties and on the shape and size of grains.
I. RECOVERY
At microscopic level:
▪ Reduction of defect density, healing
of some dislocations and reordering
into more stable positions through
diffusion.
▪ No microstructural changes.
At macroscopic level:
▪ No significant change in hardness and strength (20-30%).
▪ Slight improvement in ductility
▪ Improves other physical properties (.i.e. conductivity)
▪ Improves corrosion resistance (due to reduction in defect density).
II. RECRYSTALLIZATION
▪ New equiaxed strain-free grains are
formed (replacing the older grains)
▪ Process of nucleation and growth. Initial Stage Cold worked
▪ Decrease in grain size

▪ Decrease in dislocation density
▪ Recovery of mechanical properties: Recovery Beginnnig recrystallization
Removes the effect of cold work (work

hardening)
▪ Increase in ductility
▪ Reduction in strength
End Recrystallization.
Trecrystallization >Trecovery
Recrystallization temperature: Tr =f(%CW, composition, time)

• Depends on amount of initial cold work (work hardening):
– High amount of cold work, lower recrystallization temperature .  % CW 
Tr (decreases)
– The greater the degree of prior deformation, the smaller the grain size
becomes during recrystallization (improved properties)
– A minimum amount of cold work is required for recrystallization to take
place (Fe 10%, Al 1%)
Anisotropy (preferred orientation) usually persists after recrystallization. To

restore isotropy higher temperatures are required
• Composition affects nucleation and growth:

– Influence of Precipitates:
• Large precipitates or inclusions (>1 mm) ➔ favour heterogeneous nucleation of
strain –free grains,➔  Tr.
• Small precipitates ➔ they pin the advance of migrating grain boundaries and
therefore slow the growth of strain free grains ➔  Tr.
– Influence of elements in solid solution

• Elements in substitutional or interstitial solid solution delay the advance of new
grain boundaries ➔  Tr
• Time. Depends on the time at temperature:

– It is a thermally activated diffusion process: Long times reduce the
recrystallization temperature. Recrystallization is slower at lower
temperatures
Metal Tr Tf
Mo 900 ºC 2623ºC
Fe 450 ºC 1538ºC
Ni 600 ºC 1455ºC
Cu 200 ºC 1083ºC
Al 150 ºC 660ºC
Pb 15ºC 327ºC
Sn 15ºC 232ºC
III. GRAIN GROWTH:

Occurs if metal is held at or above Tr temperature for some time
▪Increase in grain size. Grains begin to grow by absorbing smaller grains.
▪Decrease of mechanical properties (except ductility)
▪Grain size depends on time at temperature.
Microstructural evolution
BRASS
Slip lines
33%CW 3s; 580ºC
4s; 580ºC 8s; 580ºC 10 min;700ºC

15 min; 580ºC
First new grains are nucleated ………… . Then they grow

7. Hot working
✓ Carried out at a temperature and strain rate at which recrystallization is
simultaneous with deformation.( above Tr). New grains are continually
formed.
✓ Material properties (yield strength, ductility) largely independent of the amount
of hot work, and are the same as if the material was cold worked and annealed.
✓ The amount of deformation is very high. Allows deforming metal into useful
shape. Allows large amounts of deformation without embrittlement
✓ Facilitates homogenisation (removes composition gradients). Original cast
structure is eliminated.
✓ Crystal structure is refined. Texture is eliminated giving rise to isotropic
properties. Higher toughness, strength and ductility by refining grain size.
✓ Less stresses required than in cold working (smaller equipment), but more
energy required to heat the piece.
↓ Lower dimensional tolerance. Worse surface finish.

↓ Oxidation risk of the workpiece surface.
↓ Smaller lifetime of forming tools.
↓ Maximum T is limited by the smallest Tm of the constituents (additionally large
strain rates can induce heating)
7. Hot working
Grain Structure During Hot Rolling
DYNAMIC RECRYSTALLIZATION STATIC RECRYSTALLIZATION
Metals with low stacking fault energy, It happens after the material has
Cu, brass-α, Ni, HSLA steels…. been deformed, it is not subjected to
It takes place simultaneously with strain stresses.
when ↑ T. Two processes compete: The structural changes induce an
• Strain hardening. unstable state and the elastic
recovery and recrystallization occur
• Recrystallization
after deformation.
8. Warm working and Isothermal working
Warm working: T0,3TM but always T < Trecrist

▪ Lower forces than in cold working
▪ Annealing not necessary.
▪ Larger deformations than cold working or more complex shapes can be
produced
Isothermal working: Materials with high hot hardness (high alloy steels, Ti alloys, Ni
alloys)
▪ Preheating of tools to avoid surface cooling and thermal gradients → it avoids

irregular strains.
▪ Reduction of tool life
9. Superplasticity
Superplastic behavior: Capacity of some polycrystalline materials to suffer

very large elongations (200-1000 %, one or two orders of magnitude larger
than conventional metals and alloys) before fracture
• They are not a material group but a characteristic of some materials in

certain conditions
Characteristics:
• Ductile behavior under tension
• Strain capacity at low stresses
Requirements:
• Very fine grain size (≅ 10 μm)
• Temperature: larger than 0,5 Tmelting
• Low strain rate: 1x10-4 s-1
9. Superplasticity
Superplastic behavior:
✓ It allows sheet forming
✓ It avoids design restrictions, allowing complex shapes
✓ It allows forming at low stresses: increases lifetime of dies and tools.
Strain and Deformation Rate in Manufacturing
Recommended lectures
Helpful readings for this lecture :

– Kalpakjian, Schmid. “Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials” (5th ed).
Pearson Education, 2008.
– M.P. Groover. “Fundamentals of modern manufacturing: materials, processes, and
systems”. Prentice Hall, 1996
– M.F. Ashby, et al. “Materials: engineering, science, processing and design”. Elsevier,
2007.
– http://www-materials.eng.cam.ac.uk/mpsite/
– http://manufacturing.stanford.edu/

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Metallic Materials.

Topic 3: Metal Forming I

What is METALFORMING by plastic deformation?

Metal Forming: Uses forces applied by various tools and dies to

Possible CLASSIFICATIONS of metal forming processes

•Cold working  T< 0,3 Tm

Where Ai is the original cross-sectional area of the metal and

Dislocation ~ Line defect that allows atomic slip along crytallographic

TAYLOR. ,GI . Proc. Roy. Soc. A,

The first TEM was demonstrated by Max Knoll

The first practical TEM, originally installed

In-situ annealing TEM

• Decrease in thermal and electrical conductivity.

 The increase in hardness and strength produced by cold plastic deformation

Verdadera Real stress-strain curve:

Typical Values for K and n at Room Temperature

Temperature effects on work hardening (strain hardening)

 = C m log(σ y)=log (C)+m・log(ε)

C: Strength coefficient (similar to K)

Typical Ranges of Strain and Deformation Rate in Metal Forming Processes

Typical ranges for m for metals:

↓ Large stresses and therefore more powerful equipment is required.

Recrystallization temperature: Minimum

Temperature at which the material recovers

Hot working: T>Tr (no work hardening)

▪ Decrease in grain size

Removes the effect of cold work (work

Recrystallization temperature: Tr =f(%CW, composition, time)

Anisotropy (preferred orientation) usually persists after recrystallization. To

• Composition affects nucleation and growth:

– Influence of elements in solid solution

• Time. Depends on the time at temperature:

III. GRAIN GROWTH:

▪Grain size depends on time at temperature.

33%CW 3s; 580ºC

4s; 580ºC 8s; 580ºC 10 min;700ºC

First new grains are nucleated ………… . Then they grow

↓ Lower dimensional tolerance. Worse surface finish.

DYNAMIC RECRYSTALLIZATION STATIC RECRYSTALLIZATION

Warm working: T0,3TM but always T < Trecrist

▪ Preheating of tools to avoid surface cooling and thermal gradients → it avoids

Superplastic behavior: Capacity of some polycrystalline materials to suffer

• They are not a material group but a characteristic of some materials in

Helpful readings for this lecture :

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