Module 5

TOURISM IMPACTS ON CULTURE AND SOCIETY

I. LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Explain what culture is;
2. Enumerate the positive and negative impacts of tourism on culture and society; and
3. Discuss the determinants of tourism's impacts on culture and society.

II. PRETEST
III. INTRODUCTION
Tourism has been referred to as a Janus-faced phenomenon (Sanchez and Adams 2008). It has the potential
to change societies for better or for worse. The interaction between tourists and residents has the potential to create
conflict or cultural clash. Conflicts sometimes arise due to mismatch of expectations between tourists and residents
(McKercher 1993 in Brunt and Courtney 1999 As such, they are bound to influence each other's culture at varying
degrees Tourism is a catalyst for change, which generates a series of impacts especially in host communities (Frederick
1992; Coccossis 2004: Wall and Mathieson 2005 in Matarrita-Cascante 2009). According to Deery, Jago, and Fredline
(2012), it is important that government understands the social impacts of tourism, particularly on communities in order
for them to take action to reduce potential community backlash against tourists and tourism development. Furthermore,
they say that since residents are a fundamental part of the tourism "product" their attitudes and behavior have a
considerable effect on the success or failure of destination.

CULTURE AND ITS COMPONENTS

To understand how tourism plays in different cultural milieus, we must begin with a discussion on what culture
is.
In its 2009 Framework for Cultural Statistics (FCS), the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization (2001) defined culture as "the set of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features of
society or a social group that encompasses, not only art and literature, but lifestyles. Ways of living together, value
systems, traditions and beliefs" (UNESCO 2009).
Culture has potential impacts on the economic and social development of countries (UNESCO 2009). First,
cultural assets can support sustainable local development through their economic impact as cultural industries and
their contribution to social and cultural revitalization. Cultural industries are predominantly made up of small or family-
run businesses that are well-suited for local development. Second, culture offers opportunities for various sectors to
participate in activities that contribute to gender equality, self-esteem, and social awareness. Policies could be
formulated to preserve traditional practices, and address the needs of disadvantaged groups such as women and
indigenous peoples (UNESCO 1995). Under the UNESCO FCS, there are tangible and intangible cultural heritages.
Under the tangible cultural heritage category, there are six domains, namely:
1. Cultural and natural heritage;
2. Performance and celebration;
3. Visual arts and crafts:
4. Books and press;
5. Audio-visual and interactive media, and
6. Design and creative services
 Tourism is a medium for the transmission, as well as the transformation of these cultural domains. The
following aspects of culture are significantly affected by tourism development:
1. Cultural and natural heritage: artefacts, monuments, and groups of buildings and sites that have symbolic. Historic,
artistic, aesthetic, ethnological or anthropological, scientific, and social significance.
2. Cultural landscapes, which have combined natural and human works and express a long and intimate relationship
between people and their natural environment (UNESCO 2007). An example is the Cordillera Rice Terraces
3. Natural heritage geological and physiographical formations and designated areas that constitute the habitat of
threatened animals and plant species and sites that have values for science, conservation, or natural beauty, It includes
nature parks and reserves, zoos, aquaria, and botanical gardens (UNESCO 1972),
4. Performances and celebrations which include all expressions of live cultural events, such as theater, dance, opera
and puppetry, festival feasts, fairs, and musical performances; compositions, recordings, digital music, including
downloads and uploads, and musical instruments
5. Visual arts such as paintings, drawings, sculpture, crafts and photography as well as art galleries.
6. Crafts or artisanal products which have utilitarian, aesthetic, artistic, creative, culturally attached, decorative,
functional, traditional religiously, and socially symbolic and significance (UNESCO-ITC 1997).

INTANGIBLE CULTURAL HERITAGE

Tourism also affects intangible cultural heritage. The UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the
Intangible Cultural Heritage (UNESCO 2003) defines intangible cultural heritage (ICH) as the practices,
representations, expressions, knowledge, skills as well as the instruments, objects, artefacts, and cultural spaces
associated therewith-that communities, groups and, in some cases, individuals recognized as part of their cultural
heritage" (Art. 2). ICH is traditional and living at the same time. It is "transmitted from generation to generation" and
"constantly recreated by communities and groups in response to their environment, their interaction with nature, and
their history, and provides them with a sense of identity and continuity" (Art. 2).
A unique feature of ICH is that it can only be defined as such when a community recognizes it as part of its
heritage. The identification as well as definition of intangible cultural heritage rests with the communities, groups, and
individuals that create, maintain, and transmit such heritage. Intangible heritage manifests itself across all cultural
domains. For this reason, it is presented as a transversal domain. Intangible cultural heritage is manifested in oral
traditions and expressions, including language: performing arts; social practices, rituals, and festive events; knowledge
and practices concerning nature and the universe and traditional craftsmanship.
Sports and recreation, and tourism may have activities that are cultural in character but their main component
is not cultural. As such, the FCS considers them as related domains.
The FCS identifies tourism with cultural dimensions as cultural tourism spiritual tourism, and eco-tourism
activities. Although there is no international accepted definition of cultural tourism, the FCS proposes the following
"customized excursions into other cultures and places to learn about their people, lifestyle, heritage, and arts in an
informed way that genuinely represents their values and historical context including the experiencing of the difference"
(Steinberg 2001). It can also take the form of spiritual tourism or ecological tourism. These activities are considered as
cultural domains and counted in the domains A, B, C, or in intangible cultural heritage. For example, a tourist visiting a
site or attending a concert is already included in the cultural domains.
The related domain of sports and recreation includes professional and amateur sports that may either be for
spectacle or participation. Sometimes, a sport is linked to a country's cultural identity dapan's sumo wrestling, Thai
boxing, and Korea's taekwondo) (UNESCO 2009), Many sports events, such as the Olympics, Wimbledon, even the
UAAP Cheerdance Competition, are also important tourist attractions.
Recreation is defined as an activity undertaken for pleasure or relaxation that diverts, amuses, or stimulates
(UNESCO 2009). It includes gambling, amusement, and theme parks.
Gambling, also known as gaming in the tourism circle, consists of units engaged mainly in providing gambling
services such as casinos, bookmaker betting facilities on racetracks, bingo halls, video gaming terminals, lottery
agencies, and off-track betting agencies. In countries like the United Kingdom, gambling through lotteries, for example,
is a major source of funding of culture. For this reason, gambling is considered as a related under the UNESCO FCS.
Tourism plays a part in practically all stages of cultural cycle, which are:
1. Creation: the originating and authoring of ideas and content (e.g., tour guides interpretation of cultural sites);
2. Production: the reproducible cultural forms (e.g., festivals), as well as the specialist tools, infrastructure,
and processes used in their realization (e.g., the design of floats);
3. Dissemination: the bringing of generally mass-produced cultural products to consumers and exhibitors (e.g.,
promotion of cultural destinations and festivals). The UNESCO (2009) noted that digital modes, like social
media, are able to bring cultural products directly from the creator to the consumer.
4. Exhibition/Reception/Transmission: refers to the place of consumption and to the provision of live and/or
unmediated cultural experiences to audiences by granting or selling access to consume/participate in time-
based cultural activities (e.g., festival organization and production, opera houses, theaters, museums).
Transmission relates to the transfer knowledge and skills that may not involve any commercial transaction
and which often occurs in informal settings. It includes the transmitting of intangible cultural heritage from
generation to generation (UNESCO 2009)
5. Consumption Participation: the activities of audiences and participants in consuming cultural products and
taking part in cultural activities and experiences (e.g. participating in festivals, visiting galleries).

DRIVERS OF IMPACTS OF TOURISM ON CULTURE

Culture is diffused across countries by tourists who act as agents of cultural change. International tourism
brings in new foods, technologies, fashion, sports, entertainment, language, religion, and many other aspects of our
daily lives foreign food, such as, sashimi, ramen, kimchi, samgyeopsal, pizza, curry, chicken masala, and shawarma
have become quite popular with Filipinos. They were brought to our country either by tourists, OFWs, or by
entrepreneurs, wishing to serve the community. Fusion restaurants have sprung in the major cities. In general, this
kind of diffusion can be regarded as enriching our culture. Many aspects of foreign culture somehow take root in the
destination as tourism establishments try to satisfy the travelers' needs and preferences in order to build loyalty or
positive word of mouth. In the 70s and 80s, there was a boom in Japanese restaurants and karaoke. Nowadays, many
Korean-style restaurants and karaoke have sprung in the cities. Their cultural presence gets firmly established as many
Korean tourists eventually decide to settle in the Philippines. Known as a clannish group, they form communities with
their own grocery stores, restaurants, language schools, and churches (Cruz 2009).
Tourism is also induced by films and TV series, particularly those originating from Korea. By traveling to the
shooting locations, tourists get to experience the food, fashion, and atmosphere depicted in those programs, further
reinforcing their fascination with Korean pop culture or Hallyu. Even local teledramas have made certain places popular
tourist destinations, sometimes, to the point where the number of tourists exceeded the local population size. The
uneven balance in numbers has created some negative perceptions of tourism among local residents in those places
(e.g., Sagada, which was one of the setting of the movie That Thing Called Tadhana.

POSITIVE IMPACTS OF TOURISM ON CULTURE

Higgins-Desbiolles (2006) asserted that tourism should be seen in terms of its power as a social force. Tourism
possesses a "transformative capacity to improve individual well-being, foster cross-cultural understanding, facilitate
learning contribute to cultural protection, supplement development, foster environmental protection, promote peace,
and foment global consciousness which contributes to the formation of global society" (Cohen and Kennedy 2000, 212
for the latter point: WTO 1999 for the former point cited in Higgins-Desbiolles 2006). Tourism offers many benefits to
individuals and communities. These include emotional educational opportunities, renaissance and transmission of
traditional cultural elements, cultural pride (Faulkner and Tideswell 1997: Deery et al. 20121. and sense of identity.
Emotional Well-being of Residents
Tourism contributes to the emotional well-being of residents. Residents develop an increased sense of
emotional well-being when they are able to meet tourists from many countries in order to learn about their culture.
Cultural exchange between residents and tourists is considered as valuable by residents (Kim et al. 2013).

Cultural Preservation
Tourism also helps keep culture alive by preserving traditional art maintaining cultural identity, and transmitting
beliefs and rituals to the next generation (Chen 2000 in Kim et al. 2013). Var and Kim (1989) noted that tourism helps
revitalize traditional arts and crafts. Tourism also promotes understanding through cultural exchange and friendships
between residents and tourists (Teye et al. 2002).
When implemented properly, tourism can help preserve regardless of the tourism volume. Becker (2015) cited
France, the world's most visited country, for being a good case study of how a country has been using tourism to
underwrite the protection and nurturing of its culture and landscape. France promotes and subsidizes, but also
regulates tourism at all levels of government in all matters of policy. Tourism is taken into consideration in plans for
preserving and protecting the countryside, the vineyards, forests, small villages, small farms, the coastline, the bicycling
routes, and the ski slopes. France established the first Ministry of Culture and created festivals around the country to
get visitors away from Paris. Bordeaux undertook a 15-year restoration of its eighteenth-century historic center with
tourism in mind. Paris also implements noise and zoning Laws to keep tourism at bay. It handles the flow of tourists
efficiently. At Elle maintained by a Tower, which attracts seven million visitors each year, tickets are limited and timed
to last 30 minutes. The gardens surrounding the tower are crew of 38 workers. Loitering is banned and vendors are
strictly regulated. "Paris is, first of all, for Parisians."

Education
Travel experiences broaden our understanding of ourselves and of others. As the saying goes, "There is no
education quite like the experience of travel During the Grand Tour era in England, travel served as conduits for
transporting knowledge about other countries as aristocrats regaled their friends with stories of their travels and shared
watercolour paintings of places they visited; the painting functioned like present-day cameras (Ryan 2003). According
to the UNESCO tourism is a key part of the process of building mutual understanding and awareness of culture. Being
able to see contrasting situations and ways of doing things help us appreciate our own culture and identity better.
Travel can make us see what is good and bad in every country, including our own (Cruz 2009 Tourism heightens self-
awareness as it makes both residents and tourists more conscious of their cultural values, practices, and heritages (Li
2003; Prentice 2003 in Matarrita-Cascante 2009). Tourism also promotes exchange of ideas leading to and social
progress (Liu 2003).

Better Quality of Life

Tourism helps improve the quality of life in destinations when services are provided or improved (Matarrita-
Cascante 2009: Deery 2012; Faulkner and Tideswell 1997), Improvement in community life could be brought about by
the provision of further education, potable drinking water, sports facilities, cellular phone network, electricity,
infrastructure, entertainment, and shopping facilities among others (Deery et al. 2012; Akyeampong 2011). In the study
by Takahashi et al. (2000), they found that money earned by boatmen in Pagsanjan, Laguna in the 1990s was enough
to buy their own land and construct a new house using more durable materials such as concrete walling and galvanized
iron roof Exposure to affluent foreigners also induces residents to have bigger dreams Money made from tourism
enabled children of low-educated boatmen to not only help out with their families' livelihood, but also fund their own
higher education with expectations of landing on better jobs when they graduate (Takahashi et a 2000 The
implementation of national tourism master plans in the Philippine brought destinations closer to target markets by
opening additional international gateways and the development of the nautical highway system. The nautical highway
links the major islands in the country through a system of highways and seaports and corresponding roro troll-on/roll-
off services. Moreover, travel times have been shortened with the opening of new expressways, such as the Subic,
Clark, Tarlac Expressway (SCTEx) and Tarlac Pangasinan La Union Expressway (TPLEX Connectivity between the
city centers and the Manila International Airport terminals is being upgraded with the construction of expressway. In
Negros Occidental, the building of an international airport in Silay City has opened the neighboring towns to business
opportunities.

Empowerment
Tourism can empower formerly disenfranchised stakeholders such as the poor, women, and indigenous
people. Tourism creates demand for goods and services that can be provided by such sectors with minimal training. In
many destinations, like Puerto Galera and Boracay, women are able to make a living by rendering massage and
manicure or pedicure services to tourists on the beach or in their hotels. Housewives make additional money by making
friendship bands or cooking food bought by tourists at wet markets (paluto restaurants). Residents of neighboring
islands in Boracay also obtain income by acting as tour guides and photographers to tourists. While there are no
established rates, they can make decent money from tips given by appreciative tourists. Farmers are able to sell their
produce at roadside stalls along the highway going to Tagaytay. Cattle raisers earn by selling beef at a wet market
frequented by domestic tourists. Economic independence translates into greater autonomy and feeling of dignity for
such sectors.

NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF TOURISM ON CULTURE

Stunted Cultural Development
Unfortunately, tourism can also cause native cultures to wither and die through acculturation, commodification,
and homogenization. It has been observed that tourism sometimes leads to the loss of unique cultural practices,
including folkloric dances, local festivities, traditional foods, music, and dances (Matarrita Cascante 2009). Tourism-
induced migration, whether seasonal, temporal, or permanent, can alter local institutions, social structures, and
traditional practices (Matarrita-Cascante 2009),
As an agent of globalization, tourism contributes to cultural homogenization (Westernization, standardization)
in terms of dress, food, and behavior. Local languages "erode" because of the use of English as the lingua franca of
tourism (Ryan 1991 in Brunt and Courtney 1999). Cultures are also diffused through demonstration effect.
Demonstration effect happens when locals get to imitate foreign tourist’s behavior simply by observing the latter.
International chain restaurants and hotels are the main purveyors as they promote their own "service architecture" or
standard operating procedures in customer service and food and beverage operations. Local culture is gradually
replaced by Western culture a locals copy the behavior of tourists through demonstration effect (Murphy 1585 in Brunt
and Courtney 1999). For example, Filipino women used to swim wearing T-shirts and shorts. However, nowadays,
young women wear bikinis in the beach partly because of exposure to Western tourists, and partly because most hotels
and resorts require the wearing of "proper" swimwear at the swimming pools
Another effect of tourism is loss of authenticity and cultural bastardization In the Philippine context, traditional
dance performers are made to wear skin tone shirts in lieu of total nudity, which may be unacceptable to the population
of the mainstream culture or to Muslim visitors who would be scandalized by nudity. Dog-meat eating will also be
shunned. Long rituals are compressed into comfortable time spans to accommodate the tourists duration of stay (Cruz
2009)
Another effect of mass tourism is trivialization. Things that have sacred meaning to the locals become
trivialized (Swarbrooke 1999). The bull which traditionally represented a native god among the Cordillera tribes were
transformed into mere decorative items. Religious items, such as rosaries or figurines are bought as souvenirs or
pasalubong by tourists. The baptism of Jesus in the Jordan River is re-enacted as an event, with tourists getting dipped
by a "St John the Baptist in the River, receiving a certificate of the "baptism" afterwards The assignment of new
meanings to cultural elements by tourism (may make local people see tourism development as a form of aggression
(Whittaker 1994 Robinson and Picard 2006 in Cruz 2009).
On the other hand, elements that originally had no intrinsic relevance to a community's social life may become
significant to the tourist gaze (Lash and Urry 1994). Mundane objects become items of curiosity for the tourists.
Examples include how the Aetas make fire by rubbing bamboo sticks, how indigenous tribes weave clothing, and how
local pastry shops in Bulacan make decorative Japanese paper wrappers. Often, communities only become aware of
particular cultural elements through the interaction with tourists and various tourism operators (Robinson and Picard
2005, 2006 in Cruz 2009).
 Trivialization occurs because of lack of cultural orientation of the tourists sometimes, sheer ignorance could
unintentionally result in a seeming disrespect for culture or religion. As an example, a group of Northeast Asian tourists
posed for picture atop the altar of San Agustin Church in Intramuros. Apparently, it is an offend to the Church to not
leave one's shoes by the door, but one of the officials remarked how "dirty" the local was upon removing his footwear
(Crun). It would be prudent to observe proper etiquette in foreign countries in order to minimize conflicts. In North
Korea, the pictures of their former rulers Kim 11 Sung and Kim Jeun II hang at the front end of each local's room. No
one is supposed to crop out any part of their pictures from their photos. Neither can you abbreviate their names, say
to KIS or KIL. In Japan, it is not polite to leave a morsel of lice in the bowl. In Korea and Japan, one is supposed to
pour the drink of his friend. However, in China, one is supposed to leave a small portion of food on the plate to indicate
that he has had enough. In Thailand, one is not to touch another person's head nor show the soles of his shoes or feet
as these are disrespectful. In Malaysia, men and women do not mingle together, unless they are relatives. In that
country, as well as in Brunei, one is supposed to point using his thumb, not his index finger. In Singapore, where people
seem to always be rushing, people are supposed to stand on the right side of the escalator to allow those in a hurry to
get past. Tipping in Japan and in some other countries is not customary as service charge is already embedded in the
price.

Commodification of Culture
Tourism can lead to the commodification of culture. Commodification or commercialization (Burns and
Holden 1995 in Brunt and Courtney 1999) is the process where cultural elements are presented for the mass
consumption of tourists. In most cases, the reinterpretation of culture is done by outsiders, such as tourists or tour
operators. These outsiders take the liberty of choosing which part of local culture to showcase, based on their bases,
understanding, and aesthetic sense (Nash 1989 in Robinson and Picard 2006). Religion is one aspect of culture that
easily gets "commoditized" (Sharpley 1994 in Brunt and Courtney 1999). A very good example of this is how our
religious festivals like Sinulog have become an excuse for partying. When tourism growth is not supported by sound
planning and management, loss of resident identity and local culture could occur (Rosenow and Pulsipher 1979 in
Andereck et al. 2005). An indicator of such commercialization is the decline in resident hospitality (Lui and Var 1986 in
Andereck et al. 2005). The privileged treatment of guests once extended from the kindness of people's hearts now has
a tag price. From free rooms and guiding, we now have homestays and tour guides, which have to be paid. Sometimes,
the shift to commercialization is abetted by tourists offering tips to the locals who extend help. Soon, the locals learn to
expect tips and then charge visitors for their services. Similarly, once publicly accessible scenic views, beaches, seas,
and caves become restricted to those willing to pay. Entrance fees, pay-per-use, and environmental fees have become
the practice in most tourist areas.

Moral Decadence
The presence of outsiders has been linked to increased incidence of prostitution, crime, drug abuse, and
alcoholism (Teye et al. 2002: Brunt and Courtney 1999, Tosun 2002 in Andereck et al. 2005). Poor countries tend to
attract many sex tourists who take advantage of the desperate situation of local people (Gössling et al. 2004). A
concomitant effect of prostitution during the Grand Tour era was the spread of venereal diseases (Ryan 2003). A
number of cities have earned the unenviable title as sex tourist destinations (Swarbrooke 1999 Places with booming
tourism industries seem unable to prevent prostitution from happening with people from other cities and towns flocking
to tourism centers to ply their trade. To limit the impact on the host population, governments, sometimes, limit the
commercial sex trade to specific districts. In Kuala Lumpur, Bukit Indang is host to several massage parlors. Women
and lady-boys (male transvestites are also seen walking side by side with foreigners. In Singapore the Geylang area
has a reputation for budget accommodation facilities that are purportedly used for such activities. In Makati City, the
area around Jupiter Street is host to a number of night-time entertainment.
The predisposition to vices is not limited to the tourists, but also to residents in a study on the impacts of
tourism in Pagsanjan, Laguna, Takahashi et al (2000) found that easy money from tips given by tourists caused some
boatmen to squander on drugs, gambling, and alcohol. They also found that the presence of tourists attracted pederasts
or pedophiles to Pagsanjan from neighboring towns, and that some tricycle drivers worked as pimps at night for
additional income. In a similar vein, Andereck et al. (2005) noted from previous studies that tourism sometimes lead to
degradation of morality (Mok et al. 1999) and sexual permissiveness (Teye et al. 2002; King et al. Milman 1991).
Social Divisions
Migrants to tourist destinations are targets of ill feelings by residents because they take away jobs from locals
(Matarrita-Cascante 2009). The outcome is a stronger polarization among the social classes (Matarrita-Cascante
2009). On the other hand, migrants pulled by the lure of tourism lights but possess no qualifications could end up in
poverty (Swarbrooke 1999).
Tourism, sometimes, worsens social divides. In a study of tourism in Peru, it was found that porters are victims
of exploitation by the local agencies that hired them. Their working conditions are below the minimal standard
established by the International Labor Organization (Arellano 2011). In Cuba, tourism was found to fuel ethnic divisions
and racism between the blacks and whites (Sanchez and Adams 2008).

Displacement
Social displacement is another unwanted effect of tourism, outside investors buy prime property from the
locals: locals, sometimes, have to relocate because they sold their land to investors. Although beaches are supposed
to be public domains or commons, some resort owners appropriate the beachfront to themselves. This deprives
fishermen to dry their nets or beach their boats. This forces them to switch to jobs available at the resorts (Sawkar et
al. 1998). However, others who cannot adapt to the new situation may just opt to go somewhere else where they could
practice their original occupations (Cruz 2009). Resentment may be engendered because of economic gap (McIntosh
1995 in Brunt and Courtney 1999). Among some indigenous people, land is the only measure of wealth. They feel
impoverished when they are displaced from their ancestral lands and relocated, such as due to tourism development
(Truong et al. 2013). Once they have been evicted from their land, either by law or by selling, the indigenous people
can no longer engage in traditional economic activities such as planting or fishing. They are forced to embrace a totally
new way of life. Once nomadic people, like the Batak of Palawan, have to settle and intermarry, leading to the demise
of their culture and the tribe itself.
Tourism occasionally reinforces negative stereotypes. Tour operators and their tour guides may
sensationalize the negatives, such as the Manila's chaotic traffic, the uncollected garbage, and street children. Tour
itineraries might include visits to slum colonies in the guise of providing a "balanced view of the destination. Exposure
to such sights triggers a perverse sense of superiority among the affluent tourists. Tour guides may also exaggerate
the dangers of venturing out on one's own, so they could herd the tourists to accredited shops where the guides are
given commissions (Cruz 2009).
The advent of sustainability as a development paradigm has led to the creation of protected areas, which are
generally seen as contributing to environmental preservation and conservation. However, this has further worsened
the lives of already indigenous peoples because protected area systems restrict access to and use of forests, seas,
and rivers, which have always been their source of livelihood (Goodwin 2007). Moreover, their belief systems, rituals,
and traditions, which are intertwined with traditional economic activities, are also compromised as a result of such
prohibitions. In Puerto Princesa City, an expanded protected area around the Underground River even criminalized
swidden farming (slash and burn) which used to be a prime source of sustenance and income for the Tagbanua people
(Dressler 2006). The Tagbanua have been edged out by migrant settlers who managed to sway the powers that allow
rice cultivation while prohibiting (Dressler 2006).

Community Stress
Tourism creates inconvenience and stress due to crowding and congestion When tourists in droves, the result
is longer queues and waiting times, loss of access to public areas, traffic congestion, and competition for parking
spaces (Deery et al. 2012). Travel time to Tagaytay from Alabang in summer could be a long as five hours: this is about
four times longer than the average. One summer time, the Author and his family drove from SLEx Calamba Exit to
Pansol, Calamba for five hours, and a distance of about 12 kilometers.
Tourism affects sociocultural characteristics, such as habits, daily routines, social lives, beliefs, and values
which lead to psychological tension (Dogan 1989 in Andereck et al. 2005). Residents sometimes think of tourism as
an intrusion into their lives (Faulkner nd Tideswell 1997). In summer, families converge in Barangay Pansol, Calamba
to spend a night or two at one of the houses with swimming pools. The guests do not just swim; they also sing their
hearts out with the karaoke from night to morning.
 A friend from Puerto Princesa City once told the Author that they used to play on the streets until evening with
their parents not worrying a bit. Everybody knew their neighbors. That was the time when Puerto was just a fifth-class
municipality with no mass tourism industry. With the city's designation as one of the New 7 Wonders of Nature, the
city's laidback character has become a thing of the past. It has become highly urbanized first-class city. Thousands of
migrants not only from other Palawan towns, but also from the entire archipelago, make Puerto Princesa their new
home every year, increasing the number of people who do not know each other. The presence of strangers in the
neighborhood creates feelings of insecurity among the original residents, as crime has also accompanied the city's
success. One possible reaction by local residents to tourism is simply to avoid the crowds. To do that, a family from
Baguio City, the Author once met, actually spends their summers in Manila.
Increased tourism volume is not readily matched to sufficient energy water supply as the provision of such
entails bureaucratic procedures like public and bidding and budget allocation. The delay results in interruptions that
greatly inconvenience residents in booming tourist destinations like Baler and Puerto Princesa because tourist zones
are prioritized.
Another effect of tourism is concerned with the distribution of negative impacts. Sometimes, garbage dumps
are located away from the tourist zones. But within places where the poor and indigenous people live. Thus, their
places of abode become infested with flies and rodents that can cause ailments. Foul odor also hangs in the air of
these impoverished places. In short, the poor and other marginalized sectors like indigenous people tend to bear the
negative consequences of tourism more than the other sectors.
In an article in New York Times, Becker (2015) cited several instances where tourists' naive or inconsiderate
behavior has caused imitation among local residents in popular destinations. This includes Italian tourists wandering
naked in a Barcelona neighborhood; a Chinese tourist "ringing and kicking sacred bells at a Buddhist temple (in
Thailand) as if he was in a game arcade"; Chinese tourists littering beaches, defecating in public, and opening the door
of an airplane, which was ready for take-off, to get fresh air, French and American tourists posing nude around the
Angkor Wat complex in Cambodia; and tourists disfiguring the Pont des Arts Bridge in Paris by hanging padlocks on
the pedestrian span as a sign of love. Part of the bridge collapsed last year due to the weight of the locks. There were
a million padlocks on the bridge, which weighed 45 tons (Alcindor 2015). They were removed in 2015. According to
The Wall Street Journal, the love lock phenomenon started from the 2006 Italian teen novel titled / Want You, which a
Roman couple immortalized their bond by attaching a padlock on a bridge and throwing the key in the Tiber River
(Alcindor 2015).

Dependence
Many tour operators fund humanitarian projects and schools as part of their corporate social responsibility
(Hein 2015). However, Hein (2015) noted that this practice has negative consequences. Communities throughout the
Third World tend to rely on tours for income generation and development, which creates cyclical dependency on foreign
cash flow and mobilization.

DETERMINANTS OF SOCIO-CULTURAL IMPACTS

Whether tourism produces positive or negative outcomes is determined by a host of factors. These factors
include the balance between people's perceived benefits and costs (Ap 1992), the cultural distance/affinity between
the tourists and the locals, the stage in the tourism product life cycle (Butler 1980; Doxey 1975), place attachment, and
social carrying capacity (Faulkner and Tideswell. 1997).
With respect to the perceived balance of benefits and costs, studies show that local people will tolerate the
downside effects if they recognize tourism's broader community-wide benefits (Faulkner and Tideswell 1997). This
tendency is known as the altruistic surplus principle.
Both Dosey's Imitation Index (Irridex) and Butler's Tourism Area Life Cycle (TALC) models suggest that
people's perceptions of tourism's impacts deteriorate with time. In the Iridex model, residents go through euphoria in
the introduction stage, followed by apathy in the growth stage, irritation in the mature phase, and antagonism in the
decline stage. Butler's TALC model (1980) sees destinations going through exploration, involvement, development,
consolidation, stagnation and decline or rejuvenation. The stages are characterized by increasingly adverse impacts
(Faulkner and Tideswell 1997), Both Doxey and Butler assumed that all residents react to tourism in the same way.
However, Ap (1992) found th residents react to tourism according to their estimation of the net benefit or cost.
As regards cultural affinity, it can be assumed that cultural affinity in language, customs, and religion between
Malaysians and Indonesians will result in smooth interaction but will also result in minimal cultural impact between
these two groups. On the other hand, Japanese and Kenyans, who are separated by wider cultural distance, will face
interactional difficulties (Reisinger 1994). Thus, it it is assumed that the latter pair will also exert greater cultural
influence on each other.
Other variables include the strength of local society, level of economic development of the host population in
relation to the tourists, and the measures taken by public authorities (Swarbrooke 1999). Another determinant of impact
is the degree of participation by local people in decision-making process, which impacts on their ability to obtain
equitable share of tourism revenues (Tumusiime and Vedeld 2012). Equity, which is the fair distribution of tourism
benefits, should be factored in (Deller 2010; Teye et al. 2002). Otherwise, skepticism, jealousy, and distrust may arise,
which could wear down community solidarity and cohesion (Simpson 2008 in Truong et al. 2013). While tourism is said
to foster education and learning of languages, Takahashi et al. (2000) observed that when most tourists are on a one-
day trip, they usually do not buy anything from a hotels' souvenir shops, and as a result, employees cannot learn
another language. This indicates that duration of contact is another determinant.
Williams and Lawson (2001) identified heavy tourism concentration, length of residency in the community,
and being native-born as being associated to negative attitudes to tourism. They also found that economic dependence
and nearness of one's home to the tourist center tended to encourage positive attitudes to tourism. Smith and Krannich
(1998) found that the degree of tourism dependence affects perception of tourism impacts. In so-called "tourism-
saturated communities, residents tend to perceive tourism negatively and desire less future development. Tourism-
realized communities are ambivalent toward tourism development; they enjoy benefits but fear becoming tourism-
saturated. Tourism-hungry communities (low level of tourism development) desire to become tourism-realized,
indicating a high perceived importance of tourism, high desire for future development, and low negative perception.
Another factor that affects the quality and intensity of cultural impact is the type of tourists that regularly visit
a destination. Eric Cohen (1972) divided tourists into institutionalized tourists and non-institutionalized tourists.
Institutionalized tourists are the mass, package tourists. They experience the least cultural immersion because of
the time and space limitations inherent in most package tours. The non-institutional travelers are the drifters and
explorers, who tend to stay longer, and are open to adventure. They eat local food, sleep in traditional dwellings, buy
from the local market, and discover less known places. These two latter types of tourists are bound to leave their
cultural influences on the places they go to, and are likewise culturally influenced by the people they interact with.
Valene Smith (1977 in Cruz 2009) classified travelers into explorers, elite, offbeat, unusual, incipient mass,
and charter tourist. Explorers are the most amenable to engaging with the local people and are most likely to internalize
the local culture. However, being relatively few, their effect on the general population may be limited. At the other end
of the spectrum, charter tourists usually get cocooned in Western-style facilities and hardly make contact with local
people. In other words, they remain within the environmental bubble provided by tour buses and Western hotels. They
have the least cultural experience. In spite of traveling within the environmental bubble (Reisinger 1994 in Cruz 2009),
mass tourists can influence local people through demonstration effect. Demonstration effect is the imbibing of cultural
traits and practices by locals by observing the behavior of tourists (Wikipedia 2008).
Spatial concentration of tourism development affects the level of cultural diffusion. Enclave tourism permits
cultural interactions between the tourist and the local people working and living in the enclave. Enclave tourism is
practiced for political and security reasons, such as in North Korea. In North Korea, tourists are only allowed to go to
officially designated areas and are always in the company of trained tour guides. The guides, sometimes called
minders, make sure that foreigners only mingle with authorized people, go to designated hotels, restaurants, and shops
for foreigners, do not watch Western movies from their laptops in public, and do not take pictures of sensitive subjects.
An example of a sensitive shot will be one taken of children walking barefooted or pictures taken of soldiers. Sometimes,
tourists who stray from the boundary of a tourist zone pay with their lives, such as the case of a female tourist who
ventured out of the tourist boundary at Mt. Resort.
The ratio of tourists to residents also affects social interaction. The bigger the ratio, the greater the pressure
exerted on the host society. As tourists come regularly, common traits, preferences, and behaviors among nationality
groups emerge. Differences can sometimes lead to conflict not only between the tourists and residents but among the
different tourist nationality groups. Sometimes racial conflicts are brought to host destinations. For example, Olongapo
City. Which functioned as the R&R place for the US Navy service personnel prior to the termination of RP-US Bases
Agreement, was the scene of some racial riots between Caucasian and African-American service personnel.
Distinct seasonal patterns of visitation make the impacts on the community (through crowding, congestion,
litter, price increases, etc.) more obvious to Research reveals that some residents cope with such fluctuations by
scheduling their own holidays during those peak periods to escape the deleterious impacts (Belisle and Hoy 1980;
Sheldon and Var 1984; Rothman 1978 in Faulkner and Tideswell 1997). Ap and Crompton identified varied responses
to tourist influx compromising, embracement, tolerance, adjustment, and withdrawal.

Prepared by:

GEE-LYN M. MANALO, CTP

Instructor I