Nefertiti

History and Geography

Volume 1
World History:
The Ancient World to
the Medieval Era
Athena Songhai King Plague Doctor

Chariot Racing
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 WORLD HISTORY:
The Ancient World to the
Medieval Era
Volume 1
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 WORLD HISTORY:
The Ancient World to the Medieval Era
Volume 1

Table of Contents
Foreword: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

01 Chapter 1:
Mesopotamia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

02 Chapter 2:
Ancient Egypt and Kush. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

03 Chapter 3:
The Israelites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

04 Chapter 4:
Ancient Greece. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

05 Chapter 5:
Ancient India. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

06 Chapter 6:
Early China. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

07 Chapter 7:
Rome: From Republic to Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

08 Chapter 8:
Islamic Civilization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

09 Chapter 9:
Maya, Aztec, and Inca Civilizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

10 Chapter 10:
Imperial China. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

11 Chapter 11:
Civilizations of Korea, Japan, and Southeast Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

12 Chapter 12:
Europe and Russia in the Middle Ages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

13 Chapter 13:
West African Kingdoms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Foreword Let’s try to enlighten ourselves together;
let’s try to unearth a few precious
monuments from the ruins of the
centuries.
Voltaire – French philosopher, 1700s

In any age of any society the study of

history, like other social activities, is
governed by the dominant tendencies
of the time and place.
Arnold Toynbee – British historian,
early 1900s

No man can know where he is going

unless he knows exactly where he has
been and exactly how he arrived at his
present place.
Maya Angelou – American author and
poet, 1900s to early 2000s

2
 Studying World History
Human history stretches back hundreds of thousands of years.
People and societies from the past are fascinating, and
some parts of the past are mysteries that scholars try to solve.
History also helps us understand the present—and consider
what it means to be human.

We can better understand our

own societies by learning about
the many other societies that have
existed at different times and in
different places around the globe.
Challenges that exist now are often
rooted in the past—sometimes in
the very distant past.

Understanding history can help us

try to solve and prevent problems
today. The study of history also
allows us to understand and enjoy
art, literature, and music. It teaches
us about different perspectives and
systems of belief.

This nineteenth-century CE mask was

made by the Kongo people in West Africa.

3
 The Historian’s Task
To learn about past civilizations, historians
study primary sources such as letters,
official records, diaries, literature,
newspapers, photographs, and other
written materials. Primary sources can
also be physical artifacts, including
tools, architecture, clothing, pottery,
artwork, decorations, jewelry, furniture,
gravestones, and weapons. Writing
is an important component of most
civilizations, but historians “read” artifacts
Historians read and interpret documents written in
as well as printed words. That is, they the past.

interpret artifacts and sources to try to

understand the past. Vocabulary
primary source, n. a firsthand account of
Historians interpret artifacts and primary a historical event
sources by learning about the context artifact, n. an object used during a past
in which they were created. Learning period in history
about the habits, values, and needs of a historiography, n. the methods
historians use to study, interpret, and
civilization gives historians information
write about the past
they can use to form an understanding of
what the civilization was like.
is also how historians choose to research,
Additionally, historians must also consider interpret, and write about the past.
historiography. The Greek root graph Scholars debate how to approach
means to write; historiography is literally studying and writing about history. They
writing about history. But historiography don’t always agree about how to interpret

4
an object, text, or event from the past. civilizations as cultures that include
As you study world history, you will learn certain characteristics. Historians can
facts that most scholars agree on, as well study these characteristics to learn about
as some debates and questions historians a civilization.
still have.
Generally, civilizations are characterized
by settlements, such as villages, towns
Think Twice and cities. They often include monumental
What do you think influences the architecture—large buildings that require
choices historians make about
what to research? What shapes how complex efforts to construct. Other
historians interpret information about components of civilizations include a
the past? division of labor, a social class structure,
and a political structure. Many, though
not all, civilizations use a form of writing.
Different civilizations exhibit each of
What Is a Civilization? these features to different degrees,
and not every civilization includes
Humans have lived in social groups
every characteristic.
for 250,000 years. Researchers study
prehistoric artifacts to learn about
prehistoric societies. Historians mostly Vocabulary
focus on societies from around 3000 BCE, civilization, n. a society, or group
when civilizations first emerged, to the of people, with similar religious
beliefs, customs, language, and form
present day.
of government
It’s important to understand that settlement, n. a place where a group of
historians do not use the term civilization people live together permanently or for
extended periods of time
to mean that a society is advanced
division of labor, n. the breakdown of
or better than another. Referring to work into specific tasks performed by
societies as civilizations is not a value different people, often considered a way
judgment. Rather, historians define to make workers more efficient

5
 Early Civilizations
Many prehistoric societies included
some of these features. However,
most prehistoric societies lived as
hunter-gatherers, moving from place
to place to find food, shelter, and
resources. About twelve thousand
years ago, in different places around
the world, some people began to farm
and herd animals. The development of
agriculture and the practice of keeping
livestock allowed societies to develop
a food surplus. It also led to the
development of more complex social
systems.

Vocabulary
surplus, n. an extra amount, beyond
what is needed

Many of the earliest civilizations Over time, some civilizations grew into mighty
powers. The Inca built Machu Picchu, in
developed in river valleys. This happened present-day Peru, in the fifteenth century CE.
in Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indus River
Valley in modern-day Pakistan and India,
and the Huang He valley in what is today that were left behind in the soil when
eastern China. When spring rains and the floodwaters receded. This made the
snowmelt caused these rivers to flood, soil in the valleys good for farming—
the water that flowed over the land especially once the inhabitants learned
carried minerals and other nutrients to control floodwaters with structures

6
such as dams and canals. By developing
systems of irrigation, people were able
to practice large-scale agriculture.

Vocabulary
canal, n. a channel dug by people, used
by boats or for irrigation
irrigation, n. bringing water from a
well, a river, or a lake to a place where it
does not rain enough to grow crops

With the increased supply of food gained

from agriculture, people needed vessels
and storehouses to keep the surplus
of food for later use. The surplus could
also be used to trade with neighboring
cultures for supplies that were not
available in the region.
Over time, more and more specialized
kinds of work developed. While most
members of society specialized in
Early civilizations developed musical instruments.
producing food, some focused on This Mesopotamian figurine shows a harpist
playing a harp.
building or making containers, cloth,
tools, or weapons. Some people became As you study Mesopotamia, think about
merchants or traders. Others became what caused early civilizations to flourish
religious or political leaders. there. What challenges and advantages
Eventually, some settlements developed did people encounter? What were their
into cities. With larger populations, more values and interests? What were their lives
organized forms of government became like? What choices did they make, and
necessary. The increasing division of labor why? Their pottery and weapons, art and
also meant that people had more time for architecture, jobs and leaders all help tell
leisure activities. their story.

7
 Chapter 1
Mesopotamia
The Big Question
Why is Mesopotamia called a “cradle of
civilization”?

A Land Between
Two Rivers
Over more than five thousand years,
Mesopotamian peoples built several
complex civilizations.

Located close to Africa, Europe, and central Asia,

Mesopotamia was a crossroads of trade, culture, and
conquest. From about 3000 BCE, different peoples who
settled in this area began to build larger societies that were
more permanent and complex than those that existed
previously. Through innovation, they made their lives easier
and more comfortable. They developed more elaborate ways
to express their religious beliefs and began to discover key
principles of astronomy, mathematics, physics, medicine, art,
and architecture.

A carved stone from Mesopotamia

records a gift of land from a king.

8
 a crescent moon. The fertile crescent refers
to the region where today much of Iraq is
The Fertile Crescent located, as well as parts of Syria, Lebanon,
Israel, Jordan, and Egypt.
The Fertile Crescent is an arc of land that
stretches from the Mediterranean Sea
southward and eastward to the Persian Vocabulary
Gulf. This land was home to several of the Fertile Crescent, n. an arc of land
stretching from the Nile River valley to
world’s earliest civilizations.
southwestern Asia, characterized by rich
A crescent is a curved shape. For example, soil and climate conditions that supported
the development of early civilizations
a moon that is less than half full is called

Today, several countries occupy the Fertile Crescent.

9
 which empties into the Persian Gulf. The
Think Twice
Tigris and the Euphrates are an important
Today, the countries in the area
of the Fertile Crescent are part part of why this land is so fertile, or able to
of the political region sometimes produce many crops. The rivers also help
called the Middle East. But all of them
explain why, in ancient times, this land was
except Egypt lie in what geographers
refer to as Southwest Asia. Why might a fertile place, not just for farming but also
political and geographic regions for the growth of civilizations.
sometimes differ?

Vocabulary
Mesopotamia refers to the large area Mesopotamia, n. historical region
around the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers
within the Fertile Crescent located
where some of the earliest civilizations
around the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. emerged
People began to settle in this area around historical region, n. a geographical
7000 BCE, and civilizations began to area that at some point in history
shared a language or other cultural or
develop around 3000 BCE. Thousands political traits
of years later, ancient Greek historians fertile, adj. able to support the growth
named this region Mesopotamia, of many plants; capable of producing
new life
meaning land between rivers. The Greek
root meso means middle or in between;
potamus means river. Today, the word
Mesopotamia is still used to describe
the historical region located around Cradle of Civilization
the Tigris-Euphrates river system that Many early civilizations in different parts
was home to several ancient societies, of the world first began in river valleys,
including Sumer, Assyria, and Babylon, where water and rich soil supported
among others. agriculture. Mesopotamia was one of
Both the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers these places. Over thousands of years,
begin in the mountains of Turkey. They different groups settled in different areas
run southeastward across Syria and Iraq. In around Mesopotamia and developed a
southern Iraq, they join together to form way of life that was different from earlier
the Shatt al-Arab (the River of the Arabs), hunter-gatherer societies. Eventually,

10
they built towns and cities that included Mesopotamian groups also fished and
large, complex buildings. They developed hunted and herded animals, including
political systems, specialized professions, sheep and goats.
class structures, intricate art, and a form of By about 4000 BCE, groups had settled in
writing and record keeping. the plain around the Tigris and Euphrates
Historians sometimes use the term “cradle and used water from the rivers for farming.
of civilization” to refer to areas such as These groups built small villages and
Mesopotamia, where the first civilizations developed strategies to better control the
appeared. In the past, some historians water and interact with the environment.
called Mesopotamia “the cradle of Hot, dry summers reduced the amount
civilization.” Now, researchers understand of water in the rivers, so there was not
that several cradles of civilization always enough water for farming and
developed independently in different other needs. On the other hand, spring
locations around the globe. often brought too much water. Rain
Think Twice became more frequent, and melting

How does knowing about the snow in the mountains to the north ran
development of the idea of several down into the rivers. This caused flooding.
“cradles of civilization” contribute to Floods could destroy villages, crops, and
your understanding of what it means to
study history? livestock. However, this seasonal flooding
had benefits as well. The floodwaters
were filled with silt, or tiny bits of rocks,

The Power of Floods Vocabulary

Archaeological evidence indicates that silt, n. small particles of rock, minerals,
and soil carried in water
people began to settle in Mesopotamia
around 7000 BCE. Scholars hypothesize
that the people probably found wild Think Twice
grains there and then gradually chose How did flooding of the rivers both
the grains that stayed on their stalks, help and hinder the development of
such as wheat and barley. These early civilizations?

11
minerals, and organic matter. When the This social behavior was the beginning
flood ended and the water drained away, of a system of central authority, which
the silt was left behind. It made the soil led to the development of governments
rich for growing plants. and political systems.

Irrigation and an increased food supply

had other effects on early societies.
Gradually, more people began to do
Innovation and Cooperation more specific kinds of jobs. As larger
People in Mesopotamia learned to areas were planted with a single crop,
use the rivers and the rich soil to their some members of society focused on
advantage. Not only did the floods caring for these crops, while some did
enrich the soil, they also created clay other work. The surplus of extra food
that people used to make bricks for needed to be stored in containers,
building and to create objects. Early leading to the development of new
Mesopotamians built dikes to hold back crafts, such as pottery. At first, people
floodwaters and canals to direct water in Mesopotamia made pottery by hand,
to their fields. With irrigation, people shaping wet clay and then using fire or
could grow more food and store it for the sun to dry and harden their creations.
later use. This made life more stable, but Later, they invented the potter’s wheel
it had other impacts as well. People had to create bowls, jars, and other vessels.
to work together to build dikes, canals, Often, they decorated these objects
and food storage systems. They had to by marking the wet clay surface before
cooperate and choose leaders to help letting it harden.
them organize, not just within their own While some people specialized in
villages, but among different villages. farming or crafting objects, tools, or
weapons, others became religious or
Vocabulary political figures, guiding and protecting
dike, n. a wall or barrier built to prevent the community. Villages grew into small
flooding and direct the flow of water towns and cities.

12
 The Sumerians
Sumer arose in the southern part of
Mesopotamia. By around 3000 BCE, small
cities had developed. Over time, several
city-states developed, enclosed by
protective walls made of bricks formed
with mud and straw. Scholars have
identified at least twelve Sumerian city-
states, including Ur, Kish, and Uruk. Led by
priest-kings, these city-states sometimes
went to war; at other times, they traded
with one another or formed alliances.

This vase from an area in southern Iraq Vocabulary

is inscribed with cuneiform writing.
city-state, n. a city that is an independent
political state with its own government

Think Twice alliance, n. a group that works together

toward a common goal
Why would people develop a system
of more centralized authority as they
started working together more? A decorated box called the Standard of
Ur, made around 2500 BCE, shows various
aspects of Sumerian civilization. On one
Writers’ Corner
side, scenes reveal how armies attacked
What were some effects of people
an enemy. On the other side, images show
coming together to live in permanent
settlements? Write a paragraph a king and his court dining and listening
that explains what these effects to the music of a lyre being played for
were and why they occurred.
their entertainment. Other illustrations

13
The Standard of Ur

show how taxation worked. Lines of believed that gods and goddesses had
people from lower, working classes bring power over many parts of nature, such
offerings to the priest-king. The remaining as rain, seasons, and the growth of crops.
sides of the box show animals and plants, They also believed deities were involved
part of the local resources. The box also with people’s work and daily lives and with
reveals how trade developed, as some issues that affected the whole society, such
of the materials were not local but came as war, peace, and prosperity. Sumerians
from other regions. For example, the blue crafted figurines in honor of the gods
lapis lazuli came from Afghanistan. and rulers, mainly from the clay that filled
the river basins but also from materials
that came from trading with neighboring
cultures, such as lapis lazuli and gold.
Religion in Sumer Vocabulary
Like other ancient peoples, Sumerians deity, n. a god, goddess, or similar being
worshipped many different deities, or gods regarded as a supreme power
and goddesses. This kind of religious belief polytheism, n. belief in or worship of
system is called polytheism. Sumerians more than one deity

14
Each Sumerian city-state had its
own main god, honored with a large
temple called a ziggurat. These were Studying the Stars
impressive buildings, with several
Some ziggurats were used to observe
levels and grand exterior staircases.
stars and planets. Sumerians based many
Ziggurats were part of complexes
religious practices on their observations
that included administrative centers
of the heavens. They also used what
and warehouses for food. At the top
they saw to determine when to plant
was a shrine to the god where priests
crops. Their sense that the skies held
made offerings and carried out other
valuable information was likely tied
religious duties. Ziggurats became a
to their religious ideas and a sense of
feature of civilizations found throughout
wonder. However, it led them to uncover
Mesopotamia.
principles of what later became the
science of astronomy and to develop
Vocabulary
mathematics.
ziggurat, n. an ancient Mesopotamian
temple with a pyramid shape, consisting
of several levels and characterized by Sumerians created a calendar based on the
staircases on the outside walls cycles of the moon and invented one of
the first sundials. They developed complex
ways to measure time
that are the basis of
the modern system of
dividing minutes into
sixty seconds, hours into
sixty minutes, and days
into twenty-four hours.
Sumerians and other
Mesopotamian peoples
Ziggurats were built in the center of Sumerian cites, and later by other made many impressive
Mesopotamian peoples. The ziggurat in Ur was partially restored in the
twentieth century CE. advancements in

15
mathematics, particularly in geometry.
As astronomers tracked the movement
of stars and planets and the phases of
the moon, they created mathematical
techniques to describe the patterns they
observed and predict the motion of
planets in the sky. They were some of the
first to use a seven-day week. Over time,
they shared their knowledge with other
peoples, such as the ancient Greeks.

Find Out the Facts Sumerians used cuneiform tablets such as this
one to record business transactions and other
Research to learn more about important events.
ziggurats in Mesopotamia.

The idea to use clay and reeds was

creative and innovative, but even more
extraordinary was the concept of using

Development of Writing a system of symbols to keep records

and pass along knowledge. Sumerians
Sumerians created the earliest type of recorded their astrological observations
writing that historians have found. The as well as important events, court
method they invented, called cuneiform, proceedings, contracts, lists of sales, and
was based on the resources in their administrative tasks.
environment. Sumerians did not have
paper or ink. They made tablets from
Vocabulary
clay and sharpened reeds collected
cuneiform, n. an ancient form of writing
from riverbanks and marshes. They that used a system of symbols carved into
used the reeds to make marks in damp wet clay tablets
clay. The Sumerians developed a whole reed, n. a tall, thin grass that grows in
system of these marks, called characters. wet areas

16
 Many Inventions Social Classes
Sumerians created technology that Sumerians belonged to different social
made life and work much easier. They classes, which developed and changed
invented wheels, which then allowed over time. At the top were kings, who
them to develop vehicles such as claimed their power to rule came from
carts and chariots as well as their the gods worshipped in their city-state.
potter’s wheels. They used wooden The earliest rulers were priest-kings;
plows to break up soil before planting some entered into sacred marriages
crops. They traveled along the rivers with priestesses. Over time, king and
using sailboats and discovered how priest evolved into separate high-status
to use copper and tin to create a occupations. The first kings probably rose
new, human-made metal: bronze. It to power through success and heroism
was harder and stronger than metals in war. Eventually, their rule became
found in the earth and could be used hereditary, or inherited. Queens also
to make more durable tools, weapons, helped rule.
containers, jewelry, and other objects.
The Sumerians also invented one of the Below the royal and priest class,

world’s first board games. government officials and soldiers

occupied a privileged spot in Sumer. In
Vocabulary the middle class were civil servants,
chariot, n. a carriage with two wheels artisans, or merchants. Most people
pulled by horses or other animals
were in the lower class and worked as
sacred, adj. related to religion; holy
farmers. Enslaved people worked for
hereditary, adj. passed down from
parent to child those in higher social classes. Many

civil servant, n. a person employed by of these people had been captured

the government; a public official in battle; others were enslaved as
artisan, n. a person with a certain skill in punishment for crimes or because they
making things
were in debt.

17
 occupations. A clay tablet from the city of
Uruk provides a list of professions in the
society, including stonecutters, weavers,
gardeners, and potters.

The development of writing led to an

important new profession: the scribe,
who was able to read and write using
the cuneiform system. Becoming a scribe
required a long period of training. Scribes
were generally from wealthy families
who could afford this education for their
children (probably mostly boys). Scribes
worked as record keepers, creating legal
This headdress was made for a Sumerian queen. and business documents. Eventually,
scribes began to record the stories
Trade was an important part of the people told. Some may have created
Sumerian economy and culture. new stories.
Sumerians produced a surplus of valuable
crops, but they needed wood, stone, Vocabulary
and metals found in other regions.
scribe, n. a person whose job is to write
Sumerians crafted tools and jewelry or make copies of written information
from the materials they gained in trade;
then, they were able to trade them for
more materials. Merchants, traders,
and artisans helped fuel this trade and
continued to develop more specialized Rise of the Akkadians
The city-states of Sumer flourished
Think Twice in southern Mesopotamia for over a
What impact might trade have had thousand years, but eventually this
on ancient civilizations?
civilization was conquered. In the north,

18
a king known as Sargon ruled over important legacy that influenced the
Akkad. The Akkadian army was strong, region and later civilizations.
and Sargon began conquering Sumerian
Writers’ Corner
city-states around 2340 BCE. In joining
together Sumer and Akkad, Sargon Write a paragraph explaining the concept
of an empire. How is an empire
created the first empire, ruling over a different from a kingdom? Why
group of several different peoples and might a leader or a group seek
to establish an empire? 
territories. He founded a dynasty, a
powerful line of hereditary rulers, that
reigned for two centuries. The Akkadian
language came to dominate the region.
Trade with other regions increased, and
The Code of Hammurabi
artifacts from this period suggest the Hammurabi created a set of laws, known
development of new artistic styles. as the Code of Hammurabi. They were
inscribed on stone and displayed
in public. The laws cover all types
of behavior, from theft, assault, and
Babylon murder to debt, divorce, inheritance,
conflicts over irrigation and livestock,
Around 1800 BCE, a new group known
and improper business practices.
as the Amorites came to the banks of
the Euphrates and founded the city Vocabulary
of Babylon. A powerful king called
empire, n. a group of countries or
Hammurabi ruled Babylon and soon territories under the control of one
began to conquer other cities. Soon, government or ruler
the Babylonian Empire controlled the dynasty, n. a series of rulers who are all
from the same family
whole region, from the Mediterranean
legacy, n. something of value that is
to the Persian Gulf. This empire only passed down from another person,
lasted about fifty years, fading away generation, or civilization
after the death of Hammurabi. However, inscribed, adj. etched or carved into a
Hammurabi left one particularly hard surface

19
Punishments were included for every Perhaps the most important impact
type of crime. of the code was that it established
In some ways, the laws were very strict. a uniform system of law and justice
However, they also show an attempt to throughout the empire. The legal
promote justice and fair treatment. The systems of later civilizations, including
code required that if someone broke a ancient Greece and Rome, were
law, the severity of the punishment should influenced by the code.
match the seriousness of the crime. In some
Vocabulary
cases, the punishments matched the crimes
feud, n. a long conflict between two
quite literally. For instance, if a man injured people or two groups of individuals, often
the eye of another person, his eye would be involving violence and acts of revenge
injured as punishment. If he knocked out uniform, adj. following one pattern; always
having the same form or characteristics
someone’s teeth, he would lose his own
teeth. This standard is often described as
Think Twice
“an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth.”
What ideas about the Babylonian
The Code of Hammurabi could be Empire are suggested by the Code
harsh, but it also attempted to provide of Hammurabi? How can studying
the code help us learn about some of the
stability and protection by preventing
values and beliefs Babylonians may have
feuds and acts of vengeance by had? What challenges or worries does the
individuals. While the code generally code reflect?
reinforced the authority of the most
privileged members of society, a few
of the laws protected those who were
less powerful, such as wives abused
The Assyrian Empire
or abandoned by their husbands. The Assyria was an area in the northern part
code uses the concept that a person of Mesopotamia. Around 900 BCE, the
is innocent until proven guilty. One of Assyrians began to expand their territory,
the first crimes listed is making false eventually creating an empire. One key to
accusations. Another law imposes stiff Assyrian success was their military might.
penalties on judges who do wrong or They developed iron weapons, including
make mistakes. swords and spear-points, which were

20
stronger than the bronze weapons used
by others. Their army included skilled
engineers who built ladders, ramps, and
tunnels and filled in moats, allowing
soldiers to get into walled cities.

The Assyrian Empire lasted for three

centuries. The Assyrians gained a
reputation as ferocious, perhaps as a
strategy to intimidate others. Assyrian
artifacts show cruel treatment of
enemies and prisoners. The peoples they
conquered were forced to pay tribute, or
payments that a group or nation sends
to the group or nation that rules over it.
While the Assyrians were not the only
group in Mesopotamia that behaved
harshly, they are remembered for being
particularly brutal.

Vocabulary
moat, n. a deep, wide ditch surrounding
a town, castle, or fort, usually filled with
water; its purpose is to defend against
attack
tribute, n. payment of money or goods
by a people or their ruler to another
country or ruler that has conquered
them, or in exchange for protection

Think Twice
 hy might the victorious side in a
W
conflict want the areas it conquered
to pay tribute?

21
 Assyrian Society Ashurbanipal’s Library
The Assyrian Empire extended westward The city of Nineveh was the seat of Assyrian
all the way to the Nile River valley in Egypt, power and an important trade and religious
south and eastward down to the Persian center. It had multiple palaces and temples,
Gulf, and northward into Asia Minor enormous statues, and a complex system
(present-day Turkey). The capital, Nineveh, of canals. The Assyrian king Ashurbanipal,
was on the Tigris River, in the heart of the whose rule began in 669 BCE, built one
huge Assyrian territory. of the world’s first libraries in Nineveh.

To govern the areas under their control, It held more than thirty thousand clay

the Assyrians divided the empire tablets filled with court records, prayers,

into provinces, or districts. Assyrian songs, literature, and history. Ashurbanipal

officials were placed in charge of each seems to have valued reading, writing,

province to enforce laws and collect and learning. Artifacts from this period

taxes. Roads were built to connect all celebrate his extensive knowledge. Many

these provinces, making travel and carvings portray him with a stylus, an

trade easier. The Assyrians built stations instrument for writing on clay tablets.

along the roads where travelers rested Ashurbanipal’s library contained artifacts

and could change horses, leaving tired from earlier civilizations as well as from his

horses and taking new ones. Soldiers own time. Researchers have learned much

were posted at these stations to help from these artifacts and continue to learn

protect travelers from bandits and even more. It seems he wanted to collect all

other dangers. the knowledge of the world.

The tablets collected in the library at

Vocabulary
Nineveh contain a wealth of information
province, n. an area or region; an
administrative division of a country, about Mesopotamia and the ancient
kingdom, or empire world. The library itself was destroyed
bandit, n. a robber who roams areas outside in a fire when the Assyrian Empire was
of cities and attacks and robs travelers conquered. Because clay tablets do not

22
Ashurbanipal is shown with a stylus tucked into his belt.

burn, they survived the fire and left a trove

Think Twice
of information for historians. However,
Why do you think British researchers
they were buried for centuries in the excavated the ruins at Nineveh?
ruins at Nineveh. In the 1840s, British
researchers excavating the ruins began to Find Out the Facts
find the tablets. Many were brought back Research Ashurbanipal’s library
to Britain for preservation and research at Nineveh. Learn more about how it was
excavated and the artifacts it contained.
and are still housed at the British Museum
in London.

Writers’ Corner
Using your research, write a report on The Epic of Gilgamesh
Ashurbanipal’s library. In your
report, include a description of One treasure from the library at Nineveh is
what you imagine this library a set of clay tablets containing the oldest
was like.
example of written literature that has ever

23
been found, the Epic of Gilgamesh. They tell The epic includes a story about a great
the story of a great king, Gilgamesh. The flood, in which a god directs one of the
tablets are written in the older Akkadian characters to make an ark and fill it with
language, not in Assyrian. Created around two animals of every kind. This tale is
2000 BCE, they were already thirteen strikingly similar to the story of Noah’s ark
centuries old when Ashurbanipal put in the Hebrew Bible. It’s not clear whether
them in his library. a huge flood really occurred, but this
The story of Gilgamesh is called an epic similarity does suggest that groups in this
because it is a long, complex tale that region shared stories.
recounts the adventures of a great hero.
Some scholars think that Gilgamesh was
Vocabulary
based on a real figure, perhaps a king of
epic, n. a long, complex tale that tells
the Sumerian city-state Uruk, but this is not
the story of a hero’s adventures
certain. The significance of this work is not
immortal, adj. able to live forever; not
that it tells about a ruler, but that it reflects able to die
the imagination, creativity, values, and
concerns of an ancient civilization. It was likely
based on tales people had told orally long Think Twice
before the tablets were made.
How does the existence of two
The character Gilgamesh is a demigod, written accounts of a great flood
or half-divine and half-human. A great suggest the possibility of an
actual event?
ruler and warrior, he wields power but
is a harsh leader. A god sends Enkidu, a
wild man, who challenges Gilgamesh,
Find Out the Facts
then becomes his faithful friend.
In 2019, the Department of
Gilgamesh and Enkidu set out on a
Justice seized an ancient clay tablet from
series of adventures, battling monsters the Museum of the Bible in Washington,
and tangling with gods and goddesses. D.C. It had been stolen from a museum in
Iraq. The museum didn’t know the tablet
Gilgamesh wants to become immortal, had been stolen and had paid over a
but in the end, Enkidu dies and Gilgamesh million dollars for it. Find out more about
the Gilgamesh Dream Tablet.
comes to accept his mortal condition.

24
What Is an Epic?

An epic is a literary genre. A traditional

The Neo-Babylonian Empire
epic is a long narrative poem centered
on a great hero, who often is partly divine By around 650 BCE, the Assyrian Empire
or has a special relationship with the was facing many revolts from subjects
gods. Epics usually tell of the feats of the who wanted to break away, and they
hero, whose adventures involve a series of were also fighting among themselves.
obstacles to overcome. The hero’s actions In the city of Uruk, a king called
often affect the destiny of their society Nabopolassar led a successful revolt
or humankind in general. The story also and became king of Babylonia. After
includes the emotions and thoughts of capturing Nineveh, the Babylonians
the characters and often explores the burned down the whole city, destroying
consequences of their actions. it completely and ending the
Assyrian Empire.
Scholars think that the earliest written
epics came from stories, poems, and
Vocabulary
songs that were often told in a live
narrative poem, n. a poem that tells
performance. People may have created
a story
this early oral literature using verse
verse, n. writing arranged with a
because it was entertaining to audiences specific structure and rhythm; poetry
and because the rhythms and rhymes revolt, n. a rebellion; a rejection of
helped storytellers remember long, authority
complex tales. Babylonia, n. an ancient historical
region in Mesopotamia that included
Other examples of epics include the city of Babylon
Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, from
Greece; the Mahabharata, from India; Nabopolassar established a new empire
Beowulf, written in Old English about a with its capital at Babylon. His son
Scandinavian hero; The Divine Comedy, Nebuchadnezzar rebuilt Babylon into a
by Italy’s Dante Alighieri; and Paradise glorious city with an enormous stepped
Lost, by John Milton. ziggurat at the center, capped by a gold
roof. The city had grand palaces and

25
 Later Greek writers described
Think Twice
Nebuchadnezzar’s glorious Hanging
How can harsh rule help an empire
succeed? How can it weaken an empire? Gardens, but this was likely a

Wonders of the Ancient World

temples, and at the main entrance to
Around 250 BCE, an engineer called
the city stood the magnificent Ishtar
Philo of Byzantium proposed a list that
Gate, dedicated to the goddess Ishtar
came to be known as the Seven Wonders
and honoring other Babylonian deities
of the World. It included the Hanging
including Marduk, the patron god of the
Gardens of Babylon. The list mentioned
city. The exterior of the gate was covered
two Egyptian sites: the Great Pyramids
in beautiful blue glazed bricks inlaid
and the Lighthouse of Alexandria.
with red, yellow, and green patterns and
There were also two Greek wonders:
figures of bulls and dragons.
the massive statue of Zeus at Olympus
(in the southern mainland Greece) and
a gigantic statue called the Colossus of
Rhodes (a Greek island). Two sites in Asia
Minor (present-day Turkey) were also
listed: the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus
and the Greek Temple of Artemis
at Ephesus.

Philo was Greek and was likely influenced

by Greek scholars who had written
about magnificent sites in the world
they knew. These texts celebrate human
achievements, designating massive
works of art and architecture as marvels
worthy of respect and praise. Of the seven
wonders on Philo’s list, only the Great
Pyramids survive today.
The Ishtar Gate was the main entrance to Babylon.

26
misunderstanding. Modern scholars Another interesting tablet, made in
think the famed gardens mentioned Babylon around 177 BCE, explains the
in ancient texts were likely in Nineveh, rules for a popular board game known
not Babylon. However, Babylon was a as the Royal Game of Ur. The tablet is the
grand city, with an impressive network oldest known set of board game rules in
of canals, strong fortifications, and a the world. The earliest examples of the
beautiful avenue running between richly game are from Sumer and were made
decorated walls where people gathered more than two thousand years before the
for festivals and parades. Babylonian tablet was created. The tablet
and the game are reminders of how long
After the death of Nebuchadnezzar, the
Mesopotamian civilizations thrived.
Neo-Babylonian Empire grew weaker.
The Persian Empire had risen to the east
of Mesopotamia. In 539 BCE, the Persians
captured Babylon, and all of Mesopotamia An Ever-Changing Region
came under Persian rule. But the Persians
After the Persians and the Greeks, other
allowed Babylonian culture to continue.
conquerors took power in the region.
So did the next conqueror of the region,
Hundreds of years later, Islamic conquerors
Alexander the Great, who spread Greek
arrived around 637 CE. The region that
culture to Mesopotamia.
we now call Mesopotamia continued
Though their most glorious days were to be affected by the growth of trade
behind them, Mesopotamians continued routes that passed through the area,
to thrive in many ways. For example, a including the Silk Road that connected
clay tablet made sometime between 350 the region to China. Mesopotamia’s
and 50 BCE shows that Mesopotamians art, architecture, and literature and its
kept making important advances in contributions to science, mathematics, and
mathematics and astronomy. They devised technology were adopted by many other
an extremely sophisticated calculation of civilizations. Today, archaeologists and
the position of Jupiter, using a method historians continue to discover intriguing
that was not discovered by other peoples artifacts and learn even more about the
for another fourteen centuries. civilizations of the land between the rivers.

27
 Chapter 2 The Big Question

Ancient Egypt What do artifacts from ancient

Egypt and Kush reveal about these
civilizations?

and Kush

Land of the Pyramids

Like the area around the Tigris and
Euphrates in Mesopotamia, the Nile
River valley was another “cradle of
civilization.” It was here that the
civilizations of ancient Egypt and Kush
developed. They left behind pyramids,
writing systems, and artifacts that
reveal complex, thriving societies.

Early civilizations developed around

the Nile about the same time that early
Mesopotamian civilizations emerged.
Egypt was the largest and most enduring
of these civilizations. While there are
some similarities between Mesopotamian
and Egyptian civilizations, there are
also important differences. Egyptian
geography meant its civilization A tomb painting shows a queen
playing a board game.
developed in relative isolation. This helps

28
explain why some elements of Egyptian cataracts along the Nile between what is
civilization were different from those in today the city of Khartoum (in Sudan) and
neighboring regions. Aswan, in the modern country of Egypt.
These make boat travel on this stretch of
Think Twice the river difficult. Above the cataracts, it is

What kinds of geographical features

easy to sail on the Nile. Ancient Egyptians
can isolate a civilization? Why? used this part of the river like a road.

At its northern end, where the Nile meets

the Mediterranean, the river branches out
into a delta, an area of fertile marshland
River and Desert that leads into the Mediterranean Sea.

With vast deserts all around it and a hot, dry

The great Sahara desert stretches across all
climate, the Nile was a vital source of water.
of North Africa. In the northeastern corner
As in Mesopotamia, flooding brought silt to
of the Sahara, the Nile carves out a ribbon
the soil of the river valley. However, floods
of lush land with desert on each side. To
the east lies the Sinai Peninsula, another
huge expanse of desert.
Vocabulary
At a length of over four thousand miles, the peninsula, n. a piece of land sticking
Nile is one of the two longest rivers in the out into a body of water so that it is
almost surrounded by water
world. (The Amazon, in South America, is
cataract, n. a shallow area of a river
the other.) It begins as two separate rivers—
where the water moves fast over rocks
the White Nile and the Blue Nile. The or other obstacles
White Nile flows north from present-day delta, n. land created by silt deposits at
Tanzania. The Blue Nile begins in present- the mouth of a river

day Ethiopia, in eastern Africa. The two

rivers meet in what is today Sudan. At the
point where they join, the water is shallow Think Twice
and flows quickly over great boulders and What geographic features would
steep cliffs. This forms cataracts, or areas support connections between Egypt
and other regions?
of bumpy, turbulent water. There are six

29
 in Egypt were somewhat more predictable
than in Mesopotamia. Most years, between
April and October, rain and snowmelt from
far-off mountains caused the Nile to flood.
About once every four years, flooding
was very bad. This shaped Egyptian ideas
about order and chaos in the universe. The
relatively steady pattern of flooding also
helped Egyptians plan and organize. After
the flooding season came a planting season,
followed by a harvesting season.

The Gifts of the Nile

Egypt was the largest, most powerful of
the two great ancient civilizations that
arose in the Nile River valley. Though
The Nile River valley in Egypt Egypt’s might waxed and waned, it was a

A tomb painting shows farmers using a plow pulled by oxen.

30
major power in the region for more than with irrigation. Egyptian farmers also
three thousand years. developed the shadoof, a bucket attached

The Egyptians named their territory to a long pole, which worked like a crane to

Kemet, or black land, for the dark, rich soil scoop up water and transfer it to crops.

the river deposited on its banks. But the Egyptians also grew fruits, vegetables, and
abundance of the Nile valley region was legumes. They were mostly vegetarian,
not the product of nature alone. It was also with meat and fish for special occasions.
the product of the Egyptians themselves,
who used the regular flooding of the Vocabulary
Nile to produce a huge amount of food, shadoof, n. a crane-like tool that uses a
resources, and wealth. pole and bucket to lift water
legume, n. a type of seed, usually
softened by cooking in hot water, such
Writers’ Corner
as lentils and chickpeas
Write a paragraph explaining
how geography and climate
helped shape ancient Egyptian
civilization.

Intensive agriculture in Egypt began after

about 6000 BCE. Egyptian farmers grew
crops such as wheat, barley, and flax. They
used larger tools such as plows pulled by
oxen and smaller wooden tools such as
hoes. Water for growing crops came from
the Nile itself or from irrigation canals.
In the Nile delta of Lower Egypt, it was
relatively easy to access water because of
the way the Nile spread out into multiple
channels at the delta. In Upper Egypt,
however, human-made canals carried
water from the river and supplied farms Shadoofs on the banks of the Nile

31
Some Egyptians raised livestock such as
cattle, oxen, and goats for use as work
animals or as food sources. Ancient
Egyptians also hunted wild animals,
especially small birds. The wealthiest and
most powerful Egyptians hunted larger
animals in the desert, such as ibex; royalty
even hunted lions.

Find Out the Facts

How does a shadoof work?
Research the use of the shadoof in ancient
times and today.

United Egypt
From about 5000 BCE, groups moved
into the Nile River valley and began to
establish permanent settlements. By
around 4000 BCE, Egypt had two large
areas, Upper Egypt (to the south) and
Lower Egypt (to the north). Sometime after
3000 BCE, a ruler from Upper Egypt named
Narmer conquered Lower Egypt, bringing
the two areas together. The capital of the
unified kingdom was the city of Memphis,
near the border of Upper and Lower
Egypt. Today, Egypt’s capital city, Cairo, is
located in this area.

After unification, Egypt was ruled by

a single royal ruler, who would later

32
come to be known as the pharaoh.
The term pharaoh comes from a
word that means great house and
refers to the palace of the ruler. Narmer
was the first ruler of a mighty dynasty
that lasted for hundreds of years. Over
almost three thousand years, a series of
dynasties rose and fell. Historians group
them into three major periods: the Old
Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom, and the
New Kingdom.

Vocabulary
pharaoh, n. a political and religious
Gigantic statues honoring the gods and pharaohs
leader of ancient Egypt

constructing temples. Egyptians believed

the gods had chosen their ruler and that

Pharaohs a key duty of the pharaoh was to help the

gods take care of Egypt. The Egyptians
As in most early civilizations, ancient believed that the gods had designed
Egyptian rulers had a dual role as political the world to be structured, orderly, and
and religious figures. Pharaohs were the just. They called this concept ma’at. It
rulers of a united Egypt, the commanders was the role of the king to uphold ma’at
of its armies, and the masters of all its by ensuring that the realm of Egypt was
people. The pharaoh was the head of orderly, peaceful, and just.
the Egyptian religion, seen as a point of
contact between the gods and the ruler’s
mortal subjects.
Think Twice
What might be some reasons that
As head of the Egyptian religion, the many early civilizations were led by
pharaoh was expected to honor the rulers who were also religious leaders
or divine figures?
gods by overseeing religious rituals and

33
Pharaoh was a hereditary title, and most powerful class. They maintained the
pharaohs were part of long-lasting temples to the gods, oversaw ceremonies,
dynasties. Pharaohs usually had one main and sometimes also worked as doctors
wife and a number of other wives. These and dentists. People from powerful
multiple marriages helped secure alliances families or who had specialized or useful
with powerful families or with territories skills also had power and privilege. Some
outside Egypt. They also helped ensure were scribes. Others were royal advisors
the royal family would produce a suitable and military leaders. Pharaohs gave land to
heir to inherit the throne. The pharaoh’s the privileged families, but it was ordinary
main wife, called the Great Royal Wife, people who did the hard work of farming
played an important role in religious the land. Farmers kept some of what they
rituals and at the court. produced and gave part of what they grew
to the family whose land they worked.
Vocabulary
As in most societies, most people in
heir, n. a person who will legally receive
the property of someone who dies; the ancient Egypt were not powerful or
person who will become king or queen privileged. In most households, people,
after the current king or queen dies or especially women, made cloth and other
steps down
items for themselves and for trade. They
gardened to supply themselves with
extra food. Ordinary people also did vital

Egyptian Society everyday jobs such as building, navigating

Most people in ancient Egypt lived spread

out along the Nile, either in one of many
small communities or in one of the few
large cities. Over time, a social structure
developed, with a powerful ruling class,
merchants, artisans, servants, farmers, and
enslaved workers.

Pharaohs and their families were royalty.

Priests were also part of Egypt’s most Scribes at work

34
the river, hunting, repairing equipment, things—furniture, jewelry, tools, tombs,
and serving in the army when they were and monuments. People skilled at making
called to do so. those things could prosper by doing so.

Life was structured by the flooding of the Other people gained wealth as merchants

Nile. In summer and early fall, when the and traders.

Nile flooded, it was not possible to work

on the farms until the waters receded. Vocabulary
Farmers and others used this time to seek recede, v. to slowly move back or away
other forms of work to earn income. status, n. one’s position or rank within
a group
It was very hard for ordinary people in
Egypt to rise in status. The Egyptians
believed that their gods had made a At the bottom of the social structure
perfect social system for them to live in, were enslaved people. The enslaved did
and this belief was reinforced by those work that was physically hard, messy, and
in power. One route for advancement, unpleasant. They were not paid and did
however, did exist. Some people skilled not have freedom. While slavery was not
in crafts, the arts, or construction could as common in ancient Egypt as it was in
earn their own wealth by performing some other societies, it was a part of life.
special services for their lord or the king. Like other ancient peoples, the Egyptians
The wealthy of Egypt wanted to surround enslaved people who committed crimes
themselves with beautiful and well-made and foreigners they captured in battle.

Tomb paintings show Egyptian workers.

35
Enslaved people were also a commodity
in regional trade. Sometimes these
enslaved people could regain their
freedom after a period of time.

Vocabulary
commodity, n. something that is
bought or sold

Find Out the Facts

Learn more about artisans
in ancient Egypt. Find out how they A painting of Egyptian women at a banquet
made linen, jewelry, sculptures, tools, or
another product. had comfortable clothing made of linen, a
cloth made from the flax they grew. Some
Egyptians used green and black makeup
around their eyes. This was for beauty
and fashion but may also have provided
Life in Ancient Egypt protection from the sun and from the
Most Egyptians could not afford the bothersome little flies that thrived around
luxuries that the wealthiest in society the banks of the Nile.
possessed. Many people lived in simple Women in ancient Egypt were not
homes made of mud bricks. The upper considered equal to men, but they had
classes lived in large, well-made stone more rights than women in many other
houses and palaces. ancient civilizations. They could own
But there were many things in Egypt that property, make contracts, control their
everyone could enjoy. Ceremonies to own money, marry who they wanted,
honor the gods were accompanied by divorce, and bring lawsuits. However,
public feasts and celebrations. Egyptians they usually could not be the head of the
of all ages and statuses both made and household, serve in the army, or govern
enjoyed toys and board games. Egyptians provinces. Ancient Egyptians considered

36
many goddesses to be powerful. Women because the gods had created an orderly
could become priests—especially of and just place for humans to live in, then
goddesses. Most upper-class women humans themselves should act in an
managed their households. Women orderly and just way. Everyone who lived
contributed to household income by by the principle of ma’at knew that they
producing food and goods to sell. Less had a duty to treat others in a fair and just
wealthy women worked in the fields or manner to contribute to the harmony of
as servants. Some women worked as the world.
musicians or dancers at banquets. Egyptians believed that when they died,
they would be judged according to their
Writers’ Corner deeds in life. They believed that a dead
Write a detailed paragraph person’s heart would be weighed on a
describing ancient Egyptian golden scale against the goddess Ma’at’s
society.

Religion: The Principle of Ma’at

As in other civilizations, religion in ancient
Egypt reflected a complex set of beliefs
about society and the human condition.
The most basic principle of the Egyptian
religion was that the world, the center of
which was Egypt, had been created by the
gods as a place of order and harmony. This
harmony was called ma’at.

Ma’at was both the principle of harmony

and justice and the name of the goddess
who personified and oversaw this
principle. The concept of ma’at was that Ma’at

37
An ancient text illustrates the weighing of the heart.

white feather of truth. If the person’s

heart weighed less than the feather, then
that person was judged to have lived Egyptian Deities and Myths
harmoniously. This would help the person Ancient Egyptians were polytheists. They
go on to a good afterlife. believed that the gods were active in the
If, on the other hand, the dead person’s human world. It was important to show
heart was weighed down by evil and respect to the gods, who could sometimes
unharmonious deeds, then the heart be asked for favors. Gods were often
would be thrown from the scale and eaten depicted with human bodies and animal
by a monster-god with the head of a heads. For example, the god Horus had
crocodile, the arms of a lion, and the legs of the head of a hawk, while the goddess
a hippopotamus: Ammit the Devourer. The Bastet was depicted either as a cat or as a
person’s soul would then cease to exist. woman with the head of a cat. Other gods

38
appeared as hybrids of animals, like Ammit. eventually found most of Osiris’s body and
Each had certain roles and powers. Bastet tried to rebuild him, but because his body
oversaw cats, fertility, and domestic life and was incomplete, he could not return to
could protect against disease. Horus was a his position as ruler of Earth. Instead, he
god of justice and was strongly associated became lord of the underworld. Set was
with the pharaohs who ruled Egypt. eventually punished by Osiris’s son, Horus.

This myth suggests many Egyptian

Vocabulary beliefs. The gods were mighty; many
hybrid, n. something that is a were just and loved humans. But they
combination of two or more other things were also capable of
jealousy and fights
One important myth told of Osiris, who among themselves,
presided over the weighing of hearts. which could upset
Egyptians believed he had given them order. Osiris’s
their laws and had been their first king death and
and lord of all Earth. He represented order rebirth echoes
in Egyptian society. But his brother, Set, the way the
the god of war, was angry that Osiris was waters of the Nile
so well regarded. Set and his wife laid a came and went in a
trap for Osiris. They sealed him in a coffin cyclical pattern. This
and threw him into the Nile, where he may have shaped the
died. Osiris’s wife, the goddess Isis, was belief that the gods
stricken by grief and set out to find her created an orderly
husband’s body. But Set chopped Osiris’s world. But the Nile’s
body into pieces and scattered them. Isis floods were not
entirely predictable,
so Egyptians
Think Twice
saw that
What elements of ancient Egyptian
religion are similar to the beliefs of chaos could
other ancient civilizations? What elements erupt in
are different?
the world. Bastet

39
 Find Out the Facts
Find a list of Egyptian deities.
Choose one, and research what Egyptians
believed about that god or goddess.

Writers’ Corner
Use your research to write a
biography or description of an
Egyptian god or goddess.

Mummies
This is a gold statue of the Egyptian god Amun.
The Egyptians believed that a soul could
Egyptians honored the gods in numerous not pass on to the afterlife without
ways. Artistic depictions of the gods, its body being preserved and intact.
such as figures, inscriptions, or paintings, The intact body would help the dead
could be kept in a home shrine. One of person’s soul recognize itself and
the pharaoh’s main roles was to organize be reunited in the afterlife. To keep
religious rites on behalf of the whole the body preserved and intact, the
society. Large temple complexes were Egyptians made a deceased body into
built, where priests lived and oversaw a mummy prior to burial. Egyptians
ceremonies. People worshipped the gods practiced mummification for thousands
with offerings and prayers. of years, beginning at least as far back
as 3400 BCE.
Vocabulary Mummification was performed by
shrine, n. a place considered holy priests, and it was both a religious ritual
because it is associated with a holy and a physical process. The priests
person or event
performed prayers and sacred rites as they

40
embalmed the body. The embalming so after the natron was washed off, the
process involved the removal of the body was stuffed with padding to make
organs, including the brain. In earlier it look more lifelike. Once the body was
periods, these organs were stored along treated, it was tightly wrapped with
with the body in special vessels called hundreds of yards of linen. Then the
canopic jars. Later examples of mummies mummy was placed in a casket and
show organs packed back into the treated buried. Funeral rituals commemorated
body. The heart was always left inside the person’s life and prepared the
the body because Egyptians believed dead person for their transition to
it needed to travel with the body to the afterlife.
be weighed against the white feather Because of the tools and materials
of Ma’at. involved and the days of labor performed
by priests with specialized knowledge,
Vocabulary only the richest members of Egyptian
embalm, v. to prepare a body to society could afford mummification.
prevent decay Pharaohs were mummified, as were
priests and important or wealthy people

After the organs were removed, the body like the architects who designed major

was treated with natron, a type of salt. temple complexes.

This dried out the body’s tissues, which Those whose families could not afford
slowed or prevented decomposition. mummification were also given a
However, the dried-out skin gave the ceremony to help their souls pass on. Their
body a shrunken and skeletal appearance, bodies were wrapped not in fancy linens

Mummy

41
 However, ancient Egyptian doctors still
worked within their religious worldview.
They thought of disease as the will of the
gods or the work of evil spirits. Medical
texts refer to Heka, the god of medicine
and magic. Prayers were the core of
most treatments.

Pyramids and Monuments

Canopic jars
Royal and upper-class Egyptians built
but in their own clothing and buried in the monuments and tombs to preserve their
desert with some of their belongings. remains and their riches for the afterlife.

Find Out the Facts Egypt’s earliest kings were buried in

tombs called mastabas. A mastaba is
What happened at an ancient
Egyptian funeral? Look up ancient a rectangular structure made of brick,
Egyptian funerary rites and find out. mud, or stone blocks with a flat roof and
an underground burial chamber. After
One consequence of mummification was that
pharaohs began to build pyramids for
Egyptians developed a strong understanding
themselves, mastabas remained in use
of human anatomy. Over time, ancient
Egyptians acquired impressive medical
knowledge and skills. Doctors performed
surgeries and developed techniques to
set broken bones and sew up cuts. They
used plants as medicines and to treat pain.
Egyptians wrote down information about the
body to pass along what they learned. These
documents are some of the oldest medical
Bracelets made with gold, lapis lazuli, and other
writings in the world. stones

42
for the burials of important and wealthy built on the orders of King Snefru before
people who were not royals. his death in about 2600 BCE. Snefru’s

One important figure in ancient Egypt was burial site, known as the Red Pyramid, was

the architect Imhotep. He was a priest of Snefru’s third try at building a true pyramid.

the sun god Re and a doctor at the royal The first two tries are still nearby, showing

court and was an important counselor to the structural problems that prompted

the pharaoh Djoser. He was later revered a Snefru to order his architects to try again.

genius and even worshipped as a god. All of Snefru’s work, however, was worth

Djoser and Imhotep wanted to build a it. His son Khufu began work on his own

monument to demonstrate Djoser’s might pyramid as soon as he took the throne.

and help him fulfill his role in the afterlife. The The resulting pyramid—built at Giza, just

pharaoh’s tomb was meant to help ensure outside present-day Cairo—is known as

he could join Osiris and continue to aid in the the Great Pyramid. The interior contains
struggle between order and chaos. Imhotep many shafts and chambers, designed to
worked out a way to stack six mastabas on align with stars. They also helped thwart

top of each other, each one progressively grave robbers who might break in to steal

smaller, so that they made a structure now the pharaoh’s treasures.

known as a step pyramid. For four thousand years, the Great Pyramid

The first true pyramid—that is, a structure was the tallest structure built by humans

raised in a pyramidal shape, with steep in the entire world. It is one of several

sides, and not just a series of steps—was pyramids at Giza, which is also the location
of a huge sculpture called the Great Sphinx.
A sphinx is a mythological creature with the
Find Out the Facts
body of a lion and a human head. The Great
 esearch to learn more
R
Sphinx was built as an eternal guardian of
about Imhotep.
the honored dead who rested at Giza.

Find Out the Facts

Writers’ Corner
Look for information about the
Use your research to write a Great Pyramid at Giza to learn how big it
biographical profile of Imhotep. is and how it was made.

43
Historians used to think the pyramids to. For many thousands of people,
were built by enslaved laborers, but pyramid construction was how they
evidence shows most pyramid workers made their living and left their mark on
were free and that they were paid for the world.
their work. Up to five thousand people Another massive, long-term building
worked as permanent laborers on each project was the temple complex at
pyramid. They lived next to the pyramid Karnak, in the city of Thebes, built to
and worked on it for years. Additionally, worship the god Amun. Construction
there were also thousands of temporary began during the Middle Kingdom, from
workers. These were mainly farmers around 2000 BCE. Pharaohs expanded
who gained extra income by laboring the complex over the next two thousand
at the pyramid for a few months when years, creating monumental works to
the Nile was in flood. Some pyramid honor themselves and other deities such
workers earned enough to afford their as Osiris and Isis. The complex grew to be
own modest burial tombs. Sometimes, over one-third of a square mile in size.
workers left graffiti on the site noting the
names of the work gangs they belonged

Think Twice Hieroglyphs

 hat factors may have encouraged
W
ancient Egyptians to build massive Tombs and religious sites were not only
tombs like the pyramids? filled with gold and other valuables. The
walls were also covered with writing that
recorded the stories of the gods and the
deeds of mortals. To do this, Egyptians
used a pictorial writing system that we
call hieroglyphics.

Vocabulary
hieroglyphics, n. writing based on
pictures rather than letters
The pyramids at Giza

44
 Vocabulary
papyrus, n. a tall plant that ancient
Egyptians used to make paper and
other useful goods, such as sandals
and rope

Over time, hieroglyphics evolved

into three broad types. The oldest
hieroglyphics are those found on
Egyptian tombs. Because these
hieroglyphs were complex and difficult
Hieroglyphs
to write quickly, Egyptian scribes
Each hieroglyphic symbol could mean a developed a simplified writing system
word, an idea, or a sound or fragment of a based on hieroglypichs, called hieratic.
word. At the height of their use, there were Hieratic was used mostly for business
about seven hundred distinct symbols. and administrative records. Eventually,
Most of the time, hieroglyphs were written an even more simplified form, called
and read from right to left. However, the demotic, evolved. Demotic was for quick,
inscriptions on tombs were meant to be everyday writing.
artistically pleasing because of their role For centuries, the ability to read Egyptian
as decorations. As a result, hieroglyphs on hieroglyphics was lost. It was rediscovered
tomb walls were sometimes written top almost by chance at the end of the 1700s
to bottom or left to right, according to the CE. A French military expedition found
most pleasing design. a broken stone tablet with inscriptions
The Egyptians wrote on stone and on clay, written in multiple scripts—Ancient
but they also wrote on a form of paper Greek, demotic, and hieroglyphs.
called papyrus. Papyrus is a plant that Eventually, the British took possession of
grows in the Nile delta. Papyrus stalks the tablet, which is known as the Rosetta
could be dried out and pressed together Stone. Scholars decoded the Egyptian
to form a flat, paper-like material that writing by using the Greek translations on
could be written on. the stone.

45
 era, including Hatshepsut; Akhenaten
and his queen, Nefertiti; Tutankhamen, or
The New Kingdom “King Tut”; and Ramses the Great.

In the 1600s BCE, the Middle Kingdom

weakened. Wealthy Egyptians fought
among themselves for power. A group Hatshepsut
called the Hyksos, originally from western
Egyptians maintained a tradition that
Asia, had settled in the delta. Using strong
only men could occupy the role of
metal weapons, the Hyksos took power
king or pharaoh. But one of the most
in Lower Egypt for about a century. To the
remarkable pharaohs was a woman,
south in Nubia, the kingdom of Kerma,
Hatshepsut. She ruled Egypt from 1479 to
with an army built around its skilled
1458 BCE. Her ascent to the throne was
archers, allied with the Hyksos against
unexpected. Her husband, the pharaoh
the Egyptians.
Thutmose II, died while his son, who
Egypt’s power was temporarily diminished. would become Thutmose III, was still a
Around 1560 BCE, Ahmose, a warrior from young child. Because an infant could not
Upper Egypt, drove the Hyksos out. He rule or perform the duties of the pharaoh,
became pharaoh and established a new Hatshepsut ruled in Thutmose III’s place
dynasty, beginning Egypt’s New Kingdom. as regent.
Ahmose’s successors conquered Kerma
and spread Egyptian culture and religion Vocabulary
into Nubia. regent, n. a person who governs a
kingdom in the place of a young or
Several pharaohs expanded Egypt’s territory absent king or queen
and added to its glory during this period.
They built magnificent tombs in the hills After seven years as regent, Hatshepsut
and valley near Thebes. This royal burial had herself crowned as pharaoh. She
ground, now called the Valley of the Kings, reigned for more than twenty years and
was filled with beautifully painted scenes seems to have been relatively powerful.
and lavish treasures. Some of the pharaohs Her rule appears to have been successful
most remembered today were from this and peaceful.

46
Because pharaohs were traditionally male, Hatshepsut worked hard to reestablish
Hatshepsut worked to create ways of trade that had stopped under the Hyksos.
presenting herself as a full and legitimate She ordered large building projects
pharaoh. At first, she ordered that statues and had older monuments and temples
and images should depict her as a restored. There is evidence that she
woman, but wearing clothing for a man. organized some military campaigns, likely
Later, she decided to do away with the in Nubia. Hatshepsut seems to have been
feminine depictions of herself and chose mostly concerned with building up her
to be shown as inhabiting a male body, kingdom internally and using trade to
including a false beard on her chin. gain resources.
After she died, Thutmose III ruled
Vocabulary for thirty-three years. At some
legitimate, adj. in accordance with the point, he ordered the destruction
law or established standards
of Hatshepsut’s monuments. It’s not
known why he did this, but it might
have been to hide the fact that a
woman had been the real ruler of
Egypt for so many years. It’s possible
that the idea of a woman pharaoh
was so unusual and disruptive to the
harmonious and orderly plan set down
by the gods that Thutmose thought her
memory had to be erased. We know
about Hatshepsut because a historian
realized that funeral inscriptions at a
temple used feminine terms to refer to
her, while statues showed her as a man.
Since then, more evidence has been
found about her rule, showing that
Thutmose’s attempt to erase her from
Hatshepsut history ultimately failed.

47
 Find Out the Facts
 esearch some of Hatshepsut’s
R
accomplishments as a pharaoh.

Akhenaten and Nefertiti

Amenhotep IV wanted to bring big
changes to Egypt. Worried that the priests
had too much power, he tried to start
a new monotheistic religion based on
worship of the sun god Aten. He closed
temples to other gods. He portrayed
himself as the one true connection to
Aten, the only god. He even changed his
name to Akhenaten, meaning servant of Nefertiti
Aten. He directed artists to create images
of himself and his wife, Nefertiti, that abandoning their traditional beliefs and
resembled deities. practices for something so different.

Vocabulary
monotheistic, adj. related to or
characterized by the worship of or
Tutankhamun
belief in a single god
Probably the most famous pharaoh of all
owes his recognition more to his death
It seems unlikely that most Egyptians than to his life. Tutankhamun ruled Egypt
would have supported these massive for only ten years. But Tutankhamun’s
changes. Many priests and people tomb, which was discovered in 1922 by
of all social classes probably resisted the archaeologist Howard Carter, shows

48
the incredible wealth and splendor of the next life: food, clothes, decorative statues,
Egyptian pharaohs. furniture, weapons, and small figurines

In life, Tutankhamun was a short-lived but called shabtis. These represented servants

relatively important ruler. Likely the son of who would perform tasks for their owner

Akhenaten, he came to power at age ten in the afterlife.

in a period of upheaval and uncertainty

Find Out the Facts
caused by his father’s attempts to impose
Learn more about shabtis.
a new religion. With help from his advisors,
Tutankhamun began the work of restoring
the damaged temples and bringing
stability back to Egypt. Tutankhamun had
originally been named Tutankhaten. He
chose a new name that meant the image
of Amun to show he wanted to restore
honor to the god Amun, a deity his father
had tried to quash.

Tutankhamun died suddenly at the age

of nineteen. He was buried in a relatively
small tomb in the Valley of the Kings.
When the Carter expedition opened
Tutankhamun’s tomb, they found an
extraordinary wealth of priceless artifacts
that had been buried to accompany the
young king to the afterlife. The most Tutankhamun’s funeral mask
famous of these artifacts is Tutankhamun’s
funeral mask. Made of solid gold, it is
Think Twice
inlaid with lapis lazuli. The eyes are made
What caused Amenhotep and
of white quartz, with obsidian pupils. Tutankhamun to make religious
Tutankhamun’s tomb also contained all reforms? What were some effects of
the changes they made?
the things the king would need in the

49
 which brought him into conflict with the
Hittites. The Hittite Empire arose in what is
Ramses II and the Golden Age today Turkey and eventually expanded to
include the area of present-day Lebanon,
The reign of Ramses II, or Ramses the
Syria, and part of northern Canaan. The
Great, is known as Egypt’s golden age.
Hittites and Egyptians were both trading
Ramses ruled Egypt for an unusually long
partners and rivals and sometimes fought
time; he held power for sixty-six years,
over territory.
between 1279 and 1213 BCE. He was in his
nineties when he died, and it was claimed
that he was the oldest man in Egypt at Vocabulary
the time, with none of his subjects able propagandist, n. someone who puts
out information to promote a person or
to remember a time when he was not
cause
alive. As well as a mighty king, he was
expansionist, adj. seeking to conquer
an effective propagandist, creating a or acquire more territory
lasting impression of himself as glorious
and powerful. Ramses conquered southern Canaan and
then continued to the Hittites’ area. He
Ramses ordered the construction of a
led a great battle at Kadesh and claimed
palace and new capital city in the delta.
that he had won a complete victory.
He had many temples and statues built,
The outcome was actually closer to a
including many enormous statues of
tie. Ramses and the Hittites eventually
himself. These statues showed Ramses not
negotiated a peace treaty. It is the oldest
as he was but as he wished to be seen: as
surviving international peace treaty.
the undisputed master of the world, as
Ramses and the Hittite leader agreed to
its mightiest warrior, and as the chosen
consider each other brothers and to not
champion of Egypt’s gods.
start wars with one another again. Ramses
Ramses valued his military reputation added a massive hall, supported by great
because he was an expansionist ruler. columns, to the temple at Karnak. The
One of Ramses’s great ambitions was to outer walls include images of his glorious
add more territory to Egypt’s empire, acts at Kadesh.

50
 Think Twice
Why is the reign of Ramses II often
called a golden age? Nubian Civilization
While Egypt was a mighty power,
other civilizations arose in Africa. Nubia
Find Out the Facts
developed along the Nile south of
Ramses was called Ozymandias
Egypt. This region had fertile soil and
by the Greeks. There is a famous poem by
the English author Percy Bysshe Shelley more regular rainfall, making it less
called “Ozymandias.” Find out why Shelley dependent on the Nile’s seasonal flooding.
wrote the poem and the message Ramses
speaks in the text. Nubians grew rice and other grains,
yams, and beets. The Nubian region also
included grassy plains called savannas
where Nubians herded cattle and hunted.
Nubians became known for their skills in
Egypt Declines using bows and arrows to hunt and fight.

After Ramses II, Egypt declined, although

the New Kingdom did continue on in Vocabulary
some form for another three hundred savanna, n. a flat grassland that also
years. Groups from the eastern has a few trees

Mediterranean, North Africa, Kush, and

Mesopotamia took turns invading the By around 2500 BCE, a sophisticated
once-mighty kingdom. A few centuries kingdom called Kerma had emerged. Its
later, Alexander the Great conquered location near the third cataract of the
the region and founded the great city Nile helped it develop trade links with
of Alexandria on Egypt’s Mediterranean Egypt to the north and other African
coast. Later, the Romans took power in civilizations to the south. From the trading
Egypt. However, Egyptian works and network that passed through Kerma,
history were admired by many of these Egypt received gold, ivory, cattle, pottery,
conquerors and remain a source of and metal goods. They also received
fascination to people around the world. enslaved people. Kerma became known

51
 for beautiful ceramics and blue glazed
pottery. Its kings were buried much
like Egypt’s pharaohs, in grand tombs
filled with gems, jewelry, pottery, and
other belongings.

The Kingdom of Kush

Egyptians referred to Kerma as Kush.
An Egyptian tomb painting depicting Nubians During the time of the Hyksos, Kush
expanded northward. Then, powerful
Historiography: Perspective Matters
Egyptian rulers rose to power again,
In the 1800s and early 1900s CE, Europeans reconquering territory. Egyptian
and Americans led expeditions to find religion and practices spread throughout
Egyptian artifacts. Many of these scholars the region.
were influenced by ancient Greek texts
Around 745 BCE, Kush invaded and
that speak of the glory of Egypt. They
defeated Egypt. The Kushite king Piye
also believed that nearby African
became a pharaoh and the first ruler of
civilizations had been less sophisticated.
a powerful new dynasty. These Kushite
Because of this inaccurate belief, they
pharaohs, also called the Black Pharaohs,
misunderstood the ruins at Kerma,
ruled for a century over a vast territory
thinking that it must have been a remote
encompassing Egypt and Kush. The two
Egyptian settlement and that few valuable
cultures blended to some extent but still
artifacts would be found there. In the mid-
continued to exist as distinct groups.
1900s, the ruins were finally excavated,
Kushite kings were buried in pyramids
revealing the glories of Nubia—and
and tombs, and their authority was
showing how researchers’ biases can
seen to come from the Egyptian god
impact their work.
Amon-Re. But some Kushites adopted

52
fashions and practices from southern great Egyptian pyramids. The site at
Africa, such as wearing long earrings Meroë also includes evidence of Kushite
and patterned fabrics. Kushite art often temples and reservoirs to store and
features elephants, an animal considered distribute water.
sacred in Kush.

Vocabulary
reservoir, n. an artificial lake or other
Meroë place where water is collected and kept

In 666 BCE, when Assyrians from

In 350 CE, Axum, a kingdom near the Red
Mesopotamia conquered Egypt, Kushites
Sea, invaded and conquered Kush and
retreated to the south. Kush’s rulers
destroyed Meroë. Kushite culture faded
moved their capital to Meroë, near
away, but Kush’s legacy remains as one of
deposits of iron ore. The Assyrians had
the great civilizations of Africa.
introduced iron tools and weapons to
the region, and Meroë became a center
of iron production. Kush benefited from
the trade as well as the agricultural
productivity and military might gained
from using iron.

The kingdom of Kush continued

to be wealthy and powerful for
six centuries. Over time, a thriving
trading network linked it with the
tropical regions of Africa to the
south and faraway civilizations in
Arabia, India, China, and Rome. The
Kushites left a remarkable of legacy
of two hundred pyramids at Meroë,
which are smaller but steeper than the A temple at Meroë from the first century CE

53
 Chapter 3
The Israelites
The Big Question
What ideas influenced the culture of
the Israelites?

Origins of the Israelites

Little is known of the earliest
ancient Israelites, whose religion
developed into what is now called
Judaism. Their earliest stories tell of
challenges, leaders, and a dedication
to their religious beliefs. Over time,
their culture developed in the lands
between the eastern Mediterranean
and Mesopotamia. As Jewish people
migrated to other parts of the world,
this culture became part of the fabric
of many societies.

The Israelites lived in a historic region A page from the Leningrad Codex, the oldest
sometimes called the Levant. This complete manuscript of the Tanakh, was created
around 1009 CE. The six-pointed star, also called
area corresponds roughly to where the Star of David, emerged as a symbol of Jewish
culture in the Middle Ages.
the modern countries of Israel,

54
Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria exist
today. The term Levant was coined by
Europeans to designate the region of
the Mediterranean to the east of them,
where they found valuable trading
connections. Levant means rising in
French. The Levant was thought of by
Europeans as a land toward the east,
where the sun rises. This general region
is also part of what has come to be called
the Near East or Middle East—again
terms developed by Europeans and based
on their perspective. These terms are a
reminder that history and geography are
always framed by the worldviews of the
people who write or study about these
subjects.

Around 1200 BCE, changes started to

occur in the Levant. As the Egyptian
empire came to an end, new kingdoms
arose. One of those kingdoms belonged
to the Israelites. Originally a nomadic
people, the Israelites eventually settled
in an area they called Canaan. Over time,
the city of Jerusalem became the center of
Jewish culture.

Vocabulary
nomadic, adj. moving around often in
search of food; not settled in one place

55
 book. The writings of the Hebrew Bible,
or the Tanakh, eventually influenced
A Different Kind of Religion the development of three major world
religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
A defining feature of the Israelites was
their monotheistic religion. This marked a
contrast with the polytheistic belief systems
of other peoples in the region. While some Abraham the Patriarch
of these groups focused on a particular
The Tanakh starts with an account of the
god, the monotheism of the Israelites was
beginning of the world, the first people,
unusual among ancient civilizations.
and their relationship to God. It tells of
Much of the early history of the Israelites
people spreading across the world and
is unknown. However, they began to
relates the story of a great flood that
write down stories that related important
almost destroys humankind. A later story
traditions, beliefs, and challenges. These
tells of a man called Abraham, who leaves
writings were later collected in a work
Mesopotamia when God tells him to go
that became known as the Tanakh. This
to a new land. God says that he will show
work is also called the Hebrew Bible.
Abraham special favor and will make
The word Bible comes from the ancient
Abraham the first of a great new people.
Greek word biblos, which originally meant
Abraham obeys God without question and
papyrus or scroll and later came to mean
goes to settle in Canaan.

Vocabulary
Tanakh, n. the
collection of Jewish
holy writings;
sometimes called the
Hebrew Bible

An illustrated scroll, created in the 1600s CE, of the book of Esther from
the Tanakh

56
 descendants and intends for them to live
in the promised land. Because the peoples
who first practiced Judaism, Christianity,
and Islam all considered themselves
descendants of Abraham, these religions
are sometimes called Abrahamic religions.

The lessons of Abraham’s story, in particular

about obedience to God and a sacred
connection of Abraham’s descendants to

Vocabulary

The Roots of Three Religions covenant, n. an important agreement

or promise
According to the Tanakh, God makes descendant, n. someone who is related
to a person or group of people who
a covenant, or special promise, with lived in the past
Abraham and all his descendants. Both
God and Abraham agree to a special
relationship. Abraham remains faithfully Find Out the Facts
devoted to God and does not worship Learn about the three main
other gods. God protects Abraham and his parts of the Tanakh.

Holy Books of the Abrahamic Religions

Judaism Tanakh (or Hebrew Bible)
• Includes the Torah (or Five Books of Moses)
Christianity Bible
• Old Testament (similar to the Tanakh, although some differences exist)
• New Testament
Islam Koran (also spelled Qur’an)
• Makes reference to the Tanakh, in particular the first five books
(called the Tawrat in Islam)

57
the promised land of Canaan, came to hold generations. The Tanakh says that the
great meaning in all three religions. Indeed, pharaoh becomes suspicious of the
the whole of the Tanakh influences many of Israelites, worrying there will soon be
the beliefs and practices of these religions. more of them than there are Egyptians. So
When Islamic rulers came to power in the the pharaoh has many Israelite boys killed.
region in the 600s CE, they identified Jews He enslaves the remaining Israelites and
and Christians as “People of the Book,” forces them to do hard labor.
groups who had a special status because of One story tells of an Israelite mother
their shared beliefs and practices, rooted in who wants to save her baby boy, Moses.
the texts of the Tanakh. She makes a basket and places the baby
In addition to the story of Abraham, the inside. She sets the basket to float down
Tanakh includes several other stories the Nile and tells Moses’s sister, Miriam,
that hold great meaning for all three to follow it. After some time, the basket
Abrahamic religions. Abraham proves his gets stuck in reeds growing along the
devotion to God when he shows that he bank. An Egyptian woman finds the
is willing to sacrifice his son Isaac. God basket and Moses in it. Watching from a
rewards this faith and does not allow Isaac distance, Miriam realizes the woman is the
to be sacrificed. Isaac’s son Jacob also has pharaoh’s daughter. Quickly, Miriam thinks
a special relationship with God. One story of a daring plan. She runs to the Egyptian
tells of Jacob wrestling all night with an princess and tells her that she knows of a
angel. Afterward, he is called Israel, and woman who could help her care for the
his descendants are called Israelites. The baby. The princess keeps Moses and raises
Tanakh says that Jacob’s sons become the him as a prince, but Moses’s mother cares
leaders of the twelve tribes of Israel. for him, keeping the secret that she is his
real mother. In this way, Moses grows up
as part of the pharaoh’s household, but

The Israelites in Egypt

Vocabulary
Another story tells of how a great famine
forces the Israelites to leave Canaan and famine, n. an extreme shortage of food
that results in widespread hunger
go to Egypt. They live there for several

58
God has sent Moses to be a leader and a
Vocabulary
prophet for the Israelites. As an adult, he
fulfills this destiny. prophet, n. someone chosen by God to
bring a message to people
Many years later, the Israelites pray to plague, n. something that harms a
God to set them free. In answer, God tells large number of people, such as a
sickness or insects that kill crops
Moses to lead the Israelites out of slavery.
locust, n. a large grasshopper-like
Moses goes to the pharaoh and asks him
insect; in large swarms, locusts can
to set the Israelites free. The pharaoh cause widespread crop damage
refuses. So God sends plagues to punish
Egypt, including illnesses and locusts that ruin the crops, causing starvation.
The final plague that sweeps through
Egypt kills the firstborn child of every
family. But before sending the plague,
God warns the Israelites and tells them
to mark their doors with a special symbol
to protect their children. In this way, the
plague passes over the homes of the
Israelites. This story is central to the Jewish
holiday of Passover, an eight-day period
celebrated in the spring that includes a
special ceremony called a seder.

Think Twice
What are some themes of the stories
of the early Israelites?

Wanting to end the dreadful plagues, the

pharaoh finally agrees to let the Israelites
go. They must leave quickly, with no time to
prepare. They take flat bread with them to
The pharaoh’s daughter finding Moses eat because they have no time to let bread

59
dough rise. Moses leads them back toward part of the artistic traditions of many
Canaan, but then the pharaoh changes his societies. Over many centuries, writers,
mind. He sends soldiers after the Israelites painters, composers, and other artists
to try to capture them and bring them back have incorporated ideas from the Tanakh
to slavery in Egypt. The Israelites flee, but into their work. They draw connections
the mighty army catches up with them as between these stories and the experiences
they reach the shores of the Red Sea. The of people in different times and places.
Israelites are trapped between the army
Find Out the Facts
and the sea, and it seems that there is no
Research to find out how Jewish
more hope. Then, God parts the waters
people celebrate Passover around
of the sea, opening a path of dry land. the world.
The Israelites are able to cross over to the
other side; then God closes the waters and Writers’ Corner
destroys the Egyptian army. This story of Use your research to write a
escape from Egypt is known as the Exodus. report about Passover traditions
in different countries.
However, the Israelites do not go directly
to Canaan. They get lost and wander in the
desert for forty years.

Vocabulary Laws Written in Stone

flee, v. to run away The story of the Israelites wandering in
Exodus, n. the story of the Israelites’ the desert includes an episode where God
escape from ancient Egypt; a departure
of a large group of people, especially gives Moses stone tablets inscribed with
migrants the Ten Commandments, a set of laws for
the Israelites. These laws are to be used to
The events and images of the story of the guide the way the Israelites live. Some of
Israelites’ captivity, escape, and wandering the laws involve how to live, and others
in the desert hold great religious meaning give instruction about worshipping God.
for many people today. This is true of many Others address how to treat other people.
other parts of the Tanakh as well. These The commandments are central to all
stories and images have also become three Abrahamic religions. They are also

60
considered a source of the moral principles already live there. The Israelites battle to
behind the laws of many modern nations. take control of the land. One story tells

Moses is a major figure in the religious and how Joshua leads an attack on the city

artistic traditions of many peoples. Because of Jericho. At the sound of trumpets, the

of his role leading the Israelites out of Egypt, protective wall around the city crumbles,

he is seen as a liberator, or person who frees allowing the Israelites their first great
others. The story of the Ten Commandments victory as they conquer Canaan.
portrays Moses as a lawgiver, an important The Tanakh tells how the Israelites come
authority figure who provides a code of into the land of Canaan with the belief
laws and ethics to his people. that God has sent them there and that
it is meant to be their land. The area the
Vocabulary Israelites fight to conquer is located mostly
liberator, n. a person who frees others in the lands between the Mediterranean
from oppression Sea and the Jordan River, which runs
lawgiver, n. an authority figure who between the Sea of Galilee and the Dead
provides a code of laws and ethics to a
Sea. The Israelites fight so they can live in
people
the land God reserved for them and build a
ethics, n. rules based on ideas about
right and wrong monotheistic society based on God’s laws.

Think Twice
How does having a set of written The Phoenicians
laws contribute to a civilization?
Many different groups lived in and around
Canaan. One important group was the
Phoenicians, who lived along the eastern
Mediterranean, in the coastal regions of
The Promised Land present-day Syria, Lebanon, and northern
After he brings the Ten Commandments Israel. Phoenicians came into the area by
to the Israelites, Moses dies. A new leader 3000 BCE and started building cities by
called Joshua leads the Israelites into the 1500 BCE. They continued to prosper over
promised land of Canaan. However, others several centuries.

61
The Phoenicians were skilled sailors and purple. Phoenicians learned how to
shipbuilders. They traveled far and wide manufacture their purple dye using snails
at a time when many other peoples did that live in the Mediterranean Sea. The
not have the ships and navigation skills process to create the dye was difficult
to do so. They became successful traders and time consuming. This meant that
throughout the Mediterranean region, the purple cloth Phoenicians made was
going to Greece, southern Europe, and extremely valuable.
western Africa. Eventually, they went even Phoenicians also learned how to make
farther, eastward into Arabia and India glass, another valuable commodity in
and north to the British Isles in the North the ancient world. The Phoenicians had
Atlantic. They established a settlement access to wood, too. Their homeland
at Carthage, in North Africa, that included abundant cedar and fir
developed into a powerful center of trade. trees. Many other areas around the
Phoenicians encountered Mesopotamian Mediterranean and the Fertile Crescent
cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphics, but lacked trees, so Phoenicians gained
they eventually developed an alphabet, wealth from their ability to trade wood.
a system of letters that symbolize certain From the peoples they traded with,
sounds. This is the writing system we Phoenicians received metals, linen,
use today. grain, livestock, gems, spices, and
other goods. They also traded enslaved
Vocabulary people. Like other ancient peoples,
navigation, n. the act of planning Phoenicians enslaved captured enemies.
and directing the movement of a ship,
Some sources suggest Phoenicians
plane, or other vehicle
may have sometimes tricked people
alphabet, n. a set of letters that
symbolize sounds and can be onto their ships by pretending to have
combined to make words goods available to trade and then
enslaved them.
The Phoenicians were especially known
for making a purple dye. In ancient Think Twice
times, it was difficult or even impossible Why were items like purple dye and
glass so valuable?
for most peoples to create the color

62
 the word Philistia to refer to lands where
the Philistines lived. It may be this word
that gave rise to the term Palestine, another
name sometimes used to refer to this
region of the Levant.

The Israelites in Canaan

The Tanakh contains accounts of the
Israelites conquering Canaan and
developing a society that is first led
by leaders called judges. The judges
are described as social, political, and
A Phoenician glass vase military figures who help the Israelites
thrive. Most of these leaders are men,
but one key judge is Deborah, who is
celebrated for both her wisdom and
Philistines her courage. She organizes an attack on

Another of the Canaanite peoples an enemy king, and the Israelites win a

encountered by the Israelites were the great victory.

Philistines, who settled in the region The tribes of Israel build their civilization
around 1200 BCE. They settled mostly in the desert and rocky hills of the land.
in areas along the coastal plain in the Their worship centers on faithfulness
southern part of the area that is now to just one God and adherence to the
the country of Israel. Philistines had commandments. The Tanakh describes
strong iron tools and weapons, which a shelter or tent called the tabernacle, a
helped them build a powerful army. The sacred space where the Israelites can come
Tanakh contains numerous references to into contact with God’s presence. Inside
Philistines, describing them as enemies of the tabernacle is a special chest called the
the Israelites. Ancient Greek writers used Ark of the Covenant, where the Israelites

63
 Tanakh, David was originally a shepherd.
One story tells of an incredible battle
between the humble David and a giant
named Goliath, a Philistine. David’s victory
over Goliath gives him great status. When
he becomes king, David unites the tribes
of Israel. He establishes the capital of
The Tanakh describes Deborah as an important leader. his new kingdom at Jerusalem. David is
described as a great king and also a writer
keep the tablets inscribed with the Ten
of psalms, or sacred songs that are part of
Commandments.
the Tanakh. The period of David’s kingdom
The Tanakh also describes how the is thought to be sometime between the
Israelites come to have a line of kings. The tenth and ninth centuries BCE.
stories tell of how the Israelites ask their
leader, the judge Samuel, to choose a king Vocabulary
for them. Samuel appoints Saul, who leads stela, n. a tall stone or wooden slab
the Israelites to victory in many battles. But inscribed with words or designs
Saul disobeys God and then dies in battle, psalm, n. a sacred song or poem
so Samuel chooses another king, David.

Think Twice
Why might a society want to be ruled
by a king? Why might some people
prefer not to have a monarch?

David Unites the Israelites

Archaeologists have found an artifact
called the Tel Dan stela that refers to a
“house of David.” However, little is known
about who David was. According to the One story tells of David’s victory over the giant Goliath.

64
 Solomon requires. After Solomon’s death,
some of the tribes split away from the
Solomon and the First Temple others. They start a separate kingdom
called Israel. The others form the kingdom
The Tanakh goes on to tell of David’s
of Judah.
son Solomon, the next king to rule over
Israel. Solomon builds up the kingdom
and gains power and wealth. The cities
of Moab and Edom are added to the
Israelites’ territories. Some scholars think
The Fall of Israel
the Israelites grew wealthier during this Historians have not found evidence
period by trading with the neighboring outside the Tanakh of Solomon’s temple.
Phoenicians. There is debate and disagreement about
the nature of the early Israelites’ kingdom
The Tanakh portrays Solomon as a ruler
of great wisdom. He is identified as the
author of many of the Tanakh’s proverbs,
or wise sayings. The text also tells of his
glorious building projects, including
a magnificent temple in Jerusalem.
Solomon builds the Temple as a place
to keep the Ark of the Covenant and to
worship God.

Vocabulary
proverb, n. a wise saying; a brief
observation that offers guidance or
insight

However, the Tanakh also tells of

troubles in the Israelites’ kingdom during
Solomon’s reign. The tribes argue, and
some Israelites grumble about the taxes Solomon is said to have been a wise king.

65
and regional power. However, it is known Babylonian exile, a sad and difficult time
that the Assyrians were a powerful force in when the Israelites longed to return to
the surrounding region. They threatened their homeland.
and conquered many peoples as they It may be during this period that Jews
expanded their empire. In the 730s BCE, first began some practices such as
the Assyrians took power in the area worshipping in synagogues. They also
around Jerusalem. Some Israelites may observed the Sabbath, a day of rest and
have been brought to different areas in worship lasting from sundown on Friday
the Assyrian Empire, where they eventually evening to sundown on Saturday evening.
mixed with other peoples. Some scholars
think this led to the development of a new Vocabulary
group, known as the Samaritans. They synagogue, n. a Jewish temple or
adopted some of the Israelites’ religious house of worship
practices but also had separate traditions. Sabbath, n. a day of rest and
worship observed by members of a
religious group

The Destruction of the Temple

In 597 BCE, the Babylonian king
Nebuchadnezzar conquered Jerusalem
and the surrounding area. The Tanakh
tells of a great forced migration when
Nebuchadnezzar makes the Israelites
leave Jerusalem and go to live in Babylon.
Other Israelites remain in the kingdom
of Judah but resist Babylonian rule.
Eventually, Nebuchadnezzar returns
and completely destroys Jerusalem,
including the Temple. All Judah’s people
are forced to go to Babylon. This period is
known as the Babylonian captivity or the The destruction of the Temple

66
 to their priests and scholars for
guidance and to practice rituals and
The Diaspora and the other ceremonies according to their

Second Temple traditions.

Eventually, Babylon was conquered The Tanakh tells of Queen Esther, a Jewish
by the new Persian Empire. The woman who marries a Persian king. She
Tanakh tells of how the Persian king learns that Persian forces plan violence
Cyrus II lets the Jewish people of against Jews and persuades her husband
Babylon return to Judah, also now to stop it. The Jewish festival Purim
under Persian rule. Some Jews stay in celebrates Esther and her protection of the
Babylon, and others migrate to other Jewish people.
regions around the Mediterranean.
This spreading out of groups of Jewish
people to other areas is called the
Jewish Diaspora. The word diaspora
is an ancient Greek word meaning
scattered. As groups of Jews scattered
and spread to new areas, their culture
and ideas spread to new places.

Vocabulary
diaspora, n. the migration of people
to different areas outside their
homeland; the members of a group
living outside the group’s homeland
or place of origin

Some Jews returned to Judah. Eventually,

they rebuilt the Temple in Jerusalem. This
became known as the Second Temple.
Esther reveals the plans for violence against the Jewish
The Jewish people continued to look people.

67
Dietary Laws

Some Jewish people follow a set of rules

Greek Rule and the Maccabean
and traditions about food. Following
these rules is known as keeping kosher. Revolt
The word kosher means clean or pure. The The Persians were eventually defeated
ancient Israelites developed many rules by Alexander the Great, who spread
about what types of food are kosher and Greek culture throughout the eastern
how these foods must be prepared. For Mediterranean and eastward to India.
example, only meat from certain animals When Alexander died in 323 BCE, his
is kosher, such as fish, beef, and lamb. Pork empire was divided among several kings.
and shellfish are forbidden. However, meat Judah came under the control of the
from allowed animals must be processed Seleucid line of kings.
and prepared in a certain way in order to
In 176 BCE, the Seleucid ruler Antiochus
be kosher. This includes how the animal is
IV came to power. Some previous rulers
slaughtered and how the meat is processed
had given Jewish people a fair amount
before it is sold and cooked. Meat and milk
of autonomy, allowing them to worship
cannot be mixed together in one dish.
according to their traditions and to use the
Arabic peoples developed a set of similar Torah as their governing laws. However,
dietary laws, and some Muslims follow Antiochus decided that the Jewish people
this tradition. Food that follows these laws would have to worship the Greek gods
is called halal. Kosher and halal rules are and goddesses, as did other peoples of the
not exactly the same, but the similarities region. In 164 BCE, a Jewish leader called
suggest that groups in the Levant may Judas Maccabeus led a revolt. He and his
have had shared reasons for developing supporters, called Maccabees, battled
practices and restrictions around food.
Vocabulary
Find Out the Facts
kosher, adj. in accordance with Jewish
Research to find out more about dietary laws
Jewish dietary laws. Learn about what
foods are allowed and the process of autonomy, n. self-governing; having the
ensuring that foods are kosher. power and freedom to make choices

68
 festival Hanukkah commemorates the
Maccabees’ victory and their purification
of the Temple.

Roman Rule
The Romans had become a formidable
power in the last century BCE. In 63 BCE,
Pompey the Great added Jerusalem to the
Roman Empire. Romans modified the name
of the region, changing Judah to Judea.
At first, Romans allowed Jewish people to
practice their religion. They appointed a
Illustration of a menorah from the late thirteenth
century CE Jewish man named Herod to rule as king
of Judea. When the Jewish temple was
the Seleucids. After a long struggle, the damaged and plundered, Herod had it
Maccabees were victorious and took rebuilt. Construction lasted more than two
power in Judah. decades, and the new temple was larger
The Tanakh tells of the Maccabees and included several different areas. It
capturing the Temple, which Antiochus’s was the center of Jewish life in Jerusalem.
soldiers have defiled with blood and People not only worshipped there but also
images of their deities. After taking gathered there to trade and celebrate.
back the Temple, the Maccabees work
to purify it. Part of this ritual is the Vocabulary
lighting of a special oil lamp called a defile, v. to spoil; to make unclean or
menorah. There is only one small jar of unholy
oil left, an amount that usually would menorah, n. a candleholder that holds
last for one day. But the lamp burns for nine lights and is used in observance of
the Jewish holiday of Hanukkah
eight days, until the Jews are able to
plunder, v. to take something by force
get more of the special oil. The Jewish

69
 this would help ensure order and peace in
the region.
Diversity in Judea Yet another group, the Essenes, were
Over time, more tensions arose between priests who went to live in a site called
Jews and Romans. In addition, Jewish Qumran, outside of Jerusalem near the
people debated among themselves about Dead Sea. They followed written laws
how to practice their religion and how and devoted themselves to prayer but
to cope with their Roman rulers. One kept themselves isolated from others
group, known as the Pharisees, gained in Judea. They disliked Roman rule but
support among many Jews. The Pharisees thought the best strategy was to pray for
sought to teach members of the Jewish it to end.
community how best to apply the ideas A group called the Zealots had great
and lessons of the Torah to their daily zeal, or passion, for God and religion.
lives. They developed interpretations of They believed it was important to put
traditional writings and of stories and religious beliefs into action. The Zealots
teachings that had been passed down were fiercely opposed to Roman rule and
orally. The Pharisees wanted to resist wanted to fight to end it.
Roman rule, although they did not teach
that Jews should openly fight the Romans.
Vocabulary
Another group of Jews was the Sadducees. zeal, n. passion; eagerness

Many of them were from wealthier

families. They were educated and served The tensions between Jews and Romans,
as priests and scribes. Sadducees were and among different Jewish groups,
known for their focus on performing increased over time. In 66 CE, the
rituals and ceremonies correctly. They Zealots led a revolt in Jerusalem. They
preferred to follow only the written laws managed to defeat the Roman forces
of Judaism. They did not agree with the there, but a few years later, Rome sent
Pharisees about the validity of oral law and more soldiers and regained control.
tradition. The Sadducees thought it best The Romans then destroyed the Jewish
to cooperate with the Romans, believing temple. Jews continued to live under

70
Roman rule, sometimes resisting and
rebelling. The Romans repressed the
dissent and prohibited Jewish people
from living in Jerusalem. Romans also
began calling the region Palestine rather
than Judea.

The Dead Sea Scrolls

In 1947 CE, a shepherd in the area of
Qumran, near the Dead Sea, happened to
go inside a remote cave. To his surprise,
he found a number of old clay jars. These
jars contained scrolls of parchment
with writing on them. Archaeologists
examined the scrolls and determined that
they contained biblical texts and other
ancient writing.

The early parts of the Tanakh refer to

events and people from long before the
texts were first written down. Scholars
analyze the oldest known versions of
these writings and try to determine
how what the written texts describe fits
into the historical record. The Dead Sea
Scrolls are the oldest written copies of
the Tanakh texts that have ever been
found. Before these scrolls were found,
the oldest known copies of biblical
texts came from the end of the first
millennium CE.

71
Most of the Dead Sea Scrolls were
written between about 200 BCE and
70 CE. The scrolls helped change The Spread of Judaism
scholars’ understandings of the history
Even though many conquerors took
of the Jewish people who lived under
control of the lands where the Jewish
Roman rule in Judea. Most were religious
religion first developed, Jewish people
writings, but some also recorded daily
held on to their religious beliefs and their
life, trade, and other details. The scrolls
culture. Leaders called rabbis studied,
show that Jews in that place and time
wrote, and taught about Jewish beliefs.
were a diverse group, with different ideas
They collected writings about Jewish legal
about their religion and how to practice
traditions and eventually developed a
it. They had to live under an occupying
work called the Talmud. Along with the
power, and they hoped for change.
Tanakh, the Talmud is a central text of
They were determined to stay faithful
Jewish belief.
to their religion despite the difficult
circumstances.
Vocabulary
rabbi, n. a Jewish religious leader and
teacher

Over time, Jewish people spread

to many lands. They brought with
them their sacred texts and practices,
including keeping kosher, resting and
worshipping on the Sabbath, and
celebrating holidays throughout the
year. Holidays are celebrated according
to the Hebrew calendar, which is
mostly structured according to lunar
phases. Judaism today is not the same
The Dead Sea Scrolls were found in 1947 CE. as Judaism in ancient times. Like other

72
The Western Wall, Israel

religions, Judaism has changed as the As Jews migrated to other lands, many
world has changed. Today, two of the continued to feel a deep connection
most important holidays, or the High to Jerusalem and the lands around it.
Holy Days, are Rosh Hashanah and Yom The Temple that the Romans destroyed
Kippur. Both holidays occur in the fall, remained an important place in Jewish
usually in September but sometimes history and belief. A few parts of the
in early October. Rosh Hashanah is Temple survived, including some of its
the celebration of the new year. It is western wall. Today, the Western Wall
also the start of a ten-day period of is a sacred site for Jewish people. An
special worship. The end of this period important Jewish tradition is to go to
is Yom Kippur, also called the Day of the Western Wall to pray. And Jews around
Atonement. It is the holiest day of the the world remain committed to their
Jewish year. Practices related to Yom faith, telling the stories of the Tanakh and
Kippur include asking for forgiveness, continuing its customs and practices.
mourning loved ones who have passed
Find Out the Facts
away, and setting spiritual intentions for
Find out more information about
the coming year. the Western Wall.

Vocabulary
Writers’ Corner
atonement, n. making up for or
Use your research to write a
repairing offenses or injuries; taking
report about the Western Wall.
action to earn forgiveness

73
 Chapter 4
Ancient Greece
The Big Question
What elements of Greek civilization
influenced many other societies?

Roots of Western Thought

From small cities along
storm-wracked coasts, the people
of ancient Greece built a thriving
civilization. Many of their ideas and
achievements are still cherished by
people the world over. The Greeks
were the first in Europe to experiment
with democracy. They helped lay the
foundations for Western philosophy,
science, mathematics, political
theory, and more.

Ancient Greece was not a place defined

by clear boundaries. It included the Greek
mainland and nearby islands as well as lands
along many parts of the Mediterranean coast. In the 1500s CE, a Dutch artist imagined what
ancient Thessaly looked like.
Eventually, Greek culture spread far and wide,

74
 influencing other civilizations. The ancient
Greeks were not a single people. They
were a group of peoples and cities bound
together by language, culture, religion, and
shared political and economic interests.

A Land of Mountains and Sea

Mainland Greece is a peninsula, surrounded
by water on three sides. Beyond the
mainland, much of Greece is an archipelago:
a chain of small to medium-sized islands.
The largest island, Crete, lies about halfway
between the tip of the Greek mainland
and northeastern Africa. The mainland has
two major zones. The central and northern
zone is mountainous. To the southwest
is the Peloponnese, a large peninsula
connected to the rest of the mainland by a
narrow stretch of land, or isthmus.

Vocabulary
archipelago, n. a chain of islands
isthmus, n. a narrow piece of land that
connects two larger landmasses

Find Out the Facts

Research the etymology of the
word archipelago. Find the root words
and what the word originally meant.

75
The terrain of Greece is a product of streams rather than major rivers. Thus,
intense tectonic activity, including ancient Greek farms were fairly small, though
frequent earthquakes and powerful productive. Farmers grew wheat, barley,
volcanoes. As a result, Greece is rugged, chickpeas, lentils, beans, olives, and grapes.
with about 80 percent of the land taken Greeks also grew fruits and vegetables
up by mountains. Travel was difficult and for their households, including figs, pears,
cities developed in relative isolation. pomegranates, cucumbers, onions, and
garlic. Animals like goats and sheep grazed
Vocabulary on the mountainsides and were used as a
source of meat and dairy products. Fish was
tectonic, adj. related to the movement
of Earth’s crust also an important part of the diet.

Surrounded by water, with relatively

With so many mountains, there is relatively little good farmland, the early Greeks
little land for farming. In most regions of became skilled seafarers and navigators.
Greece, winters are mild and summers are The miles of coast offered many natural
hot and dry. Rainfall is not plentiful, and harbors where ships could be built and
irrigation was a challenge for ancient Greek sheltered from storms. With these ships,
farmers, who had to get water from small ancient Greeks explored and colonized

76
many lands. The oceans and mountains included images of sea animals, such as
also made Greek cities hard to attack and fish and octopuses, as well as shells. Their
relatively easy to defend. artistic style was marked by flowing lines,
perhaps influenced by the tides and waves
that surrounded them. Minoan pottery
The Minoans was an important export alongside
other arts and crafts products, including
The first civilizations that arose in this
gold cups, bronze vessels, and figurines.
region were not Greek. That is, they were
Minoans also had a writing system known
different from the people who spoke
today as Linear A. Although many have
Greek and later dominated the region. The
tried, no one has been able to decipher it.
Minoans flourished on the large island of
Minoan civilization was prosperous and
Crete between about 2700 and 1500 BCE.
probably fairly peaceful. Crete produced
Archaeologists first learned about the
some agricultural goods, like olive oil and
Minoans from the ruins of an ancient
figs, for export. It also had valuable forests,
palace at Knossos, on Crete. It had many
which allowed the Minoans to provide
interconnected rooms on several levels.
wood to neighboring regions that lacked
These rooms could be used for multiple
it. The Minoans also raised sheep and
functions, including eating, entertaining
guests, storing supplies, and sleeping. Think Twice
The Minoans also built intricate systems Why do archaeologists study pottery
more than artifacts made of other
of pipes and drains. A network of paved
materials, like wood or fabric, when
roads connected the towns on the island. investigating ancient societies?

Minoans decorated buildings with

frescoes and other artworks; walls and Vocabulary
columns were painted vibrant colors. fresco, n. a type of painting done on
One famous aspect of Minoan culture is wet plaster

their use of bulls’ heads in art, which may

have had religious significance. Minoans Think Twice
also developed well-made and richly Why was wood valuable in the
ancient Mediterranean world?
ornamented pottery. Their art frequently

77
The Minotaur

Archaeologists coined the term Minoan.

In Greek mythology, King Minos was a Mycenaean Civilization
ruler of Crete. He built a labyrinth (maze) The Mycenaean culture is named for
to hold a monster called the Minotaur, the city of Mycenae, which was in the
who had a human body and the head of a Peloponnese region. This was the
bull. Some think this labyrinth could refer dominant civilization in the Peloponnese
to the palace at Knossos. Others think and several of the Greek islands between
the myth is connected to a different site about 1700 and 1100 BCE. Many of the
on Crete. They point to the ruins of an major Mycenaean settlements would
ancient quarry with complex tunnels. It’s continue to be major cities for years
impossible to know the true origins of the to come. As well as Mycenae itself,
myth. But it’s intriguing that an ancient Mycenaean settlements included Sparta,
story associated with Crete features Thebes, Argos, Athens, and Tiryns.
labyrinthine architecture and a bull, given
Mycenaeans produced great works of
that artifacts indicate that both were
art, built cities and palaces, and traded
meaningful features of this civilization.
around the Aegean and Mediterranean
produced wool, another profitable good. Seas. They were not a single united
They had large, well-made ships that they group. Many of the cities and settlements
used for fishing and trading. This brought probably had their own rulers and
them into contact with other cultures, political ideas. A handful of Mycenaean
including the Egyptians, Babylonians, texts exist written in a script called Linear
and peoples of the Levant. After thriving B, which has been deciphered. But most
for more than a thousand years, Minoan of what is known about this culture comes
civilization declined. It’s not known exactly from other kinds of artifacts. The large
what happened to the Minoans. A natural walls of many Mycenaean palaces suggest
disaster may have weakened them. Some that Mycenaean rulers were not unified
scholars think the biggest factor was the and that they expected to go to war with
rise of the other great power of early Greek one another now and again. Ordinary
history—the Mycenaeans. Mycenaeans lived in relatively humble

78
houses. Wealthy Mycenaeans were Mediterranean civilizations experienced
buried with finely made weapons, armor, a sudden decline. Various factors likely
and masks. came together to cause instability,

Mycenaean civilization ended around 1100 such as earthquakes, drought, famine,

BCE. However, it had a strong influence on internal fighting, and invasions by

the Greek civilization that later developed. external enemies.

The heroic tales found in the Greek epics The end of the Mycenaean civilization
the Iliad and the Odyssey may be related ushered in a period called the Dark Age.
to Mycenaean legends. Agamemnon, There was less food, fewer resources, and
chief of the Greek kings who went to less wealth. Trading, building, writing,
war against Troy, was said to be from record keeping, and other economic
Mycenae, and the archaeological findings activities slowed dramatically. Stories
at Mycenae suggest it was ruled by people suggest the Dorians (an early Greek
who considered themselves proud and people) invaded and took over southern
skilled warriors. Greece using iron weapons and tools.

Greek civilization shared many features Later, inhabitants of southern Greece and

of the Minoan and Mycenaean cultures. some islands claimed to be descendants

Greek religious practices developed of the Dorians.

from roots that probably took hold in

the Mycenaean period. Many Mycenaean
religious rituals, like pouring out wine to The Rise of Greek Culture
honor gods, building large temples at
holy sites associated with natural spirits, Around 750 BCE, inhabitants of Greece

and sacrificing animals, persisted in the began calling themselves Hellenes.

Greek civilization that developed after This is why ancient Greek culture came to

the collapse of the Mycenaeans. be called Hellenic.

It’s not clear exactly what happened

Vocabulary
to Mycenaean civilization, but its
end was probably part of the larger Hellenic, adj. related to the culture of
ancient Greece
Bronze Age collapse, when several

79
The Greeks began to build small kingdoms, and lightning, weather, and justice. His
each centered on a town or city. They brother Hades governed the underworld,
were connected through shared language, the realm of the dead. His other brother,
religious beliefs, and cultural practices. Poseidon, was the god of the sea. Zeus’s
The Greeks traded with the nearby daughter Athena was the goddess of war
Egyptians and Phoenicians and adapted and wisdom, but also peace and weaving.
the Phoenician alphabet to make a Greek His son Apollo was linked to music,
alphabet. They kept records and began to poetry, archery, and light. Lesser gods
write down some of the oral tales handed and spirits were associated with particular
down from previous generations. In time, natural phenomena. Nymphs were spirits
Greek myths became widely known across of springs, trees, and rivers. In Greek
much of the Western world. Even today, mythology, gods and spirits were much like
these religious stories provide insight into humans. They were capable of love, envy,
ancient Greek civilization. anger, pettiness, and joy. Some of the gods
were rivals, and some were friends.

Gods and spirits were worshipped at

temples, which were often built at
Greek Religion sacred places believed to have a special
The Greeks believed in many gods connection with a particular deity. Within
and goddesses and a natural world full the temple, an image or statue of the
of minor gods, spirits, and monsters. deity could often be found. Some temples
They saw gods and spirits as active and attracted many worshippers who sought
powerful forces in the world. In order to the aid of the god or goddess. These were
have a happy and successful life, people often developed into a temple complex,
had to honor, appease, thank, and bargain which would have shrines to other gods
with the gods and spirits. and goddesses added to the main temple.

The most powerful and important gods Priests and priestesses cared for the
were the Olympians, who were believed temple, conducted rituals, and offered
to live at the top of Mount Olympus. They interpretations of events believed to be
were the family and court of Zeus, king of signs from the gods. Some priests and
the gods. Zeus was also the god of thunder priestesses were believed to have special

80
powers. A famous temple to Apollo was
Find Out the Facts
home to a priestess called the Pythia, also
Research a Greek god or goddess.
known as the Oracle at Delphi. Greeks Learn about the powers, symbols, and
believed she had the ability to reveal stories associated with this deity.
the future by giving cryptic messages
that could be interpreted by the person The gods were also honored in
who had sought a revelation. Some many festivals. These often included
temples became linked with particular competitions, especially if the festival
types of work. Temples to Asclepius, was held to celebrate gods who
the god of healing, often functioned oversaw poetry, music, athletic talent,
as a sort of hospital. In Athens, metal or proficiency with weapons. The
workshops developed around a temple to most famous of these festivals was the
Hephaestus, god of fire and blacksmiths. Olympic Games, held at Olympia and
intended to honor Zeus. Greeks came
from throughout the region for the
Vocabulary
games, which included competitions
oracle, n. a person who gives wise in javelin and discus throwing as well
advice or tells prophecies
as wrestling and running. If city-states
cryptic, adj. having a hidden meaning
were in conflict, a truce was declared

81
so that competitors (who were religious adopted cultural practices of the people
piligrims, in a sense) could travel safely to who were already there before Greeks
the games. arrived. But many colonies supported their
mother city in times of crisis, such as war.
Writers’ Corner
Use your research to write a
story or play in which the Greek
deity uses their powers. City-States
Over time, groups of nobles took power
and overthrew the kings. These nobles
ruled over independent city-states,
Colonization each with a particular character and
As Greek kingdoms emerged, their government. Dozens of Greek city-
populations began to grow rapidly. This states arose throughout the mainland
led to the establishment of colonies, and islands. The biggest, most powerful
which were new city-states that were city-states included Athens, Sparta,
independent but Corinth, Thebes,
maintained relations, Vocabulary Syracuse, and
particularly trading colony, n. an area settled by people Rhodes. Sometimes
relations, with a who come from elsewhere bitter rivals and
“mother city.” Thanks sometimes allies,
to their ability to travel by boat, the these city-states always remained distinct
Greeks were able to establish colonies and independent.
across a wide area. While at sea in search The Greek term for a city-state is polis,
of trade opportunities, they set up or which is the root of the modern word
took over settlements frequented by politics. Over time, the word polis also
traders in need of rest, supplies, and other came to mean the collection of citizens
business necessities on their way elsewhere.

Some colonies were quite closely

Vocabulary
controlled by the mother city, but many
polis, n. a city-state of ancient Greece
were not. Residents of the colonies often

82
who belonged to the city-state. The city’s success or failure and thus should be
idea of the citizen became important allowed to partake in the city’s politics.
in ancient Greece and later influenced The idea that citizens should have a say
other civilizations. Ancient Greece was in the running of the polis influenced
one of the first societies to develop the how the cities were built. Discussion
idea that a society should be run by happened out in the open so that
its citizens. people could listen to or make speeches
and influence the decisions of the day.
Vocabulary Thus, most Greek city-states built an
citizen, n. in ancient Greece, a person open public space called an agora,
with legal rights and responsibilities in a which served as both marketplace and
city-state
meeting space.

In Greece, a citizen was a resident of a

city-state who had political rights
and responsibilities. Generally, citizens
exercised their power through
Tyrants, Oligarchs, and
participation in an assembly, which was Democracies
a governing body for the city-state. The
Around 650 BCE, a new period of unrest
amount of power the assembly had
developed in many of the Greek city-
varied among city-states and across time
states. Farmers, merchants, and artisans
periods. In most city-states, citizenship was
were dissatisfied with the ruling nobles
restricted to adult male property owners
and came to resent their power. The
who had been born in the city-state. Greek
instability led to the rise of tyrants, strong
citizens expected to have some say in the
leaders who had total authority. Many
organization and running of their city. The
Greeks supported these tyrants, feeling
idea was that citizens had a stake in the
that they ruled fairly. Some, however,
were harsh and unjust. The concept of
Think Twice citizen input in the running of society did
What other words might also come not disappear, however. Over time, Greek
from the Greek root polis? city-states transitioned away from rule by

83
tyrants. Many became oligarchies, ruled food to sustain its population. This may
by a small group of wealthy and powerful have helped spur upper-class Athenians
citizens. Some became democracies, to develop a form of government that
characterized by the idea that all citizens included members of the lower classes.
should participate in the government Allowing more citizens a greater voice in
of the city-state. The place that most the running of society gave more people a
cherished democracy was the mighty city- sense of duty to the city-state as well as an
state of Athens. incentive to think about how to make the
society flourish.
Vocabulary Athenian democracy went through
oligarchy, n. a government controlled various stages of development. The
by a small group of people from core principle was that the people ruled
aristocratic and wealthy nonaristocratic
families the city-state. The term democracy is
democracy, n. a form of government in itself Greek, coming from the terms
which people choose their leaders demos (people) and kratia (power). Over
time, the Athenian government made
numerous reforms that reinforced the
Think Twice
ideas that citizens should hold political
How were Greek tyrants similar power and that equality and freedom
to kings? In what ways were
they different? are values that a society should promote
and protect. However, it’s important
to note that the majority of people
who lived in Athens were not citizens.
Immigrants were not citizens, nor were
Athenian Democracy any women. A large population of
Athens is located near the southern tip enslaved people did much of the hard
of Greece’s mainland, east of the isthmus work of daily life but were not citizens
that connects to the Peloponnese. With either. Citizens were a minority, but
hilly terrain and a lack of fertile soil, the they were a much larger group than the
area produced wheat, barley, olives, and aristocrats and oligarchies that ruled
grapes. But Athens needed to import many early civilizations.

84
 canceled debts. He allowed more citizens
to participate in Athens’s Assembly. He
Solon’s Early Reforms divided citizens into four groups based
on their wealth, then set out a system
The first changes that led to the
of taxation and political rights based
development of Athenian democracy
on those categories. The wealthiest still
occurred under a ruler named Solon.
had the most power and could be part
Around 600 BCE, farmers and other
of the council that passed laws, but all
commoners began resisting the ruling
full citizens could go to the Assembly
nobles and supported a tyrant instead.
and have some influence on laws and
This was a pattern that happened in many
decisions. In the end, Solon’s reforms
Greek city-states. Nobles owned most of
were too radical to gain lasting support
the land, and people borrowed money
from the upper class. Meanwhile, the
to buy land for farming. Some had to
lower classes thought he had not gone
sell themselves or family members into
far enough. But his reforms provided a
slavery to pay off this debt. As tensions
basis for the thriving democracy Athens
increased in Athens, its nobles decided
later developed.
to take action in order to avoid an
uprising. They agreed that for one year,
they would give up some power and
put one person in charge, who would
Developing Democracy
propose reforms. They chose Solon, a
wealthy merchant who also wrote poetry. Leaders after Solon also made reforms.
Solon was like a tyrant in some ways—a A ruler called Cleisthenes allowed all
leader with a lot of power, chosen to property-owning men (not just nobles)
provide stability. But he did not hold over the age of eighteen to participate
total power. He propsed reforms to give in government and gave them the
citizens more say in systems of law, justice, right to hold high political offices and
and taxation. become military leaders. He put more
power in the hands of the Assembly
Solon drafted a new set of laws for and the council. He also created a new
Athens, freed enslaved landowners, and system of organizing Athenian citizens.

85
Every citizen belonged to a group called Assembly would decide whether or not
a deme. Distributed throughout all of to proceed with an ostracism vote. If a
Athens’s territory, demes were organized majority chose to do so, citizens would
into larger units that deliberately mixed then vote to determine who would be
groups from different areas. The strategy ostracized. This voting was anonymous.
was to create political groupings that The names of candidates for ostracism
reduced the power of older groups and were scratched onto shards of pottery
gave citizens the sense that power was called ostraka. Officials checked the results.
more evenly distributed. The person who had received the most

Around 487 BCE, Athenians began the votes was sent into exile. He had to leave

practice of ostracism. Citizens could vote the city within ten days and could not

to exile a person, or force them to leave return to Athens for at least ten years.

the city. In this way, citizens could end

the careers of people they thought were
too powerful or whose ideas they simply
didn’t like. Ostracism could potentially
happen once every year. First, the

An ostrakon
Vocabulary
ostracism, n. in ancient Athens, forcing
a person to leave the city; today,
shunning or ignoring
exile, v. to force someone to live
Athenian Culture
outside of a place as a punishment Athenians valued education, debate,
philosophy, literature, and music.
They believed a good education was
Think Twice
necessary preparation for future citizens’
How might mixing people from participation in the polis. Boys learned
different areas to form political
groups have encouraged people to think reading, writing, arithmetic, and music.
more about acting in the best interests of To learn how to discuss and debate in
the whole of Athenian society?
the Assembly and courts of law, they

86
studied logic and rhetoric, or the art city-state to be strong in every way:
of expressing themselves well. This militarily, culturally, economically, and
would help them become eloquent and politically.
persuasive orators, or public speakers. Life for Athenian girls and women was
They also learned traditional stories of different. They did not participate in the
Greek heroes. Athenian men used their Assembly or other political institutions.
broad education to participate in Athens’s They mostly stayed at home. When they
democracy and its larger culture. They did go out, they had to be chaperoned
gathered for symposia, which were by a male relative. They contributed to
banquets where they would feast, listen the polis through their roles as wives and
to music, and discuss a particular topic. mothers and through religious practices.
They would take turns speaking about Girls received some education at home
the topic, debating their ideas, and but did not go to school as boys did. They
developing arguments and points of were usually married at a fairly young
view. Physical fitness was also valued, and age. Some women served as priestesses.
boys and men exercised and participated On the whole, though, Athenian girls and
in athletic competitions. Young men women lived mostly in the private sphere
had two years of military training. of the home and family, while public life
The Athenian navy was unmatched in was reserved for males.
strength and skill, a source of pride for
the city-state. Athenians wanted their

Vocabulary
logic, n. the study of ways of thinking
and making rational arguments
rhetoric, n. the skill of using words
effectively in speaking or writing
orator, n. a public speaker
symposium, n. in ancient Greece,
a meeting for drinking, music, and
intellectual discussion; today, a meeting
or conference for discussion of a topic
Girls received some education at home.

87
 who provided entertainment. Despite
Find Out the Facts
their contributions to society, they had
Look for facts about the lives of
Athenian children. no political rights. Occasionally, Athenian
slaves could buy their freedom. However,
Athens was located slightly inland but there was no avenue for them to ever
fairly close to the coast. The geography become citizens.
and climate meant that Athenians
needed resources from trading. They
built a port called Piraeus on the coast.
Athens developed into the greatest
Sparta’s Military Might
naval power in the region and a busy Sparta, located on the Peloponnese
trading city. One result was that many peninsula, was another powerful city-state.
non-Athenians resided in the city. Called Sometimes rivals and sometimes allies of
metics, they were considered foreigners the Athenians, Spartans prized military
and generally were not citizens, although strength above all else. As a result, they had
some were granted citizenship for special the strongest army in the region. Sparta
reasons. However, metics were important was led by two kings who ruled together.
to Athens’s economy. Many were Beneath the kings was a governing council
merchants, traders, or skilled artisans. of five officials, called ephors, who were
elected from and by the citizens of Sparta.
Vocabulary The ephors had to swear to uphold the rules
of the kings but could also put the kings on
metic, n. a foreigner living in an ancient
Greek city trial if necessary. Ephors served for one year
and could never hold the position again.

A large percentage of Athens’s All Spartan men served in the military.

population was enslaved workers. They Boys were sent away to training camps at
did the hard labor to keep wealthy and seven years old to learn to use weapons
middle-class Athenian households, and military tactics. Although they were
farms, and businesses running. A few taught to read, most of their education
of them were educated and taught focused on honing their skills as warriors.
Athenian children; some were musicians At twenty years old, men became part of

88
Sparta’s army. They could marry and start warriors. Physical fitness was considered
families, but they lived in barracks until an important asset that would allow
the age of thirty. women to carry out this role. Girls were

Instead of establishing faraway colonies, trained in sports such as throwing the

Sparta conquered surrounding territories. javelin and wrestling. Whereas girls in

They called the people they conquered other city-states were married around

helots. Spartans treated the helots as an the age of thirteen, Spartan girls did not

underclass. Some historians characterize marry until their late teens or twenties.

helots as enslaved workers; others consider This was in part because childbirth is less

the helots to have been severely oppressed dangerous at a later age but also because

but not exactly enslaved. Helots had almost Spartans wanted to ensure that their

no rights. They were expected to work on women were strong enough to produce

farms for Spartan masters and earned little children, especially sons who would soon

or no money. Helots were also required to join the military.

serve in Sparta’s military. Because Spartan Spartan women had more rights and
society included a large population of freedoms than women in most ancient
helots, on whose labor the Spartans relied, Greek city-states. With men living in
the Spartans were always worried that barracks or away at war, Spartan women
helots would revolt. They treated the helots lived relatively independent lives. They
harshly in the hopes of controlling them could own property, go out in public on
through fear and violence. their own, and participate in athletic games.
Their clothing was designed to allow
Vocabulary movement. All these details distinguished
barracks, n. buildings where soldiers live them from women in other Greek societies,
helots, n. oppressed underclass in Sparta particularly those in Athens.

In some ways, the lives of Spartan girls

Find Out the Facts
and women were different from those Ancient historians noted
Spartans’ reputation for bravery and
in other societies. Spartan women toughness and Athenians’ focus on fine
focused on Sparta’s military strength. food and culture. Find some ancient
descriptions of each group.
Their primary role was to be mothers of

89
 their democracy and their rich culture.
Spartans were proud of their military
power and their reputation for toughness
and bravery. Sparta’s culture focused on
creating warriors who could withstand
harsh conditions. They favored plain food
and thought it best to avoid comforts.
Athenians prized fine food and drink, art,
and all the good things life could offer. They
also valued military strength but thought
it was one part of an ideal society, not the
main goal. The Athenians developed a
strong army and a superior navy, but the

A bronze figurine shows a Spartan girl running.

Spartan army was the best in the region.

Writers’ Corner
Imagine a meeting between
Rivalry Between Athens and Sparta an Athenian and a Spartan.
Write a dialogue in which they
Even though Greek city-states were discuss both city-states. They might argue
loosely connected through language and about which one is better, gently joke
about each other, or learn to appreciate
culture, they still sometimes fought with the rival culture.
one another. Athens and Sparta were the
two most powerful city-states and often
saw each other as rivals. Sometimes, they
were willing to work together to defend The Persian Wars
against outside enemies; other times, they As Athens, Sparta, and other Greek city-
viewed one another as competitors. states developed their cultures and political
Their differing lifestyles and values systems, a great power began to rise to the
meant that Spartans and Athenians east: the Persians. The Persians originated
saw themselves as quite different from in a region in southwest Asia to the west
one another. Athenians were proud of of Mesopotamia. This region lies in what

90
is now southwestern Iran. The Persian
king Cyrus the Great began to conquer
surrounding lands. Soon, the Persian Empire
took control of Mesopotamia, the Levant,
and Asia Minor. Eventually, the Persian
Empire reached into Egypt and to the
territory northeast of the Greek mainland.

The Persians had a mighty army and took

a savvy approach to administering a large,
diverse empire. They mostly allowed the
peoples they conquered to maintain
their own cultures and religions as long
as they acknowledged Persian rule. The
Persians also expanded the network of
roads that supported travel and trade in
the region. The impressive Royal Road ran
from eastern Persia all the way to Anatolia,
some 1,500 miles long. This road made
travel much faster and easier.

Zoroastrianism

Early Persians believed in many gods,

but in the early sixth century BCE, they
began following a new, monotheistic
religion. Known as Zoroastrianism, it was
introduced by a teacher called Zoroaster
who spoke of one god, Ahura Mazda.
Zoroastrianism is still practiced today. Its
holy book, the Avesta, is said to contain
Zoroaster’s teachings.

91
The Persian Empire reached its height close together in a formation called a
under Darius, who came to power phalanx. Grouped into a tight row,
after Cyrus. Persians had conquered each solider protected the man next to
Greek areas in Asia Minor, and it seemed him with a shield in a tight formation
likely that Darius would continue to that looked like a forest of spears. The
push into Greek islands and the Persian archers could not find a way
mainland. In 499 BCE, when Greeks through the wall of shields; when
living under Persian control in Asia Persian troops came up to the Athenian
Minor revolted, Athens sent ships line, they were killed or driven away
and soldiers to help them. The Persians before they could do any harm. The
crushed the revolt, but more Athenian victory at Marathon was the
conflict loomed. first time the great Persian army had
been defeated.

Victory at Marathon Vocabulary

cavalry, n. troops who fight on
In 490 BCE, a Persian fleet invaded horseback
Greece from the sea. It landed at hoplite, n. an ancient Greek foot
Marathon, about twenty-five miles north solider
of Athens. There is debate about exactly phalanx, n. a group of soldiers who
attack in close formation with their
what happened at Marathon and why,
shields overlapping and spears
but the outnumbered Athenians were pointed forward
victorious in the great battle. Instead
of relying on their mighty cavalry,
which was not present at the battle, the Find Out the Facts
Persians had their formidable archers Historians have some ideas
about how the Greeks won the Battle of
lead the way. But the Athenians were
Marathon. Look up what scholars think
well trained and disciplined against might have happened.
such attacks. Soldiers called hoplites
used heavy armor, long spears, and
large shields. They fought standing

92
 A Heroic Stand at Thermopylae Salamis
Athens, Sparta, and other Greek city- While the Persians advanced by land
states had been allied against the Persians and sea, the remaining Greek
prior to the battle at Marathon. After forces regrouped, mostly led by the
Darius’s death, his successor, Xerxes, Spartans. Eventually, the Greek and
continued to threaten Greek territories. the Persian fleets met in the narrow
In 480 BCE, Xerxes attacked Greece with straits around Salamis, an island
a massive army and navy. The allied city- between the Peloponnese and the
states attempted to mount a defense. rest of the mainland. The location
While their rivalries and independent may have been an advantage for the
identities may have weakened their Greeks, who were familiar with these
ability to organize, the Greeks fought waters and knew how to navigate
hard against the Persians. Led by King them. Some historians think the
Leonidas, the Spartan army tried to fight Greeks lured the Persians to this
the Persians on land. They wanted to delay spot. The large Persian ships had
and weaken the Persians by blocking difficulty maneuvering through the
them at a narrow mountain pass called narrow, shallow straits. The Greeks
Thermopylae. Leonidas’s small force was had smaller, faster ships called
vastly outnumbered. The Spartans and triremes, which helped them destroy
their allies resisted for three days against the Persian fleet in a decisive
overwhelming odds before they were victory. The next year, the Greeks
wiped out by the Persians. The bravery of went on to win major land battles
the Spartans and their stand against the and drove the Persians out of
Persian army became legendary. Greek territory.

Think Twice
Vocabulary
How does the account of the clash at
Thermopylae reflect Spartan values strait, n. a narrow waterway that
and identity? connects two large bodies of water

93
Herodotus: The First Historian? The Delian League was formed to help

Herodotus wrote about Greek history, defend against future threats from Persia.

including the Persian Wars. Some It became a way for Athens to add to its

consider him to be the first historian. wealth and power. The allied city-states

Herodotus explored the causes and agreed to contribute money and ships

effects of historical events. He wrote to the alliance, which essentially meant

about how different groups experienced giving these resources to Athens. Over

the same event. He offered interpretations time, Athens began to treat the other city-

of events and of the choices made states more like colonies than like allies.

by the people involved in the events. The other city-states had to swear an oath

His writing reflects his worldview. For of loyalty to Athens, and they were not

example, he often considered how allowed to leave the league. In this way,

the gods and goddesses might have Athens established an empire. Income

intervened in events or how they might and support from the Delian League,

have reacted to human choices. Though combined with the relatively peaceful

it must be read critically, his work paints a period following the defeat of the Persians,

complex picture that helps shed light on fueled the golden age of Athens, which

ancient Greek civilization. lasted through most of the 400s BCE.

Find Out the Facts

Learn more about the Delian
League. Find out which city-states
The Golden Age of Athens belonged to it and how it operated.

The Persian Wars could have been the

end of Athens as a major power. Instead,
Athens grew stronger, thanks to its
dominant navy and its role as a leader.
Pericles Leads Athens
Athenians set up the Delian League, a The most important Athenian leader of
group of allied city-states that would work this period was Pericles. A strong military
together, with Athens at its head. Notably, commander, he also had a reputation as a
Sparta did not join the alliance. skilled orator. He led efforts to reconstruct

94
defensive walls to protect Athens from
attack. He also worked to strengthen
Athenian democracy. One reform was Greek Literature and Drama
to start paying citizens for government
Ancient Greeks loved great epics and
work, such as serving as officials and on
dramas. The earliest pieces of Greek
juries. While all citizens had long been
literature are the epics the Iliad and the
allowed to participate in government,
Odyssey, which are attributed to the poet
poorer citizens often couldn’t because
Homer. The Iliad tells of a great (likely
they needed to spend most of their time
mythical) war between the Greeks and
working to earn money. The reform made
the Trojans. The Odyssey recounts the
it more feasible for less wealthy citizens
adventures of Odysseus as he tries to
to exercise their rights. Pericles also
return home after the war. Tales known as
wanted to contribute to Athens’s cultural
Aesop’s fables were also popular. Greeks
glory. He oversaw the construction of a
also wrote poems and developed theater
great temple to Athena, the Parthenon.
as a form of literature and entertainment.
It was built to honor the city’s patron
goddess and to symbolize the wealth and
superiority of Athenian culture. Vocabulary
fable, n. a short, cautionary tale, often
featuring animals that speak and act like
Think Twice humans as the main characters
In what ways does Pericles represent
Athenian ideals?
During Athens’s golden age, several
playwrights shaped the tradition of Greek
drama. They wrote two kinds of plays:
tragedies and comedies. Greek tragedies
were serious and had sad endings, often
closing with the death of a heroic character.
They expressed ideas about human flaws
and frailty and the power of fate in people’s
The Acropolis lives. Three Athenian playwrights created

95
many of the most famous Greek tragedies:
Sophocles, Aeschylus, and Euripides.
Comedies were funny and had happy The Peloponnesian War
endings. They often examined contemporary
social and political issues and sometimes Although Athens and Sparta had been

mocked leaders. Aristophanes rose to allies during the Persian Wars, they soon

fame as the master of Athenian comedy. returned to their positions as rivals.

Sparta grouped its allies together in the
Find Out the Facts Peloponnesian League. Sparta’s main
Research the life and works of one allies were Corinth and Thebes. The
of the four major Athenian playwrights.
Delians and the Peloponnesians, with
Athens and Sparta as leaders, became
Writers’ Corner increasingly suspicious of each other.
Using your research, write a Sparta still had the strongest army, but
short play inspired by the style
of the playwright you chose. Athens was wealthy, and its naval strength
was unmatched. Eventually, war broke out
between the rivals. It lasted for more than
Contributions to Math and Science
twenty-five years.
Hippocrates was a doctor who wrote
Pericles still led Athens when the war
about how environmental factors like
began in 431 BCE. He wanted to avoid
weather and drinking water can impact
land battles with Sparta and use Athens’s
health. His writings were later collected
naval power. Athenians withdrew behind
and used by others to advance the field
the city’s defensive walls. Sparta would
of medicine. Pythagoras developed
regularly attack and destroy surrounding
important principles of mathematics.
farmland and villages, but the Athenians
Aristarchus figured out that Earth
stayed holed up while their navy brought
orbits the sun, rather than the other way
supplies from the port at Piraeus to the
around. Archimedes became known for
city. This strategy worked for a while,
his clever inventions and mathematical
but the Athenians grew restless. Some
discoveries. He also first expressed the
Athenians wanted to fight back and began
mathematical principle of pi.
grumbling about Pericles.

96
The city was jam-packed because
people from the country had poured
into Athens for safety. Then, a plague Philosophers of Athens
swept through the crowded city,
The Peloponnesian War brought Athens’s
killing many. Athenians wondered
empire to an end, but the city-state
if the gods had abandoned them
survived. It rebuilt its democratic system.
and if their leaders were making
Though it was less wealthy and powerful
good decisions. The war dragged
than before, it managed to retain its
on for years, with neither side able
identity and values. Athenians valued
to strike a decisive blow. Finally,
philosophy, a broad subject that involves
Sparta began to gain the upper hand.
the examination of ideas, knowledge,
Athens’s defeat came in 405 BCE
truth, and the nature of the world and
when the unthinkable happened—
human life. It was in the period after the
Sparta defeated and destroyed the
long years of war and the crushing defeat
famous Athenian navy. The Spartans
that Athens produced many of its most
began a blockade of Athens. Unable
influential philosophers.
to get supplies from overseas, the
Athenians surrendered. Think Twice
Why might the experience of a long,
difficult war and a disappointing
Vocabulary defeat have inspired philosophers in
Athens?
blockade, n. a military strategy aimed
at preventing people and goods from Socrates was the first philosopher of his
entering or leaving an area
kind. He both lived in Athens during its
golden age and fought in the war that
brought it to an end. He developed an
Writers’ Corner approach to working out moral problems
Write a detailed paragraph that that involved asking a series of probing
discusses how the war might
have impacted Athenians’ questions to get closer and closer to what
ideas about their culture and a person really thinks or believes is true.
political system. This is called the Socratic method. Socrates

97
wrote nothing down. We know about his Perhaps the most influential Greek
life and his ideas through his most famous philosopher was Aristotle, Plato’s student
student, the philosopher Plato. Socrates and friend. Aristotle was fascinated by the
often appears as a character in Plato’s world, and he wrote perhaps as many as
works, which often feature dialogues two hundred texts on subjects as varied
between two characters. As Plato’s work as the theater, logic, political theory,
advanced, Socrates’s persona became a and biology. Aristotle’s work influenced
tool that Plato used in his dialogues rather thinkers and scientists throughout Europe
than a real historical person whose words and Asia for centuries.
Plato was recording.

Plato’s Republic lays out his vision of an ideal

society. This society is strictly organized Alexander the Great
with a wise ruler, the philosopher-king, at
Alexander came from the kingdom of
the top. Because the philosopher-king, as
Macedonia, to the north of the Greek
Plato imagined him, is curious and clever,
mainland. His father, Philip II, attacked the
he can make the best decisions for society.
declining city-states of Greece. By 338 BCE,
Plato set up a school called the Academy,
he had defeated Athens and taken power
at which he taught many students who
over many Greek territories. Philip hired
carried forth his ideas and methods.
Aristotle to tutor Alexander. The young
prince loved tales of music, warriors and
Types of Greek Philosophy
deadly battles, and the arts. He respected
Ancient Greek philosophers developed Aristotle and adopted the broad Greek,
several rival schools of thought. Sophists or Hellenistic, culture as his own. As king,
were an early group who taught rhetoric, Alexander brought some of the greatest
math, science, and other subjects. world empires to their knees. In doing so,
Epicureans held that life should be about
maximizing happiness and minimizing Think Twice
pain. Stoics, meanwhile, rejected this What does Philip’s choice to have
Aristotle teach his son suggest about
view and emphasized self-control and
how Philip might have viewed Aristotle or
living simply. Greek culture?

98
 he wanted to use Hellenic culture to build
his reputation as a great ruler.

Alexander and his armies moved at an

amazing pace as they dismantled the
Persian Empire. They conquered Egypt,
where Alexander established the great
city of Alexandria. With no more rivals
in the region, Alexander was the master
of Persia, Egypt, and Greece. He then
continued to push eastward to the
borders of India. After Alexander’s death,
his vast realm was divided up among
A Roman mosaic depicts Alexander’s victory over the his closest and most capable generals.
Persians.
They ruled over smaller kingdoms that
he spread Greek language and culture all continued to reflect the influence of
across a vast region. Hellenistic culture.

Alexander finished the work his The works of Greek thinkers, scientists,
father, Philip II, had started, crushing dramatists, artists, and architects were
Greek cities that were still opposed taken to many lands and became models
to Macedonian rule. Then he turned for others. Over time, some of the peoples
his attention to Persia. Although shaped by this spread of Greek culture
the Greeks had managed to keep began to think of themselves as the true
the Persians out of their lands, the inheritors of the Greek legacy. One of
Persian Empire continued to reign these societies, the Romans, went on to
supreme to the east. In a reversal of incorporate and adapt many Hellenistic
the Persian Wars, Greek-speaking ideas and achievements for its own use.
peoples under Alexander invaded and In this way, the mighty Roman Empire
defeated Persia. that eventually arose continued to
Alexander took many learned people preserve and promote the works of the
along with him on these journeys. It seems ancient Greeks.

99
 Chapter 5
Ancient India
The Big Question
What ideas, practices, and events
united groups across the vast Indian
subcontinent?

A Diverse and Fertile Land

Two major world religions, Hinduism
and Buddhism, arose in ancient
India and later spread far and wide,
influencing many cultures. Indian
civilization also developed magnificent
art and literature, influential
philosophy, and innovations
in math, science, and
technology.

Located in South Asia, India lies on

a peninsula, called a subcontinent
because of its relative separation from
the rest of Asia. Part of this separation
A statue of Rama from the eleventh century CE
is created by the Himalayas, the

100
 highest mountains in the world,
which stretch across the northern
end of the region. Another
mountain range, the Hindu Kush,
sits to the west of the Himalayas.
These massive mountains form a
natural boundary between India
and central Asia. In addition to India,
the subcontinent also includes parts
of Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh,
and Bhutan.

The subcontinent is geographically

diverse, with snow-capped mountains,
fertile coastlines, deserts, hills, and
plains. The central part has many
plateaus, some of which have little
water but contain valuable minerals.
In the north and south, rivers create
lush land well-suited for agriculture.
Both the Ganges River system in the
northeast and the Indus River system
in the northwest were home to
ancient peoples.

Vocabulary
subcontinent, n. a major subdivision
of a continent
plateau, n. a large, flat area of
land that is higher than surrounding
lands

101
 grown, along with many fruit trees
and vegetables. Farmers used crop
rotation, irrigation, and plows drawn
by oxen. Other animals were also
domesticated, including goats, sheep,
and even elephants. Because of their
great size, elephants became useful in
construction. They could lift, push, and
carry heavy loads.

Vocabulary
monsoon, n. a wind from the south or
southwest that brings heavy rainfall to
The Indus Valley Civilization Asia during the summer months
domesticate, v. to tame and use for
The Indus civilization arose in the agriculture or other purposes
northwestern part of the subcontinent
around 2600 BCE. Its territory covered The Indus valley people formed
much of the area that is now known as numerous settlements and villages as
Pakistan. Even though much of the land well as two great cities, Mohenjo-Daro
surrounding the Indus River was dry, the and Harappa. (Indus valley civilization is
soil around the river system was fertile also called Harappan civilization.) Both
enough to support farming. A seasonal cities had large streets laid out in a grid
wind known as a monsoon caused a rainy pattern and paved with bricks. Houses
season from April to October. These heavy and buildings were also built with bricks,
rains could cause destructive flooding made of clay and straw and baked in the
but also provided water for crops, people, sun or in ovens.
and animals. Houses had wooden roofs, courtyards,
The people of the Indus valley farmed and bathrooms. Wells brought fresh
and kept livestock. Rice and other water to the houses; drains and sewers
grains, dates, lentils, and sesame were carried away wastewater. The Indus

102
Mohenjo-Daro is in modern-day Pakistan.

people did not construct huge temples and canals, and they may have been
or palaces. But they did build granaries, some of the first people to make wheeled
public baths, and protective walls around vehicles like carts. Through trade, they
their cites. Artisans produced many acquired raw materials such as copper,
objects for both daily life and decorative gold, jade, lapis lazuli, and carnelian.
use, including terra-cotta figurines, They developed a standardized weight
beautifully glazed pottery, and tools of system and used seals to mark ownership.
copper and stone. A written language of symbols, called

The Indus civilization developed trade Indus or Harappan script, appears on

with other regions, including other parts many seals, pottery, and tablets. These

of the subcontinent, China, Mesopotamia, records likely contain information about

Iran, and Afghanistan. They shipped trade and other daily activities, but no

goods on plank-style boats made of one has yet discovered how to read this

woven plants or of cloth. They built docks ancient script.

Vocabulary
Think Twice
terra-cotta, n. baked or hardened
In what ways was the Indus valley brownish-red clay
civilization similar to other ancient
civilizations? How was it different? carnelian, n. a hard, red stone

103
After prospering for several centuries,
the Indus civilization faded away.
Many people migrated to the east, A New Era
near the Ganges River. Historians have
A new era began to emerge in the Indus
several hypotheses about why this
valley. New groups began to migrate into
happened. Environmental changes
the Indus valley region around 1500 BCE,
may have caused people to move.
probably from the area that is now Iran.
Perhaps the Indus River changed
Previously historians referred to these
course, impacting homes and farming.
newcomers as Aryans, and overstated
Maybe a disruption to the monsoon
the influence they may have had on this
pattern caused a drought. There
region. It’s not clear whether Aryans
is no evidence that warfare or
were really one group or several. Scholars
political upheaval put great pressure
do think these people brought a new
on the Indus civilization. Historians
language influence to the region. Their
continue to look for clues about
language (or languages) was part of the
what caused the decline of the Indus
large Indo-European language family.
valley civilization.
Many modern languages grew out of the
Indo-European language group, including
English and also Hindi, which is spoken
Find Out the Facts in India today. New cultural practices
Learn more about Mohenjo- emerged, such as riding horses and raising
Daro or Harappa. Find out more
details about what scholars have
cattle for meat and milk.
learned from the ruins of one of these
ancient cities.

Writers’ Corner
Write a detailed description
of the ancient city you
researched.
A bronze sculpture of a chariot from about 1500 BCE

104
 The texts are considered to reflect the
divine truth and sacred knowledge gained

The Vedic Period through meditation by wise religious

figures known as sages. The Vedas were first
The Indo-European groups were originally transmitted orally, and later written down,
nomadic but eventually settled down perhaps between 1500 BCE and 500 BCE
into small kingdoms. These kingdoms during an era called the Vedic period.
sometimes fought each other, though
they had similar cultures. Over time, new
practices developed. Cows came to be
Varnas and Jatis
considered sacred and were no longer used
for food. Agriculture around the Ganges A complex social order based on religious
River valley improved as people built and social beliefs emerged during the
irrigation systems and learned to use iron to Vedic period. Society was organized into
make strong tools. Farmers in different parts four varnas, or classes. People were born
of India grew crops according to the climate. into a certain varna, and this determined
In the north, famers grew grains such as the kind of education, work, and life they
wheat, barley, rice, and millet. In the south, had. The varnas with the highest status
they grew vegetables and cotton, which were the Brahmins, or priests, and the
could be used to make cloth. Farmers also Kshatriyas, or nobles. Brahmins had great
produced spices like ginger, cinnamon, and power due to their status as religious
pepper. These became a source of wealth, leaders. Kshatriyas had power through
as other cultures sought spices in trade. secular roles as government officials and
soldiers. The next highest group was the
A written language called Sanskrit
Vaishyas. They were farmers, merchants, and
developed. At first, it was used to keep
artisans. Most people belonged to the least
records. Then people began to write down
powerful varna, the Sudras. They worked as
stories, prayers, and rituals that were part of
servants and laborers and had few rights.
the oral tradition. These were later gathered
into a collection known as the Vedas, some
Vocabulary
of the oldest religious texts in the world. The
secular, adj. not religious
word veda means knowledge or wisdom.

105
The four varnas were each divided into anything that might be unsanitary,
smaller groups called jatis, which were so Dalits were made to do those tasks.
often based on a particular type of work. Over time, the upper classes came to
Jatis developed their own customs and believe that even looking at or touching
rules relating to food, marriage, and Dalits could make them unclean, so
other social behaviors. People stayed Dalits had to stay away from others.
within the jati they were born into, which This kind of hierarchy and segregation
determined many parts of their lives, also existed in other societies. But over
such as the jobs they could have and the time the caste system, and the separate
people they could marry. This strict social group of Dalits excluded from it, came
separation, with almost no possibility of to be a distinct feature of ancient
switching to a different group, is called a Indian civilization.
caste system.
Think Twice
Vocabulary How did the jati system shape
people’s lives?
caste, n. a division of society based on
differences in wealth, social status, and
occupation
Caste in Modern India

The caste system continues to be part

The group at the bottom of the
of Indian society today. However, the
social hierarchy was the Dalits, or
modern caste system is not identical to
untouchables. They were considered to
the ancient system. It reflects historical
be outside the caste system. They had
practices as well as contemporary
the hardest and most unpleasant jobs,
influences. In the twentieth century,
such as collecting garbage, processing
India outlawed discrimination based
animals for meat, and dealing with
on caste. Scholars study how the
dead bodies. The Dalit class emerged
concept of caste continues to play a
at the end of the Vedic period, when
complex role in modern Indian society,
complex religious ideas about purity
keeping in mind that all societies have
and cleanliness took hold. Those with
hierarchies of various kinds.
higher social status wanted to avoid

106
 frequently represented as a four-headed
figure riding a swan or goose. Sometimes
Hinduism he is shown sitting in a lotus flower, which
represents purity. In his hands, he holds no
Religion was another major part of ancient
weapons, only objects that allow him to
India. The Vedas were said to be inspired by
set the destiny of humankind, including a
wise men who heard divine truths. They are
cleansing vase and the Vedas.
important texts in Hinduism, a religion that
Vishnu and Shiva have more interactions
began to emerge during the Vedic period.
with human life. Vishnu is a complex deity,
Although Hinduism does not have one holy
understood to have many avatars, or forms.
book, the Vedas are sacred scriptures read
Avatars of Vishnu appear as both humans
and respected by Hindus today.
and animals. Vishnu intervenes in times
Brahmins memorized and recited the
of trouble, preserving and protecting the
Vedas and oversaw many rituals and other
universe and restoring balance between
religious practices. Over time, Hinduism
good and evil. Shiva is also connected
developed around the idea of Brahman,
to good and evil. His destructive powers
which is a supreme, infinite, and cosmic
are chaotic and sometimes harmful, but
principle. Brahman is a complex concept
they are also needed because destruction
but can be understood as fundamental
must occur in order to then recreate the
truth and the source of life. In this way,
universe. Shiva is often viewed as having
Brahman is sometimes thought of as a
great passions and appetites; his extreme
supreme being.
behavior echoes the flaws of human nature.
Three major gods are considered part of
the universal spirit of Brahman: Brahma the Vocabulary
creator, Vishnu the preserver, and Shiva the avatar, n. the form a Hindu god takes
destroyer. Together, they are responsible on Earth
for the continual creation, preservation,
and destruction of the universe. Brahma Three goddesses are companions to these
is understood as the god who created the gods and are often seen as their wives.
universe and all living beings. He is often Sarasvati, the companion of Brahma, is
seen as inspiring the Vedas. In art, he is the goddess of learning and wisdom.

107
 Lakshmi, the companion of Vishnu, is the
goddess of wealth and prosperity. She
is honored during Diwali, or the Festival
of Lights. Parvati, companion to Shiva, is
associated with fertility and marriage. She
also represents self-discipline and restraint,
balancing out Shiva’s extreme passions
and behavior.

The cycle of creation, preservation,

Brahma
and destruction is a central concept in
Hinduism. Another important concept is
reincarnation, or the rebirth of the soul.
Hindus believe that souls experience many
lives before finally connecting with the
spirit of Brahman. This is connected to the
idea of karma, a force that determines the
status or fate of a person based on what
has occurred in past lives. A person who
leads a bad life may be reborn as a lower
life-form, while those who lead good lives Shiva

are reincarnated as higher forms. All life

is considered sacred, including the lives
of animals and insects. To earn a better

Vocabulary
reincarnation, n. rebirth in a new body
or form of life
karma, n. the force created by a person’s
actions, believed to determine what will
happen in the person’s next life
Vishnu

108
existence in the next life, a person must created. The oldest of the four Vedas, called
follow dharma, or personal duty. What the Rig Veda, includes over a thousand
is expected of people depends on their hymns of praise to the gods. The Yajur Veda
place in society, but everyone has duties contains mantras and sacred verses. The
to fulfill. Sama Veda has chants and tunes to use in
religious rituals, accompanied by music and
dancing. The Atharva Veda includes spells
Vocabulary
and charms. The Upanishads, considered
dharma, n. in Hinduism, an individual’s
duty, which is met by observing specific Vedic texts, contain mystical teachings
customs or laws believed to have been first communicated
orally by wise religious scholars.

Find Out the Facts

Research ancient and modern
representations of one of the six major
Hindu deities. Ancient Indian Epics
Two epic poems recorded in Sanskrit

Think Twice continue to influence Hindus today. The

Ramayana, first written down around
What similarities can be seen between
the cycle of creation, preservation, 300 BCE, recounts the story of Rama and
and destruction of the universe and the his faithful wife, Sita. Rama, an avatar of
idea of the reincarnation of souls?
Vishnu, becomes a king. He, Sita, and
his brother Laksmana are sent into exile
in a forest. Many adventures follow,
including the kidnapping of Sita by the
Vedic Texts demon king Ravana. Rama and his brother
The Vedas are the oldest texts of Hinduism. then go on a quest to rescue Sita. At one
They include religious stories, chants, point, Rama allies himself to the monkey
songs, prayers, meditations, rituals, and god Hanuman, who commands an army
other teachings. These texts express the of monkeys. After many battles and
central beliefs of Hinduism and also reflect plot twists, Rama defeats Ravana and
the ancient society in which they were reunites with Sita. The story teaches the

109
The wedding of Rama and Sita

importance of virtue and doing good explains that as a warrior, Arjuna has a
deeds. It remains well known in India and duty to fight. This is rooted in the notion
many other countries. of dharma, the idea that individuals are

The Mahabharata is another epic that born into a certain role in society and

tells of the adventures and struggles of have an obligation to fulfill that role.

heroic figures. One episode from the Krishna points out that because the

Mahabharata is called the Bhagavad soul is immortal, those who die in battle

Gita, or Song of the Lord. It is a dialogue will either be reincarnated or join with

between Prince Arjuna and Lord Krishna, Brahman for eternity. However, Krishna

an avatar of Vishnu. Arjuna is about to go stresses the importance of wisdom and

to war against his own cousins. Arjuna tells reflection as guidance for action. Arjuna

Krishna of his doubts about the morality should not act out of hatred or a desire to

of the looming war. Krishna, whose divine kill. Rather, he should focus on devotion

identity is not revealed until later in the and duty.

text, guides Arjuna in his thinking. Think Twice

Much of Krishna’s lesson reflects the How are Hindu beliefs reflected in
teachings of the Upanishads. Krishna the Bhagavad Gita?

110
 Origins of Buddhism
Buddhism also began in India, sometime in the 500s BCE. With roots in Hinduism, many
Buddhist beliefs and practices reflect ancient Indian culture, although some aspects
are quite different. Buddhism started with the story of a wealthy Hindu prince,
Siddhartha Gautama.
According to tradition, Siddhartha was sheltered from all hardship and grew up in
comfort and luxury. He left his palace for the first time when he was twenty-nine.
What he saw deeply saddened him: ordinary people suffering from illness, poverty,
hunger, and ultimately death. Siddhartha decided to abandon his easy life and seek
understanding about the human condition and how to achieve happiness. Leaving
behind his wife and young son, he spent six years learning from sages and practicing
extreme self-denial. He ate very little, hoping that strict discipline would help him
develop spiritual understanding. One day, when he was too weak to continue, he sat
under a tree and meditated deeply.
He achieved a moment of great
understanding and was transformed
to become the Buddha—one who is
awakened or enlightened. He then
went on to teach others what he
had learned.

Vocabulary
meditate, v. to focus
attention on one’s
mind and thoughts
in order to gain new
understanding or
spiritual growth
Siddhartha meditated deeply.

111
 stop desiring, or to become unattached to
worldly things. The fourth truth is that it is
Buddhist Principles difficult to stop desiring things. The only
way to do so is to follow the Eightfold Path.
The Buddha taught that suffering was a
part of being alive. He believed that people Buddhists can spend a lifetime
could become enlightened and reach a developing an understanding of the Four
state of nirvana, or perfect peace, through Noble Truths and learning to follow the
spiritual practice. Like Hindus, Buddhists Eightfold Path. The eight practices can
envision a cycle of life, death, and rebirth be summarized as follows:
and believe people’s actions impact them • Learn and deepen understanding
and affect how they are reborn. of the Four Noble Truths in order to
perceive life as it truly is.
Vocabulary
• Practice letting go of worldly desires;
nirvana, n. a state in which the human
soul has attained perfect peace
avoid hatred and harmful intentions.

• Be truthful and avoid speaking harshly

The Buddha’s main teachings are or badly of others.
expressed in the Four Noble Truths and • Choose correct actions by avoiding
the Eightfold Path. The Four Noble Truths harmful behavior such as killing,
describe the challenge of human life and stealing, or wrongful acts.
the spiritual solution to suffering. The first
• Do work that does not harm others;
truth is that all existence involves suffering,
avoid professions that exploit or hurt
from loss and sorrow to the struggle for
people or animals.
personal happiness and satisfaction. This
is related to the second truth: suffering is • Put effort into positive thoughts and

caused by attachment to worldly things actions; work to leave behind negative

instead of spiritual things. Human longings feelings such as anger and jealousy.

such as the desire for comfort, wealth, • Become aware of thoughts, emotions,
power, companionship, or excitement are and sensations in order to more clearly
the true source of suffering. The third truth understand one’s own mind and
is that to end suffering, it is necessary to greater truths.

112
• Develop concentration; focus one’s all living things. Their practices include
mind to see clearly and grow spiritually. prayer, meditation, and fasting. While they
do not worship gods, Jains believe in the
Writers’ Corner existence of souls. They revere a group of
Write about the Eightfold Path. ancient spiritual leaders called Jinas. These
How do you think people can go were early Jains who founded some of the
about following it?
first Jain communities and are considered
to have achieved enlightenment. Some

Buddhism spread throughout much of scholars think that Jainism arose around

Asia. Over time, two major branches the same time and place as Buddhism.

developed. Theravada Buddhism views the Like the early Buddhists, the early Jains

Buddha as a great teacher but not a god. may have rejected some of the Brahmins’

Mahayana Buddhism views the Buddha teachings about the importance of

as a god. Recognizing that few humans caste and religious rituals. Instead, Jains

can follow the Eightfold Path completely, and Buddhists focused on individuals’

Mahayana practitioners try to follow it as behaviors and the choice to live simply.

best they can and believe that worshipping

the Buddha is also a way to reach nirvana.

The Mauryan Empire

As religious and cultural practices
Jainism developed across ancient India, so did
Another religion that arose in ancient the political sphere. By the 500s BCE,
India is Jainism. Like Hindus and many small kingdoms existed across the
Buddhists, Jains believe in a cycle of subcontinent. They shared religious and
birth, death, and rebirth. Jains also seek cultural ties but were separate societies.
enlightenment but have specific ideas Sometimes they went to war with one
about how to achieve it. Living in a simple another. Starting in 321 BCE, a leader
and disciplined way is seen as crucial to called Chandragupta Maurya saw an
spiritual growth. Jains strongly emphasize opportunity to conquer the region and
nonviolence and try to avoid harming build a powerful society unified under one

113
leader. Eventually, he founded a dynasty
that ruled for more than a century.

Chandragupta lived at the time when

Alexander the Great was conquering
an enormous territory that went from
the eastern Mediterranean all the way
to the edge of India. Alexander made it
to India in 325 BCE. His army had made
unprecedented conquests, but many of
his generals and the regular soldiers were
weary by the time they reached India.
Despite victories against Indian kingdoms,
Alexander decided to turn back when
faced with the possibility of rebellion from
his own military. By conquering kingdoms
and then leaving, Alexander created
instability. Chandragupta seized his
chance and began conquering kingdoms
in the north. As Chandragupta’s army grew
bigger and stronger, he took control of
most of the subcontinent and unified India
for the first time.

Think Twice
How do you think Alexander’s
decision impacted Indian civilization?

Find Out the Facts

Learn about the role of
elephants in ancient India.

114
Chandragupta established a capital Artha-shastra, one of the earliest works
in the northeastern city of Pataliputra of political science. It advised how a king
and created an organized government. could gain and hold on to power, including
He also built a network of spies to root how to conduct war and diplomacy
out disloyalty among his subjects. One and how to maintain authority within
of his main advisors was Chanakya, a the kingdom. Chanakya argued that a
brilliant political strategist. He wrote the ruler should take any action that would
help them reach their goals. This may be
Chanakya and Machiavelli
part of why Chandragupta encouraged
More than a thousand years after the spying and had a reputation as a
Artha-shastra was written to give advice suspicious and authoritarian ruler.
to Mauryan leaders, an Italian named However, he also developed ties with
Niccolò Machiavelli wrote The Prince some former rivals. After defeating
for the ruler of Florence. Both texts the Seleucid king in present-day Iran,
explore the idea that strong leaders Chandragupta took control of land but
should use harsh tactics to stay in also sent a gift of five hundred elephants
power. They suggest that maintaining as a sign of peace. Stable relations
order and stability are so important with the Seleucids fostered favorable
that anything a leader does to meet diplomatic and trade ties with the
such goals is acceptable—and their Hellenistic world.
actions should be judged differently
from the actions of non-leaders. This is
sometimes expressed as “the ends justify
the means.” Both texts were written The Reign of Ashoka
during times of political instability.
The Mauryan Empire became even
Some historians think the authors
stronger under Chandragupta’s grandson
truly believed rulers should use tough
Ashoka. At first, Ashoka crushed revolts
measures to keep order or to stay in
and led battles to conquer even more
power. Others think the authors wrote
land. Then he had a change of heart.
what they thought their leaders likely
According to tradition, after one
wanted to hear.
brutal battle, Ashoka looked out on

115
the destruction and was sickened by public statements. The edicts express
what he saw. He became determined Ashoka’s policies, accomplishments,
to pursue peace and work to make life and messages about the principles
better for people instead of simply of Buddhism. They also describe his
conquering them. commitment to peace. Meant to instruct

Ashoka embraced the new religion of and inspire, the edicts encourage

Buddhism that had begun to spread Buddhist ideas but do not condemn or

in the 500s BCE. He devoted himself to forbid other religions.

spreading Buddhism and creating a better

society. He built hospitals and roads, Find Out the Facts
protected animals, and visited people L earn where pillars with the
in rural areas to learn about their needs edicts of Ashoka were built and what
they said.
and teach them Buddhist ways. He also
had thousands of monuments called
stupas built. Shaped like a mound or Writers’ Corner
dome, a stupa is a kind of Buddhist shrine Compare the transformation
where special religious objects are kept of Ashoka with the story of
and people can go to worship. The stupas Siddhartha. What do they
have in common? What are
helped spread the ideas and practices of some differences?
Buddhism. People traveled to visit these
holy sites, which increased trade and added
to the wealth of the Mauryan Empire.

Ashoka is also known for erecting many

stone pillars inscribed with edicts, or

Vocabulary
stupa, n. a dome-shaped monument
used as a Buddhist or Jain shrine
edict, n. a formal pronouncement or
command Monumental sculptures honoring Shiva were made in
the Elephanta Caves during the Gupta period.

116
 the field of mathematics to develop.
Gupta mathematicians also created the
The Gupta Empire symbols for the numbers one to nine,
still in use today. Astronomers concluded
After Ashoka’s death in 232 BCE, the
that Earth is round and that it revolves
Mauryan Empire grew weaker. The next
around the sun. Doctors and dentists
rulers did not carry on Ashoka’s efforts to
made many advances. They could treat
help people and strive for peace. Conflict
broken bones and perform surgery, and
and rebellion grew, and the Mauryan
they even developed a drill for working on
Empire eventually split up into many small
teeth. They used herbs and other natural
kingdoms. This period lasted for more than
substances to treat illness and sought to
five hundred years. Then a new dynasty
understand the physical causes of disease.
rose in the north near the Ganges River.

Under Samudragupta, the Gupta

Think Twice
Empire expanded across northern India.
Why was a symbol representing zero
Samudragupta conquered many lands such an important development in
but also supported the arts and the Hindu mathematics?
religion. The Gupta Empire built many
Hindu temples and patronized Hindu
The Gupta dynasty lasted hundreds of years.
scholars. This helped set India on a path
It began to weaken in the 700s CE. Around
to become mostly Hindu, although some
this time, Islamic rulers rose to power in
people continued to practice Buddhism
the Arabian Peninsula and began to build a
and Jainism. Trade picked up, and new
mighty empire that influenced many other
cities developed along routes that linked
regions, including India. Hinduism remained
India to other parts of Asia and the
the dominant religion in India, but Islam,
Mediterranean world.
Buddhism, Jainism, and Christianity have all
The Gupta Empire also saw a new period influenced Indian civilization for centuries.
of learning. Mathematicians developed Likewise, Indian cultural practices,
the study of algebra and created the including dances, clothing, foodways, and
symbol 0 to stand for the absence of any artistic expression, spread to societies
value. This important concept allowed around Southeast Asia and beyond.

117
 Chapter 6
Early China
The Big Question
What were the political and cultural
characteristics of early China?

An Enduring Culture
Early China gave rise to several major
innovations, including luxurious silk
fabric and paper. It was the birthplace
of influential philosophical and
scientific ideas and a model
for political and social life
throughout East Asia.

For thousands of years, China has existed as

a political and cultural unit. The long-lasting
nature of Chinese civilization is almost
without equal in history. Though its early
history was marked by periods of unity and
disunity, China became one of the largest
An artist’s idea of Wen, the first Zhou king
ancient empires.

118
 Modern China is a vast nation, occupying
much of Asia. Because of its massive size,
China is a very geographically diverse
country. It includes deserts, tropical
rainforests, river valleys, coastlines, and
high mountains.

China’s eastern border is at the edge of

the Pacific Ocean. To the north of China
lies the Gobi Desert, a huge expanse
of dry and rocky land with very cold
winters, which stretches into the modern
country of Mongolia. To the southwest,
China’s border with India is formed
by the Himalayas. These geographical
factors provided ancient China with
formidable physical borders that made
invasion, or even travel to or from
points outside China, quite difficult—a
difficulty that later Chinese rulers were
very keen to enhance with their own
armies and defenses.

The earliest Chinese civilization arose in the

valley around the Huang He, or Yellow River,
where small villages had developed by at
least 5000 BCE. Although the river brought
water and silt that supported agriculture, it
often flooded, destroying the communities
on its banks. Over time, settlements also
arose near the Yangzi, China’s longest river,
and then throughout the larger territory.

119
 berries can be eaten, they are significant
because of the silkworms that eat their
Life in Early China leaves. These tiny creatures build cocoons
in which they develop into moths. The
Most people in early China were farmers.
material these worms use for their cocoons
In the north, they grew grains like wheat
can be spun into silk thread, which can be
and millet, while rice was a major crop in
made into a fabric that became a prized
the south. People also grew many other
commodity throughout the world.
plants, like soybeans, peaches, tea, and
The ancient Chinese also developed one
water chestnuts. Some people raised
of the world’s oldest writing systems. At
animals, such as chickens and pigs. Near
first, the system used symbols to represent
coasts and rivers, people also fished.
objects. Over time, it became more
Mulberry trees played a vital role in complex, with symbols that represented
China’s culture and economy. While their ideas and sounds as well.

120
Early Chinese civilization was shaped by
several dynasties that built strong and
sophisticated political states, some of The Shang Dynasty
which lasted for centuries. The Xia dynasty
The Shang rose to power around 1766 BCE.
is said to have united the villages and
According to tradition, the Shang dynasty
towns of the Huang He valley. There is
was founded by King Tang, who ruled
archaeological evidence that rulers existed
the kingdom of Shang in northeastern
in the period associated with the Xia.
China. Tang is said to have overthrown
Stories about the Xia abound, particularly
the Xia and taken over the realm the Xia
the heroic ruler Yu the Great, who is
had ruled. For more than seven hundred
associated with the struggle to control the
years, the Shang ruled over the area that
Huang He.
is today the modern province of Henan.
Yu, who is also called the Tamer of the Shang society was likely organized into
Flood, is said to have spent thirteen city-states. Kings, a noble class, and a
years working out how to build canals merchant and artisan class lived within
that would solve the flooding problem cities, while most of the population lived
that periodically ruined the lives of his in the countryside and farmed.
people. One story tells of how Yu refused
The Chinese writing system began prior to
to rest and did not even spend any
the Shang period but continued to develop
time at home with his wife or children
during this time. Some of the oldest known
until the problem was solved. The story
writing in the world was done by making
suggests how hard the Chinese people
carvings on animal bones. These bones
and their leaders worked to address
were used for divination, the practice of
the Huang He’s disastrous flooding and
trying to tell things about the future using
how important this achievement was
rituals and magic. In ancient China, only
to the development of early Chinese
the king had the privilege of trying to learn
civilization.
the future. A message was scratched onto
Find Out the Facts the bones using a system of thousands of

Research Yu or other legendary symbols. A priest would then apply heat

rulers of early China and the stories told to the bones and interpret the future from
about them. the way the bones cracked.

121
 Dao is to find this natural order and try to
live according to it. People wrote on bones
Daoism to try to gain insight into the order of things
and how it would benefit or harm them.
The practice of seeking understanding
using bones etched with messages Daoism thus encouraged careful
was linked to a larger religious and observation of the natural world. Like
philosophical system of belief called other ancient peoples, the Chinese
Daoism. An ancient set of beliefs and studied the stars and planets and began
practices, Daoism evolved over time. It to develop the science of astronomy and
probably has its roots in the practices of mathematical principles related to their
the people who lived under the Shang observations of the heavens.
dynasty. The core of Daoism is the idea
that the world works according to a natural
order called the Dao, or the Way. The Dao
The Zhou Dynasty
connects everything in the universe and
keeps the world in balance. To follow the The Zhou dynasty took power in 1046
BCE and ruled for the next eight hundred
years. Zhou kings promoted the idea of
divine right, or that a king’s right to rule
comes from the supreme power of the
universe. In China, this idea was framed
as a right that came from heaven. The
ruler was seen as having a mandate from

Vocabulary
divine right, n. the belief that kings
and queens have a God-given right
to rule and that rebellion against
them is a sin
mandate, n. a command; a
responsibility given by an authority
Chinese writing on a bone used for divination

122
heaven—that is, heaven’s blessing or that lasted for centuries. The idea of the
endorsement—to rule. Called the Son of mandate of heaven lasted even longer,
Heaven, the king was considered heaven’s underpinning Chinese rulers long after the
representative on Earth with a duty to rule Zhou themselves had been replaced.
in accordance with heaven’s wishes. If the At first, the Zhou period was marked by
king neglected his duty to heaven and his relative peace and prosperity. Rather
subjects, the mandate of heaven could than a centralized government, the Zhou
pass to another ruler—one who would developed a feudal system. The lands
rule justly and care for the people. they controlled were divided into smaller,
The first Zhou king, Wen, used these semi-independent kingdoms. Zhou rulers
ideas to attack the last ruler of the Shang were at the top of the social hierarchy,
dynasty, who was accused of abandoning followed by a class of Zhou nobles. Below
his people to spend his time living in these nobles were local rulers and nobles.
luxury rather than ruling. Wen led a At the bottom were commoners, the
rebellion and started a new dynasty largest group.

Think Twice Vocabulary

How is the mandate of heaven feudal system, n. social organization
similar to concepts in other in which kings, lords, and peasants are
ancient cultures? bound together by mutual obligations

The Zhou continued to build on the

Find Out the Facts
wealth and culture of the Shang.
Research what the Zhou said
about the last ruler of the Shang dynasty. Advancements were made in the writing
system and the creation of bronze objects
and weapons. Over time, the nobility
Writers’ Corner in each of the kingdoms grew more
 sing your research, write an
U
official proclamation on behalf
Find Out the Facts
of King Wen that presents your
case that heaven wants a new Learn more details about the
dynasty to rule China. feudal system in ancient China.

123
powerful, with their own armies and
their own systems of administration and
taxation. As long as the kingdoms paid
taxes and remained loyal to the Zhou,
the Zhou rulers felt that their system
was working. But the small states grew
increasingly independent.

The Spring and Autumn Period

The Spring and Autumn period is named
after the earliest written history of
China, the Spring and Autumn Annals.
Starting around 770 BCE, the rulers of
the kingdoms began to take more and
more matters into their own hands. In
some ways, this improved the lives of
their subjects. Many of the rulers of these
semi-independent states sought to outdo
their rivals by constructing impressive
works of infrastructure such as irrigation
systems and roads. Sometimes, the
kingdoms cooperated for political and
economic gain. And new ideas and ways
of thinking emerged.

In other ways, it was a difficult time. The

decline of the central government and the
increasing frequency of warfare led to a
breakdown in the order and stability of society.

124
The weak imperial government and to friend. While friends were considered
competition among kingdoms led to equals, in all the other relationships there
increased raiding and wars. was a clear difference in the power and
status of each person. Fathers, elder brothers,
husbands, and rulers were considered to be
Confucianism superior in Confucius’s time. Because of this,
they were owed allegiance and obedience
A long-lasting and highly influential
by the other person, who had a lower social
product of the Spring and Autumn period is
status. In return, the superior person owed
the philosophy of Confucianism, named for
protection to the person of lower status.
the Chinese philosopher Kong Qiu, known
These duties and responsibilities defined
as Confucius in the West. The Spring and
the expected behaviors within relationships.
Autumn Annals was written in Confucius’s
Confucianism emphasizes the family as
home state of Lu. Confucius worked in the
the basic unit of society. Filial piety, or
administration of Lu, overseeing public
deep respect for one’s parents, is the most
works and justice at various times in his
important virtue. In Confucius’s time, the
career. Partly inspired by the turbulent
government was seen as an extension of
times in which he lived, Confucius wrote
the family. As the head of society, the ruler
works of poetry, history, and philosophy.
was like the head of the family. People
A core principle of Confucianism is ren, the
owed their rulers loyalty and respect, and
idea of human-heartedness or sympathy for
rulers had a duty to provide the people
others. This philosophy focuses on human
with a good government.
relationships and teaches the “Golden
Rule”—that people should treat others as Vocabulary
they would wish to be treated themselves.
filial piety, n. deep respect for
Confucius also defined five basic one’s parents
relationships and an understanding of how
these relationships should govern people’s Think Twice
behavior. These relationships are father  o you think governments and
D
to son, elder brother to younger brother, families are more similar or
husband to wife, ruler to subject, and friend more different?

125
Confucian philosophy also teaches that
harmony in the world is related to the
harmony of the individual. For example, Warring States
if a person, especially a powerful person
The Spring and Autumn period gave way
like a ruler, is wicked, then bad things
to a long era of warfare among competing
will happen in nature, too. The success
kingdoms (states). The Warring States
or failure of a society depends on people
period lasted from about 481 to 221 BCE.
living just, proper, and harmonious lives,
Although the Zhou were technically still in
with subjects respecting their rulers,
power, kings mostly ignored the dynasty’s
children respecting their elders, and rulers
supposed authority. Zhou rule finally
respecting and protecting their people.
collapsed, and regional rulers competed to
Confucius’s thought was hugely influential
assume the mandate of heaven.
in later China and East Asia. He came to be
viewed as a sort of “holy teacher,” and his The kingdoms’ armies grew massively
teachings were a formal part of Chinese during this time. Some states developed
government and official culture. a cavalry for the first time. Most cavalry
were archers; they maneuvered quickly
Confucius did not write any texts.
around enemies, firing arrows from
Confucian philosophy is primarily
atop horses. Sturdier iron weapons also
based on the Analects, a collection of
began to replace bronze weapons. Cities
his ideas and teachings written down
were fortified with large walls to defend
by his students. Scholars later wrote
against attack.
commentaries on the Analects, further
shaping interpretations of Confucianism.

Writers’ Corner
Write a dialogue
between two
members of
ancient Chinese
society to illustrate the A bronze dagger
from the Warring
ideas of Confucianism. States period

126
The intense competition among kingdoms
and the expense of equipping and feeding
large armies also sparked wider changes. The Qin Empire
A class of merchants arose to supply the
The kingdom of Qin had long been
armies and to help rulers by developing
influenced by the work of Shang Yang,
trade networks. An outgrowth of this was
who promoted a school of thought known
that a single system of money—bronze
as Legalism. A core Legalist idea was that
coins with a hole in the middle—began to
humans are wicked, so to control the evil
be used more widely.
that people are capable of, a state has to
Think Twice have strict laws and punishments. Shang

How did merchants benefit from Yang also advocated for strong rulers who
the wars? would do anything necessary to gain and
keep control. The idea was that division and
Find Out the Facts war create chaos, allowing wickedness to
 hy did ancient Chinese money
W thrive. A good ruler would take action to
have a hole in the middle? win, end conflict, and institute order.

The first known manual of military theory, In the Warring States period, Qin kings

The Art of War, was written at this time. used Legalist policies to strengthen

This text is often attributed to a general the central government. They reduced

called Sun Zi, though it may be the work of the power of aristocratic families and

several writers. A primary theme is that war weakened the feudal system. The

is terrible and should be avoided if at all government and army also promoted

possible. The text urges rulers to always try people based on their abilities instead of

diplomacy first and resort to conflict only their birth into elite families. Shang Yang’s

if it is unavoidable—and, preferably, only if ideas of law and order helped convert the

the ruler is certain to win. Qin state into an effective war machine.
The other kingdoms still followed their old
Think Twice ways of ruling. They became plagued by
How does The Art of War compare to corruption and were unable to match the
other ancient political texts? strength of the Qin.

127
 absolute. Legalism became the official
guiding principle for all of China. All other
schools of philosophy were banned,
including Confucianism. Books containing
alternative ideas and even histories of
the past were ordered to be destroyed.
Anyone who promoted ideas that did not
fit with Shihuangdi’s view of how China
would be was executed.

He also tried to unify China through great

public works such as the Lingqu Canal,
built to facilitate trade and transportation
Shihuangdi is remembered as a strong ruler.
of grain. He tore down the fortifications
The Qin’s military strength and skilled that kingdoms had built as defenses
class of officials helped the Qin ruler Yeng and sent those materials to help build
Zheng finally break the deadlock among a great barrier against China’s northern
the warring kingdoms. He claimed the neighbors. This was the first version of the
mandate of heaven, then went a step Great Wall of China, which was built over
further and took the title Shihuangdi, many centuries.
meaning first emperor. Shihuangdi As a ruler, Shihuangdi was harsh and
ruled over a vast realm that had been suspicious of others. To pursue his
divided by centuries of brutal warfare. ambitious projects, he imposed heavy
He sought to bring order to China, taxes and required forced labor. This led to
unify its regions, and cement his power. rebellions that ultimately diminished the
Unlike the Zhou, Shihuangdi centralized power of the Qin. In addition, Shihuangdi’s
authority, with his power as emperor government was not set up to transition
smoothly from its founder’s death into a
Think Twice stable succession. Shihuangdi’s son ruled
Why would Shihuangdi suppress briefly, but competition for power quickly
other philosophies? led to the collapse of the Qin dynasty.

128
The Terra-cotta Army Still, Shihuangdi did succeed in creating a
united realm. This legacy is evident in the
Historians know a great deal about the
word China, which is an anglicized version
huge and mighty Qin army thanks to an
of the name Qin.
unusual source. Near Shihuangdi’s funeral
complex, researchers found several pits Writers’ Corner
filled with an enormous set of life-size
Explain the challenges
clay figurines—a whole army’s worth of Shihuangdi faced, and analyze
soldiers, weapons, equipment, vehicles, his methods of addressing them.
and horses. Today, this collection of more
than eight thousand figurines is known
as the Terra-cotta Army, after the type of
clay used to manufacture them. The Han Dynasty
While the rule of the Qin dynasty was
crumbling, a rebel named Xiang Yu led
a movement to completely overthrow
its leaders. He wanted to reinstitute a
decentralized government, modeled on
that of the Zhou dynasty, and hand power
back to China’s many lords.

Xiang Yu did manage to overthrow the

Qin, but one of his fellow rebels, Liu Bang,
then rose up to oppose him. Liu Bang had
risen to wealth and status by serving the
Qin. He used this power to challenge Xiang
Yu for control of China and establish the
Han dynasty.

The Han ruled China for more than

four hundred years, from 202 BCE until
Soldiers of the Terra-cotta Army
220 CE. They succeeded in part because

129
they took a much less harsh approach One major result of the increased trade
to ruling. At first, Legalism was still the and contact with foreigners under the
official governing philosophy of Han Han was that Buddhism, originally from
rulers, but it was implemented with a India, spread into China. It gradually mixed
gentler touch. Eventually, Confucianism with existing Chinese religious traditions,
replaced Legalism as the guiding especially Daoism. Multiple variants
principle of the government, especially of Chinese Buddhism developed over
during the reign of its strongest leader, the centuries.
Emperor Wu.
Think Twice
The Han expanded China’s territory and
How can trade bring new ideas and
power. Emperor Wu thought China could
beliefs into a culture?
not be protected only by border walls. He
sent armies on the offensive, conquering
Find Out the Facts
lands that included Korea and Vietnam.
What other goods were
He tried to subdue the Xiongnu, nomads
commonly traded on the Silk Road?
who lived to the north of China and often
attacked. Wu was not entirely successful The Han presided over a great period of
against the Xiongnu, but the approach innovation. The Chinese invented paper
discouraged raiding and invasions. It during this era, made with plant fibers
encouraged potential foes to consider such as bamboo and tree bark. Ink was
forging more cooperative ties. This led to made from plants and minerals. Writers
increased trading and the development dipped brushes into ink, then painted
of the Silk Road, an expansive network characters onto paper. The Chinese
of trading routes. It started as a trade also developed the art of calligraphy, or
route that silk merchants traveled to sell beautiful decorative writing. Paper and
China’s highly valued silk. Over time, the ink made writing and copying texts easier,
route expanded far into the west to India, leading to increased production and
Persia, Arabia, Africa, and Europe. Traders distribution of texts. Traders on the Silk
and travelers who used the Silk Road Road brought paper and ink to the rest of
spread both the goods and the ideas of the world, helping fuel bookmaking and
many cultures. print culture.

130
 This tenth-century CE painting shows women handling woven silk.

Sima Qian, considered China’s first The Han dynasty began to decline in
historian, lived at this time. Previously, the early 200s CE. The power of the Han
Chinese chroniclers had written about emperors decreased, while the power of
particular dynasties. These texts were often government officials increased. A famine
intended to help rulers interpret omens, led to crop failure and starvation. People
nature, and fate. They were not created to came to believe that the mandate of
preserve a record of events. Sima Qian’s heaven had passed from the Han, who
Records of the Grand Historian provided were wealthy but did little to help those in
a thorough, relatively accurate guide to need. Rebellion broke out, and local rulers
China’s past, based in part on speaking to also fought each other.
people who had witnessed events. Eventually, three rulers declared
The Han also developed and refined music themselves the rightful masters of China,
and musical theory. Art flourished with ushering in the Three Kingdoms period,
the production of sculptures and fine several decades characterized by civil war.
pottery. Technological advancements A Xiongnu invasion in 311 CE created more
included seismographs, water wheels upheaval. The instability and disunity
used as power sources, water clocks, continued for four centuries. But China
and sophisticated suspension bridges. would eventually rise again.

131
 Chapter 7
Rome: From Republic
to Empire
The Big Question
What factors caused the rise and fall
of Rome?

A Western Power Rises

Rome grew from a small trading post
in central Italy into a great military,
economic, and political power. It left
a rich legacy that includes law codes,
languages, ideas about government,
forms of entertainment, and notions of
how to live a good life.

Roman civilization arose in the central

part of present-day Italy, which is on a
peninsula in southern Europe that juts into
the Mediterranean Sea. The region where
the city of Rome formed was called Latium,
which is where the word for the Roman
Rome’s Colosseum still stands today.
language, Latin, comes from. Latium was

132
in a large and fertile plain where Greek gods (with Latinized names),
hot, dry summers and mild, wet art and architectural styles, and
winters supported farming. Close the idea of the polis, or city-state,
to the coast, the region was also as a self-governing entity. The
well positioned to develop trade by goods valued and traded by the
sea. The city of Rome is situated on Greek colonists also influenced
the Tiber River, about fifteen miles the development of the Roman
inland. Goods could be transported economy and the tastes of Romans,
between the city and the coast who consumed and traded
with ease. heavily in products like olive oil,

Rome had several natural a fish sauce called garum, wine,

defenses. To the north, the Alps and pottery.

proved difficult for large armies

Find Out the Facts
to cross. In the center of the
 hat did the Romans use
W
Italian peninsula are the Apennine olive oil for?
Mountains, which run from the
north to the south of Italy. This The Romans were not always the
mountain chain sheltered the city dominant culture in their region
of Rome from rivals to the east. of Italy. Several peoples lived in
The city was built upon seven this land. They spoke languages
hills, which also made it difficult to that were related to, but distinct
attack and conquer. from, the Latin of the Romans. The
Etruscans were the greater political
and economic power from the

Early Rome 800s BCE until the early 300s BCE.

Like the Romans, they prospered
Around 700 BCE, Rome was just from farming and trading, and they
one of many settlements in Italy. adopted aspects of Greek culture,
Greek civilization influenced the including the Greek alphabet.
region. Romans adopted many The Romans eventually adopted
Greek customs, including the this alphabet from the Etruscans.

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Etruscan art, especially magnificent tomb
paintings and architecture, would greatly
influence that of the Romans. Rise of the Republic
Like the Greeks, the Romans were initially
ruled by kings. Then, in 509 BCE, the
Romans overthrew their last king and
created a form of government by the
people, which they called a republic.
The word republic comes from the Latin
words res, meaning things, and publica.

Vocabulary
republic, n. a government in which
the people elect representatives to rule
An Etruscan fresco depicts dancers and musicians at for them
a banquet.

134
Put together, the word means public top of the government were two consuls,
affairs. who were elected to serve together for

Rome had a tightly controlled system of one year. To balance their power, each

social classes that concentrated power consul could veto, or block, the decisions

among a few families at the top of the of the other. No one else in Rome had

structure. Power was held by the members this power. Consuls made laws and

of the wealthiest and most powerful commanded Rome’s army. After their term

families, the patricians. They had the time, was over, they were eligible to govern
money, and power to devote themselves one of Rome’s territories as a proconsul.

to learning, debate, and politics. Most free The consuls and some other patricians

Romans belonged to the plebeian class. were part of the Senate. While the Senate

At first, plebeians could not hold most did not make laws, it conducted debates

of Rome’s political and religious offices. and provided guidance on major issues.

Until 445 BCE, they could not even marry Patricians could also serve as other types

patricians. Rome also had a great many of government officials. Many of these

enslaved people, many of whom had posts were religious in nature; such

been captured in battle or taken captive officials oversaw rituals and ensured that

and sold at markets by pirates and slave religious duties were carried out.

traders. Others were born into slavery

because the children of enslaved women
were themselves always slaves, according
to Roman law.
Plebeian Revolt
In 494 BCE, the plebeians grew angry that
Vocabulary they had no political rights despite making
up the majority of Rome’s citizenry—and
patricians, n. the wealthiest and most
powerful families of Rome the majority of its soldiers. At the time,
plebeians, n. the majority of ordinary Rome was at war with its neighbors.
free Romans Plebeian soldiers decided to go on strike
until their demands for representation
Until about the fifth century BCE, the were met. This led to the formation of a
patricians held almost all the power. At the new Plebeian Council, and a number of

135
reforms were passed that gave plebeians prospered. It conquered the Etruscans
greater say in Rome’s affairs. After about and other peoples of Latium, then
450 BCE, plebeians could be members turned its attention to the south. In
of the body that elected consuls and 281 BCE, the people of Tarentum, in
other high officials, although only if they southern Italy, begged a mighty Greek
possessed a certain amount of wealth. The ruler called Pyrrhus for help against
voting was weighted so that the votes of the Romans. Pyrrhus brought an army
wealthier members counted for more than across the sea to fight the Romans.
the votes of less wealthy members. He won two major battles but lost
so many of his soldiers that he was
Think Twice unable to prevent the Romans from
 ere plebeians given an equal voice
W advancing. Ultimately, the Romans
in Rome’s government? Why or defeated Pyrrhus and took control over
why not?
southern Italy.

Find Out the Facts

Find Out the Facts
Research details about the lives,
rights, and protests of plebeians in the Learn about the Pyrrhic Wars
early republic. and why Rome was able to come back
after defeat.

Writers’ Corner
 sing your research, imagine
U
you are a plebeian on strike in
494 BCE. Write a list of demands. The Punic Wars
Rome’s next conflict was with Carthage,
a great city in North Africa founded by
the Phoenicians. Between 264 and 146
Conquest and Expansion BCE, the Romans fought three wars with

Conflict between plebeians and Carthage. These were the Punic Wars.

patricians was an ongoing feature of When the first war began, Rome had
the republic, but Rome still grew and a skilled army but no real naval power.

136
The Carthaginians had an excellent In 217 BCE, Roman leader Quintus
navy. The Romans built more than three Fabius Maximus decided the best way
hundred new warships equipped with to defeat Hannibal was not to fight
large boarding ramps. They sailed up to him but to harass his troops and delay
Carthaginian ships, used the ramps to them so long that their supplies ran
board them, then attacked their crews. out. The Carthaginians were far from
After a series of battles at sea and on land, home; without supplies, they would be
Rome defeated Carthage in 241 BCE. weakened. But the Roman Senate feared

In 221 BCE, Hannibal Barca took control a direct attack by Carthage. They replaced

of the vast Carthaginian army and swore Fabius with new leaders and sent them

to take vengeance on Rome. He marched out to battle Hannibal directly. The result

a huge, well-equipped army up the coast was a crushing military defeat at the

through Spain and southern France, Battle of Cannae in 216 BCE, which almost

across the Alps, and into Italy. Not completely wiped out the Roman army.

expecting the Carthaginians to cross the Within the city of Rome, almost every

Alps, especially not with war elephants family lost loved ones; fear and grief were

in tow, the Romans were taken totally so widespread that the city was almost in

by surprise. chaos. Fabius restored order and set out to

challenge Carthage again.

Think Twice
 hy did Fabius think his strategy of
W
indirectly weakening Hannibal’s army
would be more effective than fighting the
Carthaginians face-to-face?

Despite his win, Hannibal was now

facing supply problems. Carthage’s
rulers would not send Hannibal the
supplies or soldiers he needed to achieve
widespread victory. Meanwhile, Rome
Hannibal stunned the Romans by crossing the Alps. discovered its own great war leader,

137
Scipio Africanus. Scipio observed
Hannibal’s tactics and learned from
them. After victories in Spain, he decided Life and Culture in the Republic
to invade Carthage itself in 205 BCE;
Within the great cities of the republic,
Hannibal begged for peace in 202 BCE.
Romans benefited from strong
Carthage was forced to give up its navy
infrastructure. By the 600s BCE, Rome
and its elephants and was prohibited
had a sewer system, public toilets, and
from making war without Rome’s
public bathhouses. Eventually, water
permission. Rome gained control of
was brought to many Roman cities by
southern Spain.
massive structures called aqueducts.
Carthage broke its peace pact in the Romans attended theaters and circuses,
middle of the second century BCE by arenas where spectacles like chariot
warring with the neighboring kingdom races and fights between gladiators
of Numidia without asking Rome’s were held. As the city of Rome grew,
permission. Some Romans began to call people began living in buildings called
for Rome to attack and destroy Carthage insulae, which had up to seven stories.
once and for all. In 149 BCE, Rome laid Poorer inhabitants rented the upper
siege to Carthage, destroying the city floors. Insulae were cramped, dirty, and
and enslaving its inhabitants. The Romans dangerous, but they were the only option
emerged victorious after three years, for poor citizens. Nevertheless, the lure of
making them the uncontested masters city life attracted thousands of people to
of the western Mediterranean. They went
on to conquer Greece and the Hellenistic
kingdoms that had risen after the death of
Alexander the Great.

Vocabulary
siege, n. a battle strategy in which
enemies surround a place so that those
within cannot receive supplies
Chariot races were a popular form of entertainment.

138
come and live in Rome and other major the Roman version of Zeus. Roman priests
urban centers. were public officials rather than members

Rich Romans lived in private estates in of a priestly class. Before battles and other

exclusive parts of the city, like Palatine endeavors, Romans sought signs that

Hill, or in countryside villas away from victory or success was likely, and Romans of

the noise, bustle, and smell of the city. all walks of life would ask the gods to bless

Their homes had private baths, rooms them or to curse their enemies. As the

for entertaining guests, and even their Roman Empire spread, Romans adopted

own shops. Wealthy Romans enjoyed a all kinds of local beliefs, gods, and cults as

variety of foods from regions that Rome their own and were generally tolerant of

controlled or traded with. other religions, which made the conquered

territories more likely to accept Roman rule.
Enslaved people did all the hard work that
This flexible approach to religion is partly
supported the comfortable lives of the
why the Roman civilization was so strong
upper class, such as housework, farming,
and lasted so long.
building, and mining. Some also served
Most Romans spoke some version of Latin,
as teachers, doctors, and architects.
but Greek was also widely spoken. Romans
Plebeians also worked hard in their skilled
greatly admired Greek culture. Like the
roles as farmers, bakers, and craftspeople.
Greeks, Romans enjoyed theater, poetry,
They were not paid well, and many were
and writing letters to each other. Wealthy
homeless. The city of Rome had so many
Romans pursued careers that allowed them
impoverished residents that the city’s
to use their classical learning, knowledge
rulers began providing free grain to
of the law, and ability to write in an elegant
every inhabitant.
style to establish themselves as politicians
and people of note. To be a member of
the Roman elite, it was important not only
Roman Religion to have wealth but also to be educated
Ancient Roman religion resembled that of in philosophy, art, and culture. Greek
the Greeks. Many of the Roman gods were philosophy, particularly Stoicism and
essentially versions of Greek gods that had Epicureanism, was highly influential in
been given Latin names, such as Jupiter, both the republic and imperial periods.

139
 for political bodies to meet. Powerful
Find Out the Facts
Romans liked to be seen in public and
Find out more about parallels
between Greek and Roman gods be admired and cheered by ordinary
and goddesses. people. They also liked seeing their
enemies booed or attacked. Victorious
military leaders were celebrated in a
Writers’ Corner
triumph—a great procession in which
    Write a profile of a Roman deity,
monster, or hero. a victorious Roman leader would be
paraded throughout the city. The fact
that rich Romans cared about their public

Roman Philosophers

Romans drew upon and expanded

many of the philosophical traditions that
arose in Greece. The works of Roman
philosophers went on to influence many
later Western thinkers. Major Roman
philosophers include:

• Cicero (106–43 BCE), a lawyer,

politician, and philosopher who
believed virtuous behavior was a key
ingredient of a successful republic

• Seneca (4–65 CE), a prominent

intellectual and politician who wrote
The Forum in ancient Rome many tragedies

• Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE), who,

Roman culture emphasized public life.
influenced by Aristotle, wrote the Natural
In addition to entertainment in circuses,
History, a set of thirty-seven books
much political life happened in the open.
covering topics such as astronomy, math,
The Roman Forum was a large public
botany, art, magic, and history
space that included temples and a place

140
reputations, however, also meant that the same name followed by a number.
the plebeians could sometimes gain Parents typically arranged marriages for
influence in Roman politics. The plebeians their children, with girls often becoming
represented the majority of the public. engaged in early adolescence. Freeborn
Their affection or disapproval could women were citizens but had few legal
create or destroy a person’s career. In rights. They engaged in public life but
many cases, powerful people used their generally interacted only with other
power to gain the favor of the plebeians. women, often staying in particular parts of
public buildings reserved for them.

Find Out the Facts

Roman Families What other traditions did Roman
families follow?
The family was the basic unit of Roman
society. As was the custom in other early
civilizations, the father or eldest male
relative held the most power. Traditionally, The Collapse of the Republic
a father could decide whether or not to
accept a newborn baby as a member For centuries, the Roman Republic
of the family. Fathers named children, proved itself to be a stable and successful
customarily waiting nine days before political regime. It was generally capable
naming boys. At fourteen years old, boys of resolving its internal disputes in a way
became citizens and began to wear togas. that allowed it to expand and defeat rivals
like the Carthaginians. But the expansion
of Rome caused strains that would
Vocabulary
eventually break the republican system of
toga, n. traditional Roman clothing
consisting of fabric draped around government.
the body
One of the main issues underlying the
crisis of the republic was the ownership
Girls were usually given a feminine of land. Rome acquired more territory as
version of their father’s family name; it expanded. But most land—which was
multiple daughters in a family would have the basis of agriculture—and wealth were

141
owned by a small number of families. series of reforms. He limited the powers of
These wealthy families used their money tribunes, increased the size of the Senate,
to buy up more and more land. Eventually, and limited the authority of Rome’s generals
a small group had great wealth while outside of Italy. Sulla considered his work
others had nothing. Politics in Rome done in 79 BCE, after which he gave up his
became split between the interests of the powers and went into retirement.
optimates, who wanted to preserve Rome’s
existing order, and the populares, who Think Twice
wanted to pass reforms that would benefit In what ways might a Roman
the ordinary people of Rome. dictatorship have been different from
a modern dictatorship?
Rome also continued to expand its
territory. To do so, it introduced a series of
reforms that allowed more poor Romans
to join the army. This gave ordinary people
a chance of gaining a greater degree of
The First Triumvirate
wealth and power. One general, Sulla, The beginning of the end of the Roman
gained widespread support. In a moment Empire can largely be attributed to a
of political instability, Sulla proclaimed brilliant and controversial general and
himself dictator of Rome. politician, Gaius Julius Caesar. A patrician,
Caesar had a successful, adventure-filled
Vocabulary career in his youth, including an episode
dictator, n. a ruler who has total control in 75 BCE in which he was kidnapped
over the country by pirates. Handsome, polished, and
ambitious, Caesar turned his military
The Roman dictatorship was not quite like exploits into a successful political career.
a modern dictatorship. It was an accepted, He was aided in politics by an alliance he
although not well liked, idea that having a made with two other great men of Rome.
single person in control was a way to restore One was Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, called
order during times of crisis. When the crisis Pompey, who was a skilled and respected
was over, the dictator no longer had power. governor and military commander. The
Sulla used his dictatorial power to pass a other was Marcus Licinius Crassus, who

142
may have been the richest Roman at the consul again. Pompey, however, no longer
time and was one of the richest men in the trusted Caesar and wanted to block him
whole world. The three worked together to from power.
hold power, becoming known as the First Pompey had the support of a narrow
Triumvirate. They supported each other’s majority of the Senate. Its members
careers, and each man agreed not to get in ordered Caesar to give up his army and
the way of the ambitions of the others. return to the city of Rome. Caesar knew
The three allies worked together to rule that he would be vulnerable without his
Rome. Caesar was elected consul. He soldiers and Pompey would likely have
aligned himself with the populares and him arrested, so he commanded his army
passed policies intended to win the to come with him to Rome—despite
affection of the Roman people. He truly explicit laws that prohibited him from
made his name, however, through military doing so. When he crossed the river
conquest. He was given the command Rubicon, the northern boundary of Italy,
of Roman armies that marched north to he was essentially challenging his enemies
Gaul (present-day France). Caesar proved and declaring war on Pompey. A civil war
himself as a military leader by conquering had begun.
this vast area between 58 and 52 BCE.
He wrote about his exploits in messages
back to Rome and soon became a popular
hero. Caesar’s wars brought him wealth,
fame, and the loyalty of the soldiers he
commanded.

Caesar Starts a Civil War Crossing the Rubicon was a decisive moment for Julius
Caesar.
The First Triumvirate ended after Crassus
was killed while leading a military invasion Pompey and his allies did not have
to the east in 55 BCE. After his success enough troops organized, so they
in Gaul, Caesar wanted to be elected fled. Caesar’s army pursued them and

143
conquered the forces they commanded. prevent people from getting into heavy
Pompey escaped to Egypt but was debt. But he also sought glory. He had
then murdered. When Caesar arrived in coins made with his image on them. He
Egypt, he made an alliance with Queen reformed the calendar based on the more
Cleopatra and overthrew her coruler, accurate Egyptian model and renamed a
Ptolemy XIII. Rome’s influence in Egypt summer month, Julius (July), after himself.
grew, and Cleopatra and Caesar had a Some people worried that he wanted to
child together. become a king and end Rome’s proud
republican traditions.
Think Twice In 44 BCE, Caesar pushed the Senate
 hy did some Romans consider
W to name him dictator for life. This was
Caesar’s growing influence to be
unheard of in Rome, where dictators were
a threat?
viewed as necessary only during times
of crisis. Caesar wanted absolute power
Find Out the Facts indefinitely. His many enemies argued that
Read about Caesar’s time in he was dangerous and had to be removed
Egypt, especially the political events that for the good of the republic. On March
unfolded there and his relationship with
15, 44 BCE, known as the Ides of March in
Cleopatra.
the Roman calendar, a group of senators
ambushed and murdered Caesar. The two
Writers’ Corner leaders of the plot, Brutus and Cassius,
 sing your research, write an
U declared themselves the leaders and
account of the events happening defenders of the republic.
in Egypt during this time from
Cleopatra’s perspective. But the senators had miscalculated.
Caesar’s exploits had made him immensely
Caesar returned to Rome victorious. popular with ordinary Romans, and the
He used his power to institute several senators who had killed him had no clear
reforms, including granting land to his plan of what to do once they had gotten
faithful soldiers. He made plans to stop rid of him. Caesar’s loyal general, Marcus
corruption, improve the courts, and Antonius, and his nephew Octavian rose

144
up against Brutus and Cassius and turned Caesarion, and Antonius’s son. As his grip
the people of Rome against them. This on power solidified, Augustus allowed
new conflict struck the final blow to the himself to be shown more openly as
republic. Brutus, Cassius, and the other the master of Rome. He took the title
senators were defeated by Antonius and imperator, the supreme commander
Octavian in 42 BCE. Octavian then bested or emperor.
Antonius in a subsequent fight, whereupon Augustus ruled over an era of relative
Octavian became the undisputed master peace and growing prosperity after
of Rome and its first emperor, ruling under the long years of Rome’s civil wars. He
the name Augustus Caesar. reorganized the military, creating two
major divisions of Roman soldiers. Each
Find Out the Facts group of Roman soldiers was commanded
How did Octavian and Antonius by a senator. These commanders reported
turn the people of Rome against
to more powerful senators, who were
the Senate?
under Augustus himself. This system
was intended to prevent any particular
senator from growing too powerful
and gaining control of a large group
The Pax Romana of soldiers, as Caesar had. Augustus

Augustus made sure he did not suffer also reorganized how the military was

Caesar’s fate by being careful with how he funded by establishing a central treasury

portrayed himself and how he exercised that distributed money and supplies to

power. Wanting others to think he had generals. Noncitizens were organized

humbly taken the power offered to him into smaller fighting groups and had the

by a grateful Senate, he projected the opportunity to gain citizenship in return

image of a man who refused the absolute for their military service. This helped

power that his efforts had won him. But integrate non-Romans into Roman society.

Augustus was utterly ruthless. He accepted With this military, Augustus added several
no challenges to his rule. He ordered the new regions to Rome’s empire. He also
murders of Caesar and Cleopatra’s son, reorganized Rome’s tax system and saw

145
that the city itself was improved with
protections against flooding, fire, famine,
and crime. New aqueducts and elegant
public buildings were also constructed.

Art and literature flourished. A great

epic poem, the Aeneid, was composed
by the poet Virgil. Inspired by the Greek
Iliad and Odyssey, it tells a story of the
mythical origins of Rome while also
glorifying Augustus and his rule. Ovid
also wrote texts that served to build up
a sense of Rome’s magnificent identity.
His Metamorphoses attempts to recount
the history of the world from a Roman
perspective. The text includes retellings of
many ancient Greek myths. Ovid’s writings
became some of the best-known versions
of Greco-Roman tales.

Find Out the Facts

Learn about the story told in
the Aeneid.

Although Rome’s armies were still heavily

engaged in conflict, the rule of Augustus
and his successors is known as the Pax
Romana, or the Roman Peace. This name
refers to a period in which Rome’s power
was beyond dispute. Because of this
stability, Romans experienced the period
as one of relative peace and plenty.

146
The empire succeeded, however, at the cost ruins of many of these walls still exist.
of the old republican form of government. In Britain, Emperor Hadrian ordered
The emperor was mightier than a mere king the construction of a massive seventy-
would have been. The Senate remained, three-mile-long wall that stretched along
but it was effectively powerless. With the the border of present-day England and
end of republican government and the Scotland, putting a barrier between
ascent of the emperors, Rome’s politics Roman lands and the Celts who lived to
lost some of the flexibility and vigor of the the north. The most significant border in
early years of conquest and expansion. Europe was along the Rhine River, which
Nevertheless, the Roman Empire would last separated Roman-controlled Gaul to the
for centuries after Augustus’s death. west from the regions populated by the
Germanic peoples to the east.
Think Twice
To maintain their borders and to ensure
 hat does the author mean by the
W
that their large cities were supplied
sentence “The empire succeeded at
the cost of the old republican form of with food, the Romans needed an
government”? excellent transportation network. They
had one at sea in the form of the vast
fleets that led the Romans to call the
Mediterranean Mare Nostrum, or Our
Building the Empire
At its height, the Roman Empire controlled
a huge territory with millions of people
under its rule. Permanent military
garrisons were established at the empire’s
borders. Defensive walls were built to
protect against potential enemies. The

Vocabulary
garrison, n. troops stationed in a town
or fort for the purpose of defense
The Pont du Gard, a Roman aqueduct in France

147
Sea. On land, the Romans built a large Rome from being overwhelmed by a
and sophisticated network of roads single setback.
that spanned the length and breadth In addition to outside threats, the
of their empire. They were built in empire faced the ongoing issue of
straight, carefully planned lines, with corruption among its leaders and
hard surfaces and regular markers to a continuous struggle for political
show distances. The road system allowed power. The emperor Constantine
the Romans to move military forces rose to power in 312 CE during one
and supplies very quickly. Roman roads such struggle. He wanted to reunite
were so well made that many of them the empire. But the city of Rome
lasted well into the Middle Ages. Romans was no longer the grand and well-
also built aqueducts, temples, arenas, organized center of power. Constantine
and other big public projects all across moved the capital of the empire to
the empire. Byzantium (modern-day Istanbul, in
Turkey) and renamed it Constantinople.
He went on to make other sweeping

An Unwieldy Power changes, including a transformation

of religious practices and authority
The enormous size of the empire in Rome.
posed many challenges. The first was
the difficulty of effectively ruling such
a large area. The emperor Diocletian,
who ruled from 284 to 305 CE, split the Christianity and the
empire into halves, each ruled by its own
emperor. The western half was ruled
Roman Empire
from the city of Rome, while the eastern A new religion began to spread around
half was ruled from Asia Minor. This was 30 CE. It started in Judah (modern-day
meant to ensure that each half would be Israel), a territory that had come under
able to respond more swiftly to crises Roman control in 63 BCE, and was based
caused by wars and other mischief on the on the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth,
borders and would, in theory, prevent a Jewish figure who gathered followers

148
with his preaching. The Jewish community side by launching official persecutions
had a difficult relationship with its of Christians.
Roman rulers. Romans were generally
tolerant of foreign religions as long as Vocabulary
they accepted Roman authority and did
persecution, n. cruel and unfair
not interfere with the paying of taxes treatment of a group of people
to Rome. Some Jewish groups resisted
when Rome conquered Judah. Yet many Governmental attitudes toward Christianity
Jewish authorities feared a violent Roman completely changed when Constantine
response. They frowned on messages, came to power. During his bid to become
such as Jesus’s, that challenged the emperor in 312 CE, he reportedly saw a
established order. But Jesus had many burning cross in the sky before a battle. Its
devoted followers. Even after he was accompanying message said, “Under this
put to death by the Roman authorities, sign you shall conquer.” Constantine took
his followers continued to spread his this as a sign that if he adopted Christianity,
messages and established the religion he would win. He had his soldiers paint
of Christianity. their shields with the Christian symbol
It was not uncommon for religious ideas of the cross. After his victory, he became
and practices from the eastern parts of Rome’s first Christian emperor.
the empire to spread among the Romans. Constantine didn’t just end the
The message of the Christians found many persecution of Christians—he made
followers among the poor, the oppressed, Christianity Rome’s official religion. To do
and the downtrodden in the empire, a so, he ordered church leaders to gather
society that concentrated so much power at Nicaea (in present-day Turkey) in 325
and wealth in the hands of a few. Roman CE. He didn’t let them leave until they
authorities tried to stamp out the spread had settled what would become official
of Christianity. Many of the methods used Christian doctrine. The result came to be
were very brutal, and a great number of
Christian leaders and followers were killed.
Vocabulary
Some Roman emperors realized that they
doctrine, n. an official set of beliefs
could get crowds of Romans on their

149
known as the Nicene Creed. Christianity east-west division of the empire was
became an important feature of the reinstated after Constantine died, and
Roman Empire and of much of the world the western part of the empire continued
that followed. to weaken.

There are several theories about why

Rome ultimately fell. One is that the
empire became weak and decadent
because Romans had so much wealth
and power. Another theory is that Rome
was weakened by almost-constant
outside attacks, particularly by Germanic
tribes. In 410 CE, the city of Rome itself
was attacked and sacked by the Gothic
leader Alaric I. More invasions were led
by Attila, leader of another Germanic
tribe called the Huns. Other groups, like
the Alans, Vandals, German Alemanni,
and Saxons, gradually moved into Roman
A mosaic of Constantine lands. In 476 CE, the last Western Roman
emperor was defeated by a Germanic
chieftain named Odoacer. The Western
Roman Empire fell, and the political and
Decline and Fall of the cultural landscape of Europe underwent

Western Empire dramatic changes.

The question of how and why the Roman

Find Out the Facts
Empire collapsed is one that historians
Research different arguments
have asked ever since it happened. There about why the Western Roman Empire
is not one reason or cause; instead, Rome’s weakened and collapsed while the
power declined over centuries. The old eastern half continued to thrive.

150
 them into texts that legal experts and
lawyers could consult and use. Justinian
Byzantium added his own new laws to these works.

The wealthier eastern half of the Justinian’s reign also coincided with one
Roman Empire existed in some form for of the worst outbreaks of plague the
almost a thousand years after the fall world has ever seen. The great number of
of Western Rome. The Eastern Roman deaths damaged the Byzantine economy
Empire eventually became known as and reduced the number of people
the Byzantine Empire after the city of available to serve in its army. In the 600s
Byzantium, which was in an excellent CE, the Byzantines and Persian groups
location for trading because it had access fought a mutually ruinous war that
to major shipping lanes, it was in territory militarily and economically exhausted
rich with farmland, and it was on a land both sides, leaving them vulnerable to
formation that meant it could only be the Islamic rulers who rose to power in
attacked by land from the west. Arabia in the 700s CE. Although Byzantine
rulers would hold on to Constantinople
Constantine made the city of Byzantium
and some surrounding territories for
his capital and changed the name to
centuries after, the Romans were no
Constantinople in 330 CE. He remade
longer a major world power after the
the city with a huge new palace, a
seventh century CE.
hippodrome (an arena for racing horses
and chariots), wide avenues, a great
Think Twice
aqueduct, and a large harbor to house a
mighty fleet. Public art like statues and Do you think it is inevitable that vast,
powerful empires eventually decline?
columns added to the city’s grandeur.

The emperor Justinian, who reigned

from 527 to 565 CE, created the Code Writers’ Corner
of Justinian, a set of laws. To do so, he Write a report about a leader,
artist, or thinker from the
organized an attempt to collect and reform
Roman Empire.
all the laws of the Romans and combine

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 Chapter 8
Islamic Civilization
The Big Question
What were the hallmarks of early Islamic
civilization?

Origins of Islam
Islamic civilization arose in the
Arabian Peninsula in the 600s CE,
based on the teachings of a prophet
called Muhammad. The civilization
that developed around Islam
eventually fostered not only new
religious practices but also
new artistic and architectural styles,
scholarship, translations, medicine,
banking, and more.

Islam emerged within the context of Arab

culture. In ancient times, various Arab clans
lived throughout the Arabian Peninsula. Islamic rulers supported the development of
great libraries and the work of many scholars.
The Arabic language developed out of the

152
 languages spoken by many of these
clans. While many of these Arab
peoples were polytheistic, monotheism
became important in some areas with
the spread of Zoroastrianism, Judaism,
and Christianity. Islam then became a
powerful new religious and cultural force
in much of the Arabian Peninsula and
quickly spread to parts of Asia, North
Africa, and Europe. The spread of Islam
also brought aspects of Arab culture to
these regions.

Part of the continent of Asia, the

Arabian Peninsula is surrounded by
the Red Sea, the Arabian Sea, and the
Persian Gulf and is separated from the
Mediterranean Sea by a narrow stretch of
coastline. It is the largest peninsula in the
world. Mainly a large plateau, it consists
mostly of sandy deserts and dry plains,
with some mountains and fertile valleys.
Rainfall is scarce in most areas except the
southern region. The coastal areas are
fairly dry most of the year but have very
high humidity in the summer, supporting
some tree growth and farming.

In the desert, the temperature can reach

over 120 degrees Fahrenheit. Sometimes
the air in the desert can be perfectly still,
but at other times, enormous gusts of wind

153
 southern Europe, the Arabian Peninsula
was part of the trade networks that linked
several ancient civilizations, including
Egypt, Kush, Mesopotamia, Persia, China,
India, Greece, and Rome.

The introduction of camels from North

Africa also helped develop trade. Better
able than donkeys and mules to travel
from oasis to oasis, camels facilitated
journeys within Arabia and through it to
can create dangerous conditions, other regions. While the Arabian Peninsula
moving the sand into huge dunes that was sparsely populated, numerous
cover everything. Rare watering holes Arab clans were scattered throughout
are hidden among the desert sands. the region. Some, like the Bedouin,
This kind of place in the desert where were nomadic and herded sheep and
water is found, called an oasis, supports goats. Others settled and established
vegetation in a small area. Oases provided cities, mostly along the coast, especially
shade and water for weary travelers who in the southern part of the peninsula.
crossed the hot sands in caravans. Some small kingdoms developed. In
the southwest, trees produced valuable
Vocabulary frankincense and myrrh. These are
oasis, n. an area in the desert where resins made from tree sap. Many ancient
there are water and plants peoples used these fragrant resins as
incense and perfume as well as for
medicinal purposes. Gold, ivory, animals,
and enslaved people were also traded.

Pre-Islamic Arabia
Vocabulary
Despite the challenging climate, Arabia
became a center of trade and culture. resin, n. a sticky substance made by
some plants
Connecting Asia and Africa and close to

154
Routes of the Silk Road developed across Dromedaries
the northern, western, and central parts
The Arabian camel, or dromedary, has one
of the peninsula as traders came from
hump on its back. It is native to the Sahara
the East carrying silk and spices. Other
desert of North Africa. Camels were likely
traders traveled up the western coast of the
brought to Arabia by Egyptians or the
peninsula on their way to Syria and Egypt.
Persians who conquered Egypt. Camels
This helped spark the growth of trading
are particularly suited for desert life. Arab
centers such as the cities of Mecca and
poets have called them “the ship of the
Medina. On the eastern coast, the Dilmun
desert” because camels could carry so
civilization developed as a trade hub with
much and move through the sands so
connections to Mesopotamia and Persia.
smoothly. These animals allowed a way
The northwestern part of the peninsula, of life that would not have been possible
near the Mediterranean, was conquered otherwise due to their unique physical
by several powers. Assyrians, Babylonians, features. Camels store fat in their humps
Persians, Alexander and the Hellenistic that allows them to survive when water
kings, and Romans all ruled this territory and food are scarce. Thick fur protects
in turn. But Arab clans and cultures camels from the heat, and wide feet keep
continued to thrive. them from sinking down too far into the
Think Twice sand. During swirling sandstorms, camels
can close their nostrils to prevent sand
Why would ancient peoples
value spices? from getting in, and they have a third
eyelid and rows of lashes to keep grains of
One Arab people, the Nabataeans, ruled
sand out of their eyes.
for a time in one spot in the northwest.
Originally nomadic, they settled around Find Out the Facts
200 BCE and built Petra, a great city of
Learn more about the city of
stone carved into massive sandstone Petra at this time.
cliffs. The Nabataeans knew how to find
underground springs and how to make
Vocabulary
the most of seasonal streams. They dug
cistern, n. a reservoir for storing water
huge cisterns to hold water and made

155
channels to carry the water. These places Islamic customs and practices. Together,
were hidden from sight, and any travelers the Hadith and the Sunna convey things
who wanted to use them had to pay. Petra Muhammad said and did. Hadith means
became a key stopping point on desert report or narrative, and sunna means habit
trade routes. The Nabataeans also charged or custom. The Sunna is understood to
tolls to traders to pass through their express the way of the prophet Muhammad.
territory. Petra thus became quite wealthy. The Hadith is the second most important
Rome conquered Petra in 106 CE, but the text in Islam. The Quran, Islam’s most holy
city continued to prosper. book, is considered the direct word of God,
revealed to Muhammad through visions.
Think Twice Because Muhammad saw it as his mission
What factors isolated communities in from God to spread the messages he
the Arabian Peninsula? What factors
made this region a crossroads? received in these visions, he is often
called the Prophet or the Messenger.
Muhammad’s visions and teachings were
connected to the beliefs, figures, and ideas

Muhammad’s Story of Judaism and Christianity. Muslims also

call him the Last Prophet, indicating that
As with other figures whose teachings he brought the final messages from God,
sparked new religions and philosophies, adding to and clarifying what Jewish and
much information about Muhammad Christian prophets had revealed.
comes from sources that were written after
his lifetime. Byzantine and Greek texts from Think Twice
the 630s CE refer to Muhammad and his Why were many ancient teachings
first shared orally and not written
influence in Arabia, and his image began down until later?
to appear on coins and in sculptures and
illustrations by the 680s CE. Much of the Traditionally, Muhammad is thought to
story of Muhammad’s life comes from the have been born in Mecca, in present-day
Hadith, a collection of the reported sayings Saudi Arabia, around 570 CE. His family
of Muhammad, and the Sunna, which was part of the Quraish tribe. His parents
collects his reported actions as well as early died when he was a child, and he was

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raised by relatives. When he became old Muhammad worked to spread the messages
enough, he began traveling with his uncle’s he had received, but as he preached against
trading caravan. He eventually married serving any gods other than God, he met
a wealthy widow named Khadija and opposition. In Mecca, many different gods
managed the caravans she sent to Syria. were worshipped, and people became
As a merchant, Muhammad saw many angry with Muhammad. In part, they may
things that he considered to be wrong, have worried that Muhammad would
such as dishonesty among traders, a lack anger the gods who protected their
of care for the poor, and rampant greed. At trading routes. Others may have resented
the age of about forty, he decided to seek Muhammad’s challenge to their authority.
spiritual understanding, so he went away For a time, Muhammad was protected
to pray in a cave. Muhammad believed by the high status of his uncle and his
that God—called Allah in Arabic—and the wife, but things changed after they died.
angel Gabriel spoke to him through visions. Tensions arose between Muhammad and
God told Muhammad to spread Islam, a the Quraish clan of Mecca, and Muhammad
word meaning submission or surrender and his followers found themselves in
to God. Muhammad began to share his danger of persecution in Mecca. They went
revelations with his wife and close friends. to Medina, where his teachings were more
readily accepted. The flight to Medina,
called the Hijrah, is thought to have taken
place in 622 CE. This became the first year
of the Islamic calendar.

Find Out the Facts

Learn more details about the
Islamic calendar and how it is used
around the world.

Writers’ Corner
Use your research to write a report
Muhammad may have managed trading caravans, with about the Islamic calendar.
merchants and goods traveling through deserts to
other regions.

157
In Medina, Muhammad reportedly important site of Islamic worship. Eventually,
received more revelations and built a Muhammad’s army helped him spread
larger community. This is understood as Islam farther across the Arabian Peninsula.
the moment Muhammad fully broke away
from his tribal identity and began a new
Islamic society. During this period, conflict
among clans was common. Muhammad
may have been inspired to help end the
conflict, or perhaps he saw an opportunity
to become a strong leader for groups
that needed one. He was also able to
make some alliances. Some of these
were forged through his marriages after
Khadija’s death.

However, conflict between Muhammad’s

new community and both Arab clans and
Jewish groups also continued. Some Arabs
in Medina converted to Islam, but others
resisted. While the Jewish community of
Medina shared many religious ideas with
Muhammad and his followers, they mostly The black structure in this painting represents the
Kaaba, which became the holiest site in Islam.
did not convert. Eventually, Muhammad
rose to power in Medina, conquering or Find Out the Facts
driving out many of the Jewish residents.
Research to learn facts and stories
Muhammad and his followers continued about the Kaaba.
to clash with the Quraish. As Muhammad
became more powerful, he organized a
Writers’ Corner
fighting force, eventually going back to
Use your research to write a
Mecca and taking it over. The Muslim force story about the Kaaba from the
smashed idols to pagan gods in a shrine point of view of a resident of
ancient Mecca.
called the Kaaba and made it into an

158
 The Five Pillars of Islam
Muhammad’s teachings form the basis of Islam, and many parts of the story of his life
shape Muslim practices. The main tenets of Muslim belief are called the five pillars of
Islam. While many branches of Islam have developed over the centuries, these five
principles are at the core of the religion.
• The profession of faith: Muslims express their most fundamental belief that “there is
no god but God, and Muhammad is his messenger.”
• Prayer: Traditionally, Muslims pray five times each day, at sunrise, noon, midafternoon,
sunset, and nighttime. They face Mecca to pray, usually prostrate on a special prayer rug.
• Alms: Muslims are called to give money to help the poor and have a duty to help
fund mosques, schools, hospitals, and other services that support people.
• Fasting: During the month of Ramadan, which celebrates the birth of Muhammad,
healthy adult Muslims refrain from eating or drinking during daylight hours.
• Pilgrimage: If health and finances allow, a Muslim should visit the city of Mecca at least
once, including a holy site called the Kaaba. This pilgrimage is called a hajj in Arabic.

Think Twice
What elements of the five pillars
of Islam are similar to other systems
of belief?

Find Out the Facts

Research Ramadan to learn
more about this holiday and how it is
celebrated around the world.

Writers’ Corner
Use your research to create a
brochure or infographic about
Ramadan. Mecca, located in Saudi Arabia, is the holiest Muslim city.

159
 The First Caliphs
When Muhammad died, around 632 CE, it means successor. The first four caliphs
was not clear who would be the next leader were friends and relatives of Muhammad.
of Islam. Groups that had made pacts They had been part of his community and
with Muhammad were not necessarily were determined to spread Islam. The first
ready to continue peaceful relations with caliph, Abu Bakr, was a close confidant of
a different leader. Muslims worried that Muhammad and a devoted Muslim. He
their direct connection to God through helped provide unity and continuity to
Muhammad was cut off. Various people the Islamic community. However, he died
began to claim that they were now the new after only two years as caliph. Another of
prophet. All this added up to a great deal of Muhammad’s close friends, Umar, was then
instability and the threat that Islam would chosen as leader. He ruled for a decade
be weakened. and greatly expanded the territory under
Muhammad’s closest followers decided to Islamic control. He developed a policy of
choose a new leader, called a caliph, which tolerance toward Judaism and Christianity,

160
based on the fact that Islam shared many Ali was a blood relative of the Prophet,
of the same beliefs and stories as those which was important in the eyes of
faiths. This made Jews and Christians some Muslims. However, Ali was faced
more willing to cooperate with Islamic with increasing unrest. The leader of the
rulers because they could keep their own Umayyads called for revenge for Osman’s
religious practices. Some other groups also death and accused Ali of not taking
found Islamic rule less oppressive than that strong action. The Umayyads and others
of other powers in the region, such as the rebelled against Ali. They were joined by
Persians and the Byzantine Empire. some prominent figures, including one
of Muhammad’s wives, Aisha. Civil war
The third caliph, Osman, then ruled for broke out, and the two factions battled
twelve years. This was an important period each other. Muslims became divided into
in Islamic culture. Osman conquered even two main groups: Shia, who followed Ali,
more territory and created administrative and Sunni, who refused to follow Ali. Over
divisions to organize the Islamic state that time, the two groups stopped fighting.
had taken hold in Arabia and beyond. He While they did not always see eye to eye,
also oversaw the creation of an official they agreed on the basic beliefs of Islam
version of the Quran. Multiple versions and on the goal of spreading it.
of the texts of the Quran existed by this
time. Osman’s standardized version of
the Quran became the holy book that still
guides Muslims today. Continued Growth
During these early years, tensions and From 660 to 750 CE, the Umayyads
conflict were present within the Islamic ruled over Islam, establishing a capital at
community. Osman was accused of Damascus in Syria. They expanded their
favoring those from his clan, the Umayyad territory even more, going farther into
clan, also part of the Quraish. He was Asia and Africa and moving into Spain.
less prone to use military might to crush A century after Muhammad’s death, the
rebellions. Then, Osman was attacked and Islamic Empire was vast and powerful. In
killed. At that point, Muhammad’s cousin its quest to spread Islam, it also spread
Ali became caliph. Arab culture. In the areas it conquered,

161
many people learned to speak Arabic, fact that Arabs paid less in taxes and held
which was needed for prayer and study of better jobs. The unrest grew especially
the Quran. In this way, as the Islamic world among Shia Muslims in Mesopotamia
grew, so too did the Arab world. and Persia. Eventually, they rebelled and

Many cities throughout the Islamic Empire brought down the Umayyads, replacing

blossomed into major centers of learning them with the Abbasids. The new rulers

and cultural exchange. These included moved the capital from Damascus

not only Damascus and Baghdad but also to Baghdad, in present-day Iraq. The

Cairo, Jerusalem, Córdoba (in Spain), and upheaval shows that tensions and conflict

many others. Cities were adorned with still existed in the Islamic world.

mosques, libraries, and public baths. Conflict with external foes also continued.
Since the days of Muhammad, Islamic
leaders had felt called to spread Islam.
The complex concept of jihad, meaning
a struggle or great effort to fulfill
religious obligations, was related to the
determination of Islamic leaders to build
an empire. As Islamic conquests began
to erode the Byzantine Empire and
took control of Jerusalem and Palestine,
territories known as the Holy Land
because they were the site of events in the
Tanakh and the Bible, Christian leaders in
Europe began to call for military forces to
be sent to bring the region under Christian
control. This led to a series of wars known
as the Crusades. Ultimately, Muslim rulers
The Umayyads built a great mosque in Damascus.
retained control, but the conflicts roiled
By around 700 CE, opposition to the the region from 1095 CE until around
Umayyads had grown, particularly among 1272 CE. Conflict with conquered peoples
non-Arab Muslims. They objected to the also existed in some parts of the Islamic

162
Empire. In Spain, the Reconquista was a backgrounds to gather and work. Scholars
centuries-long effort to resist Islamic rule. translated texts from China, India, Persia,
However, several places in Spain became Greece, and Rome. Arabic translations
important centers of Islamic culture for a of ancient Greek and Roman texts are
period of seven hundred years. credited with preserving the ideas of
these civilizations after the fall of the
Roman Empire.

Islamic Golden Age Muslim scholars worked to develop algebra

and calculus. They adopted the written
Despite various tensions, the period from symbols for numbers developed in India,
the 700s to the 1400s CE is known as the later spreading these numerals to the West.
golden age of Islamic civilization. Muslim Through trade networks, they began to use
merchants were one key reason that paper, an invention brought from China
the Islamic Empire grew strong. During through the Silk Road. Muslim merchants
this golden age, they were an important helped spread paper to more regions. This
influence in trade throughout much changed the practice of writing. Paper
of Asia, Africa, and parts of southern could hold ink more readily than the other
Europe. Part of their success was due to materials used for writing, such as papyrus
developments in the practice of banking. and linen, and it was also easier to make.
Muslim merchants kept detailed records This led to people writing more books,
and spread the concept of using checks to and also making copies and selling them
buy and sell goods. to a growing population of readers.
The golden age was also marked by the
growth of a vibrant tradition of learning Think Twice
and culture. Muslims created the first How did the growing use of paper
universities. Islamic scholars made many and ink impact cultures?
important contributions to numerous
fields. In Baghdad, Abbasid rulers began Medical knowledge was explored and
collecting scientific texts. Baghdad was written down in volumes that made
the site of the House of Wisdom, a center medical theory and practices available
for scholars from different regions and for others to use. Muslim thinkers

163
incorporated medical understandings
from several civilizations, including Rome,
Greece, and Persia, and translated texts
into Arabic to bring ideas to a wider
audience. They expanded on this work
with experiments and new theories.
To make this medical knowledge
more usable, scholars organized the
information, approaches, and techniques
into encyclopedias.

Think Twice
How did Muslims foster cultural
exchange?

One important scholar was Ibn Sina, who

became known in Europe as Avicenna.
He lived during the end of the first
millennium CE, doing much of his scholarly
work in what is today Iran. Ibn Sina wrote
about philosophy, medicine, mathematics,
astronomy, geology, chemistry, and physics.
He produced a five-volume medical
encyclopedia that included knowledge
from ancient cultures and newer Islamic
practices. This book, called The Canon of
Medicine, was later translated into Latin
and used in teaching medicine throughout
Europe. In another work, called The Book
of Healing, Ibn Sina developed his own
philosophical logic called Avicennian logic.

164
He also made contributions to astronomy religious purpose. From them, a religious
and created a new instrument to more official would make a call to prayer so
accurately understand the positions of that Muslims knew when to do their
stars. He wrote poetry as well. daily prayers. The minarets also became
distinctive architectural features of towns
Find Out the Facts throughout the vast Islamic Empire.

Look for more facts about Ibn

Sina’s life, work, and influence.

Writers’ Corner
 sing your research, create
U
an encyclopedia entry about
Ibn Sina.

Art and Literature Decor in the seventeenth-century CE Shah Mosque in

Iran shows motifs of traditional Islamic art.
The art and architecture of the Islamic
Empire incorporated influences from Writers created enduring works of
several cultures, particularly the Byzantine literature. A collection of stories called The
Empire and Persia. Islam rejects idols, Thousand and One Nights contains tales
or statues in human and animal form based on the literary traditions of many
representing gods. This was extended regions, including Arabia, Persia, China,
to a general avoidance of artistic and India. Many of the tales were written
representations of people and animals. down and published in one volume in the
Islamic art developed new styles based on city of Baghdad. The fictional narrator,
geometric forms and the natural world. Scheherazade, weaves tales every evening
Beautiful mosques with towers called for the king but never finishes a whole
minarets were built across the Islamic story. This tactic is a ruse—the king is
world. The minarets had an important cruel and unjust, and Scheherazade’s

165
life is in danger. By telling a captivating
story that is unfinished each night,
Scheherazade manages to stay alive— The Spread of Islam
until the king finally falls in love with her.
At its height, the Islamic Empire reached
Another important text is the Rubaiyat, a
from the edges of India and China
collection of poetry by a Persian scholar
through the Eastern Roman Empire into
called Omar Khayyam. Many of the verses
northern Africa and Spain. During nearly
explore the idea of enjoying the present
six hundred years of growth, Muslims
moment despite the suffering that is part
took their faith to others through military
of human life.
campaigns, pilgrimages, and trading
and as missionaries. Arab peoples united
in their duty to spread Islam, while the
diversity of the cultures that became part
of the empire ultimately shaped the form
of their civilization.

Over time, parts of the Islamic world broke

away from Abbasid rule. New groups
of rulers took over in different lands
where Islam was the dominant religious
and cultural force. The Ottoman Empire
emerged when Turks from central Asia
took power in some areas. In the 1200s CE,
Ottoman Turks had come into Asia Minor.
In 1453 CE, the Ottomans conquered
the Byzantine Empire. They took over
Constantinople, renaming it Istanbul, the
name the city still uses today as part of
present-day Turkey. A beautiful Byzantine
The Thousand and One Nights and the fictional storyteller cathedral called the Hagia Sophia was
Scheherazade became hugely influential in the literature
and art of many cultures. converted into a mosque with the addition

166
of four minarets. Later Ottoman rulers the 1500s CE. He also created a unified
continued to rebuild and expand the legal system for the empire, supported
Hagia Sophia, which still stands in the artists and artisans, and invested in public
modern Turkish city. works, such as bridges and mosques. The
Ottoman Empire survived for centuries.
Find Out the Facts Though its power and territory waned,

Find out more about the origins it continued in some form through the
and history of the Hagia Sophia. early twentieth century, when it finally
crumbled in the wake of World War I.
The Ottoman Empire eventually extended In northern India, the Moghuls took over in
into parts of Europe and North Africa as the 1500s CE, setting up an empire based
well as Southwest Asia. The Ottoman on Islam that allowed people to practice
sultan Suleiman the Magnificent went Hinduism and other religions as well. The
on to conquer even more territory in Moghul emperor Shah Jahān ordered the
construction of a fabulous funeral
complex and mosque called the Taj
Mahal in the city of Agra.

While the original empire

conquered by Muhammad and the
first caliphs evolved into several
different powers, the influence
of Islam continued to grow. As it
spread, it incorporated some of
the traditions of the cultures it
came into contact with. It became
one of the world’s major religions,
influencing the scholarship, art,
literature, politics, and cultures of
many societies throughout the
The Taj Mahal world and across eras.

167
 Chapter 9
Maya, Aztec, and Inca
Civilizations
The Big Question
What characterized early civilizations in
Mesoamerica and South America?

Cultures of the Americas

The Americas were home to
numerous thriving early civilizations.
In Mesoamerica, the Maya and the
Aztec built complex urban societies,
while the Inca ruled over an empire in
South America.

Mesoamerican and South American peoples

created many buildings, pieces of pottery,
tools, and other artifacts that reveal much
about their civilizations. The Maya, Aztec,
A mask from Teotihuacán inlaid
and others also wrote texts. Information with turquoise and other stones

168
 about these cultures also comes from the
Spanish, who invaded the region in the
1500s CE and wrote about the peoples
they encountered. These accounts must
be read carefully, with an understanding
that they are written from the perspective
of colonizers and conquerors.

Mesoamerica
Mesoamerica is a historical region that
stretches from the northwest of modern
Mexico southward into the isthmus
that joins North and South America.
Numerous Mesoamerican civilizations
inhabited present-day Mexico and Central
America, including the Olmec, Maya,
Zapotec, Aztec, and others.

Vocabulary
Mesoamerica, n. historical region
of Latin America, stretching from
northwest Mexico through Central
America

Humans lived in Mesoamerica perhaps as

early as 21,000 BCE and certainly by about
11,000 BCE. By about 3800 BCE, people in
Mesoamerica had begun to live in villages.
They had domesticated corn (maize),

169
which was a key resource. The earliest tomatoes, beans, and chili peppers.
growers of corn may have valued it as For meat, Mesoamericans hunted local
much for its stalks as for its kernels. It was animals and raised domesticated animals
in later eras that people began to grind such as dogs, ducks, and turkeys.
up corn kernels to make flour that was
then used for corn paste, the fundamental Olmecs and Zapotecs
ingredient of tortillas.
Around 1200 BCE, the Olmec civilization
arose along Mexico’s Gulf Coast. It is
Find Out the Facts
unknown what these people called
Learn about how early
Mesoamerican people used corn leaves themselves. The name Olmec comes from
and stalks. the Aztec language, Nahuatl, and means
the rubber people. The Olmecs figured
Corn became the staple crop of out how to extract latex from rubber
the Mesoamerican diet, but early trees, which they used to make all sorts
Mesoamericans cultivated a wide variety of things, including balls to play games
of foods, including avocados, cacao, with. They lived in major settlements

170
along rivers that fed the Gulf of Mexico. art and artifacts of the Olmecs suggest
The largest of these early centers is now that they had powerful rulers and large
called San Lorenzo. Trade goods found at settlements grounded in farming and trade.
San Lorenzo, and at other Olmec sites such
as Las Limas and the island of La Venta, Find Out the Facts
include precious stones such as obsidian What animals were used in
Mesoamerica as symbols of power
and jade, rubber, skins and feathers from
and prestige?
exotic wildlife, and pottery.

The Olmecs were among the first peoples The Zapotec civilization was centered in
to build pyramids in Mesoamerica. One the Valley of Oaxaca in Mexico. Although
of the tallest early pyramids is at La Venta. Zapotec villages in Oaxaca date back to
About one hundred feet high, it has a 1600 BCE, a major transition occurred
stepped structure with a platform at the around 500 BCE when a city now called
top on which religious ceremonies were Monte Albán was founded. The city relied
probably held. The most famous Olmec on household-based farming, using
artworks, however, are enormous carved small-scale water diversion and irrigation
stone heads. The largest of these heads
is more than nine feet tall and weighs
about eight tons. Each was carved from a
single chunk of basalt (a volcanic rock) and
then transported to the site where it now
stands. The impressive detail in the carving
and the difficulty of transporting the
heads show the Olmecs’ artistic, technical,
and organizational sophistication. Many of
the heads include a helmet or headdress,
sometimes featuring designs of claws or
talons. This might indicate that the heads
represent important leaders. Olmec cave
art also associates rulers with animal
imagery and with maize. Put together, the An Olmec head sculpture in San Lorenzo

171
technologies. Monte Albán endured as a around 600 CE, although it’s not known
major center for more than a millennium. who or what caused this destruction.
Its decline around 900 CE was due not to Teotihuacán’s sophisticated governance
outside conquest but to internal breakdown is evident from its impressive architecture
into smaller political units. Zapotec people and its system of well-planned streets.
still live in Mexico to this day. Two thousand single-story buildings
functioned as multifamily dwellings. There
Teotihuacán were also many temples, public squares,
Between 400 and 100 BCE, a great city and elaborate residences. One of the city’s
arose in the area where Mexico City widest roads is today known as the Avenue
currently extends. The name of this city of the Dead because the buildings that
was Teotihuacán, or the city of the gods. lined it were once thought to be tombs.
Teotihuacán had several natural advantages Now, they are known to have been homes,
as a city, such as a good supply of water, temples, and other public buildings.
which served as the basis of an irrigation The center of Teotihuacán is still
system for farming. It also had access dominated by the Pyramid of the Sun, a
to large amounts of the valuable stone stepped pyramid that likely had a temple at
obsidian, which was used to make tools and the top. Near the Pyramid of the Sun is the
weapons and to trade with other cities. slightly smaller Pyramid of the Moon. The
Teotihuacán rapidly grew as a center of Pyramids of the Sun and Moon were both
trade, power, and religious significance. built over several smaller pyramids, which
From the late 300s to early 500s CE, it
controlled the surrounding region. It may
have received tribute from surrounding
areas. Archaeological evidence indicates
that much of the city was burned down

Think Twice
What have you learned about the
practice of tribute in other ancient
civilizations?
The Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacán

172
indicates that the site was gradually added areas, including architecture, astronomy,
to over time, and perhaps that the act of and mathematics, particularly during the
building and rebuilding was itself an aspect Classic Period, from around 250 to 900 CE.
of collaborative devotion and worship. The Maya also had an elaborate writing
One of Teotihuacán’s largest buildings is system. Maya inscriptions are found in
a temple to the feathered serpent god the ruins of their cities and temples and
Quetzalcoatl, decorated with symbols of on stone statues, sculptures, and ceramic
warfare and military victory such as owls vessels. The Maya also produced books.
and serpents. Unfortunately, almost all of these texts
were destroyed by the Spanish in the
Find Out the Facts early 1600s CE. Only four texts survive, all
Read a myth featuring written after 950 CE. The Classic Period
Quetzalcoatl.
writing system had more than eight
hundred symbols, and symbols could be
Writers’ Corner combined to give them multiple meanings.
Use your research to write a short
story imagining Quetzalcoatl as Think Twice
part of the modern world.
Compare the Maya writing system to
other ancient writing systems.

The territory inhabited by the Maya

includes part or all of the modern nations
The Maya of Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras,
Like the Zapotecs, the Maya exist to this and Mexico. During the Classic Period, the
day in Mesoamerica. Although they no Maya lived in more than forty cities, which
longer maintain a distinct and independent they had built using stone and earth. The
political system, the modern Maya strive buildings of these cities included dwellings,
to maintain the language, culture, and palaces, temples, and public spaces. At the
traditions of their ancestors. Before height of Maya civilization, there may have
Europeans arrived, the Maya maintained been as many as two million Maya, and the
a large, prosperous realm of linked cities. cities each had a population of between
They made important advances in many five and fifty thousand inhabitants.

173
The main cities late in the Classic Period
included Chichén Itzá, on Mexico’s Yucatán
Peninsula; Palenque and Calakmul, in
Mexico; Caracol, in Belize; Copán, in
Honduras; and several large centers in
Guatemala, including Tikal. Maya cities
were not laid out in a regular grid pattern
and did not have a uniform design.
Some had defensive features such as
moats and earthworks, but most did not.
Their buildings do show a great degree
of sophistication, however. The most
impressive Maya buildings are pyramids, The cacao bean motif on this pottery indicates the
importance of cacao to the Maya.
which probably functioned as temples
and in some cases were made from blocks lords. After 900 CE, the Maya mostly lived in
of limestone cut by hand and moved into fewer and smaller cities.
place by skilled workers and architects.
The Maya were also accomplished Maya Belief Systems
engineers. For example, Tikal had not only The Maya saw the world as having three
a reservoir to hold drinking water but also distinct but linked realms: the sky, the
a system to filter the water to improve its earth, and the underworld. They believed
quality and make it safer to drink. that the earth was created by the god
Beginning around 800 CE, these cities of the sky and the wind, Huracán, who
began to decline in power, but it’s not clear brought the earth and the sky together.
exactly what happened. One theory is that However, because the two were so closely
a major war devastated these cities. Another joined, there was no room for anything
possibility is that there was a decline in to grow and live, and so the tree of life
agricultural productivity, perhaps due to was planted in the underworld, Xibalba, a
drought that led to food shortages. There realm of nine layers beneath the earth. The
also were shifts in trade patterns, which may tree grew and stretched, creating room for
have had a role in the weakening of Maya plants and animals to thrive.

174
The gods wanted to be worshipped, so Movement and transition were central
they created humans. It took the gods to Maya beliefs. The Maya believed that
several attempts to make humans properly. everything in the world was in motion,
They tried making humans out of mud, following a repeating pattern of cycles.
but these people had no heart and could This is reflected in the Maya gods, who
not honor the gods. They made new have multiple aspects, or forms and
humans out of wood, but a flood washed personalities. Similarly, the Maya believed
them away. At last, the gods made humans that people moved through different
out of maize. The people of maize were well stages of existence. People were not born,
suited to honoring the gods by building and they didn’t die; rather, they moved
temples and holding religious rituals. from one stage to another. Certain rituals
could help people move ahead a few
Find Out the Facts stages in their journey. For example, it was
What modern word is derived believed that a person who was sacrificed as
from the name of the god Huracán? How
part of a religious ritual would move further
did this happen?
ahead than a person who died naturally.
Thus, bloodletting and sacrifice were part
The Popol Vuh
of the Maya religion. To mark important
The Popol Vuh is a collection of Maya days and events, priests, kings, and queens
religious stories. It was created in the were expected to spill their blood. They did
1500s CE by Maya living in Guatemala. so using special tools designed for these
The Spanish had begun destroying rituals. The most important rituals involved
Indigenous texts, but the Popol Vuh the sacrifice of humans, especially of very
was produced in a region where the important humans. The sacrifices often
attitude toward Maya texts was not so involved ritually acting out scenes from
destructive. The authors likely hoped religious stories.
their book would preserve their stories
The Maya planned their rituals on a
and beliefs for later generations.
regular schedule, using a calendar called
Although it was created in the 1500s, the
the Tzolkin (meaning the count of days).
Popol Vuh tells a story that had probably
The Tzolkin revolved around a 260-day
been told for centuries.
cycle of rituals and a 365-day year. Days

175
were named according to their place in equinoxes in the year. Maya observations,
both the ritual and yearly cycles. Because architecture, and business also led them
the cycles of days and rituals were so to develop a sophisticated system of
important, the Maya became very skilled mathematics, including the concept of zero.
at observing the night sky, both to look
for omens and to get information about
the best times to plant and harvest crops.
The Maya also used their astronomical
The Aztec
observations to plan their buildings: the After the Maya Classic Period ended
pyramid at Chichén Itzá was built so that it around 900 CE, Mesoamerica went
would cast a particular shadow on the two through a transition as new population
centers arose. After several centuries,
Vocabulary another civilization began to rise in
equinox, n. day of the year when the central Mexico. The Aztec built an
day and night are of equal length empire centered on their capital city of
Tenochtitlán, where Mexico City stands

Find Out the Facts today. From about 1300 CE, the Aztec rose
in power through military successes until
L earn more about the Maya
calendar. they had united most of the northern
region of Mesoamerica into an empire
that, at its height, ruled over eleven
million people. It was the Spanish, and
the diseases that came with them, that
brought the Aztec Empire to an end.

Find Out the Facts

What did the Aztec call
themselves?

The Mexica, a group from northern Mexico,

The Maya’s skill in astronomy led to the development of
a sophisticated calendar. This round stone carving shows migrated south around the 1100s CE.
a priest ballplayer, with signs marking out a period of
twenty days. Eventually, they intermarried with peoples

176
from central Mexico and settled on an flourishing city with a population of
island in the middle of Lake Texcoco. This hundreds of thousands. The city was
new group became known as the Aztec. designed on a grid plan inspired by the
Legends say that the Aztec sun god had great abandoned city of Teotihuacán.
instructed the leaders of their wandering Three causeways (land bridges) linked the
people to look for a sign: an eagle on main city on the island to the coastline of the
a cactus holding a serpent in its beak. lake, and two aqueducts were built to supply
The sign would indicate they had found fresh water to the city’s inhabitants. People
their new home. It was believed that the used canoes to get around the island city and
promised eagle was seen at Lake Texcoco. to travel between the island and the coast.
This was where, in 1325 CE, the first At the heart of the city was a complex of
buildings of the great city of Tenochtitlán major pyramid temples. The largest was
were constructed. It became a major the Templo Mayor, which was almost two
regional trade hub and center of power. hundred feet high with two shrines at the
When it was founded, Tenochtitlán was top. One shrine was dedicated to Tlaloc,
one of many independent cities in the the god of rain, and the other was devoted
Valley of Mexico that were increasingly to Huitzilopochtli, the god of the dry
coming into conflict for resources and season who was believed to have guided
power. The rulers of Tenochtitlán forged the wandering Aztec to find this site. In
an alliance with two other cities, Texcoco other parts of the city, people lived in
and Tlacopan. This alliance formed the humble lodgings made of mud bricks and
basis of the Aztec Empire. reeds. There were also large open spaces
used for markets.

The Aztec believed in a pantheon of

gods, many of whom were common to
other Mesoamerican civilizations. Along
with Tlaloc and Huitzilopochtli, the
In the 1400s and early 1500s CE, Tenochtitlán was one of Aztec honored the feathered serpent
the largest cities in the world.
god Quetzalcoatl; Xipe Totec, the god of
Although it had begun as a small island agriculture; and others. Like the Maya, the
settlement, Tenochtitlán grew into a Aztec had a calendar system that told them

177
when to perform certain rituals. The had Defeated peoples had to accept Aztec
many rituals, such as weddings and funerals, rule. Surrender was made formal by
blessings for the harvest, and requests for the payment of tribute to the Aztec.
good luck. The Aztec also practiced human Conquered soldiers and other prized
sacrifice. They believed that the ritual captives from the war were taken back to
sacrificing of humans would please the gods Tenochtitlán, where they were sacrificed
and keep the sun rising each and every day. in a religious ritual. Ties with valued allies
were strengthened by marrying the ruling
Writers’ Corner families together.
Write a business contract for a
The Aztec army and the empire as a
deal you want to make with a
merchant in Tenochtitlán. whole were supported by a sophisticated
system of taxation. Officials kept records
of what was owed and paid. Merchants
The Aztec Military had to pay taxes, as did landowners and
The Aztec valued skilled soldiers and built craftspeople. The Aztec did not have a
up a large fighting force. The Aztec army monetary system, so transactions were
was not permanent, but every town in the carried out by exchanging goods that
empire had to supply soldiers when called represented given values, such as feathers,
to do so. Young men were trained to use cacao beans, or small pieces of precious
weapons and to fight in units so that when metals. Merchants were expected to make
they were called up to serve, they would contracts to do business, and people who
know what to do. Soldiers from the same broke these contracts could be punished
village were usually kept together, and with imprisonment or slavery.
these groups formed the building blocks
of larger armies. Each solider was well-
The Spanish Conquest
equipped with body armor, shields, bows, The last major ruler of the Aztec was
clubs, spears, and a deadly device called Montezuma. He came to power in 1502 CE,
an atlatl that could throw darts at high when the Aztec controlled more territory
speeds. Some warriors who had been on than ever before. Montezuma fought
several campaigns were identified as elite four major wars that expanded the Aztec
fighters and given special equipment. Empire even more. When not out on a

178
military campaign, Montezuma lived with
all the luxuries his vast and rich empire
could provide him.

In 1519 CE, the Spanish arrived in

Mexico, led by Hernán Cortés. Called
conquistadors—conquerors—they
came to claim land for Spain. They had
technologies that were unfamiliar to
the Aztec, such as metal armor and
gunpowder weapons. Cortés also saw how
he could weaken the Aztec by convincing
some of their subjects to ally with him
against Montezuma. This was a successful
strategy, but more effective even than
the weapons and alliances the Spanish
used were the new diseases they brought.
Because diseases such as smallpox were
not native to the Americas, the people
there had no immune response to protect
them from these new germs. It is estimated
that diseases introduced by Europeans
killed between 60 and 90 percent of the
Indigenous populations of the Americas.

Vocabulary
indigenous, adj. originally living or
existing in a place; native

When Montezuma and Cortés met, after

a period of fighting, it seemed at first that
they would come to a peaceful agreement.

179
But then, Cortés ordered his men
to take Montezuma hostage and
forced the king to submit to the
Spanish throne. Some Aztecs
decided that Montezuma had
given in too quickly and killed
him. Cortés then organized his
soldiers and his allies to conquer
Tenochtitlán. In 1521 CE, the city’s
defenses failed, and the Spanish
and their allies plundered and
destroyed it. This was the end of
the Aztec Empire. Aztec people
still live in Mexico today. Like
the Maya and other cultures,
the Aztec left a legacy that
influenced the societies that
came after them.

Peru and Bolivia. This flat region is at an

elevation of about twelve thousand feet

South America above sea level. The altiplano is mostly

covered with grasses and small bushes
The world’s fourth-largest continent, that are the main food source for the
South America has three major region’s indigenous animals, including
geographical zones. The far western llamas and alpacas. These animals were
edge of the continent is dominated by used as sources of wool, fat, food, and labor.
the world’s longest mountain range, the
Andes. The Andes are not just high peaks;
Vocabulary
the mountains are mixed with plateaus
at various elevations. One of these, called altiplano, n. a large, high plateau in
South America
the altiplano, is in the modern nations of

180
South America has several major rivers, but their neighbors. Between 1400 and 1533
it is the Amazon River that creates one of CE, they established the largest empire in
the world’s most distinctive geographic and the Americas, controlling a vast amount
ecological zones. The Amazon is one of the of territory on the Pacific coast of Latin
world’s two longest rivers. Its river basin America from the north of what is now
includes the modern countries of Brazil, Ecuador to central Chile. The heart of
Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, and part of the Inca Empire was the city of Cuzco, in
Venezuela. About two-thirds of the Amazon modern Peru. Cuzco is in a valley where
basin is covered by rainforest, a type of several different rivers meet. The rivers and
extremely thick and diverse forest that the valley meant that Cuzco’s surroundings
occurs in regions with high annual rainfall could be farmed relatively extensively.
and a hot, humid climate. The Amazon The first major ruler of the Inca, Pachacuti
rainforest is one of the most diverse and Inca Yupanqui, ruled from 1438 to 1471
rich regions in terms of life anywhere on the CE. He conquered the Cuzco valley and
planet, home to millions of species. then set out to conquer the rest of the
The third main type of geographic Andes. Those the Inca defeated had to
region in South America is the coastal pay tribute, in work as well as goods. The
plains. The major coastal plains in South Inca rulers used the labor and resources
America are in the northeast of Brazil and of those they conquered to build a system
along the coasts of Peru and Chile on the of infrastructure—in particular, roads
Pacific coast. Both of these regions have and bridges—that stitched together the
unusually dry climates. The world’s driest empire’s cities and regions across the often
region, the Atacama Desert in Chile, is in difficult terrain of the Andes.
the western coastal plain. Inca cities such as Cuzco display the great
skill and ingenuity with which the Inca
constructed their buildings. The Inca were

The Inca highly skilled stoneworkers. Almost all

Inca buildings were made of stones that
The Inca were one of several groups of were precisely cut and measured and then
people who lived in the Andes region. In placed carefully to form walls. A remarkable
the late 1300s CE, they began to conquer feature of their building is that the Inca

181
did not use mortar or cement to bind their ruled along with the king. Beneath this
blocks together. Instead, the blocks were layer were another two layers, each with
cut and put together so precisely that they ten more family groups. Under these
interlocked to create strong structures. This groups of families existed a layer of
type of construction had the advantage of administrators. The empire was divided
being very resistant to earthquakes, which into four parts, with four major governors
are common in the Andes. who commanded local officials. This

In addition to the expansion of Cuzco, government ensured that people were

Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui also ordered the counted and taxes collected. Like the

creation of the great complex at Machu Aztec, the Inca had a tax system but no

Picchu, in the mountains to the north monetary system, so taxes were collected

of Cuzco. The exact purpose of Machu in the form of goods and labor.

Picchu is debated, but it likely functioned The Inca had a somewhat unusual system
as a royal residence, a fortress, or some for storing and communicating information.
combination of these. It appears that They used a device called a quipu, which
Machu Picchu included a shrine to worship consisted of a wooden bar from which
the Inca sun god, Inti. different colored strings were hung. Some
quipu had as many as 1,500 strings. Each
string could be knotted or woven with
other strings, and each way of knotting,
weaving, and using different colors could
carry a specific meaning.

Think Twice
How were quipus similar to the
writing systems of other early
civilizations?
Machu Picchu, in the mountains above Cuzco, Peru

The Inca system of rule was very Find Out the Facts
organized. At the top of Inca society Learn more about how quipus
were ten family groups of nobles, who were used.

182
 met a fate similar to that of the Aztec.
When Spanish conquerors led by Francisco
Pizarro arrived in Inca lands in the
1500s CE, their guns helped power their
invasions. They also saw that they could
take advantage of the discontent of the
people under Inca control by encouraging
rebellions and forming alliances. Smallpox
and other European diseases also
weakened the Inca.

In 1528 CE, the Inca ruler Wayna Qhapaq

died of smallpox. In 1532, Pizarro’s forces
met those of Wayna Qhapaq’s son,
Atahualpa. Pizarro’s men killed thousands
of Inca warriors while taking no losses
Illustration of a quipu
themselves. At first, Pizarro captured and
The Inca imposed their religion on held Atahualpa hostage—and then, when
conquered peoples and spread a uniform he had received a ransom for Atahualpa’s
style of building through their vast empire. return, he killed him anyway. Pizarro then
They developed a distinctive style of art, led his troops to attack Cuzco, and they
characterized by geometric shapes. Some conquered it in 1533. It took the Spanish
regional influences are seen in Inca art, some time after Cuzco’s fall to conquer
particularly pottery and textiles. These all of the Inca’s territory because it was so
goods were made and given to Inca rulers large and the Andes were so difficult to
as tax payments. Some are identifiable cross. The last Inca ruler was captured and
by particular designs that indicate which killed by the Spanish in 1572, and the Inca
community produced the artwork. realm was absorbed by the Spanish crown.
Others use designs found more generally
Writers’ Corner
throughout the Inca Empire.
Write a short story set long ago
The Inca were not popular with the in one of the civilizations and
peoples they conquered. Eventually, they locations you have learned about.

183
 Chapter 10 The Big Question

Imperial China What factors influenced the

development of Chinese culture
during the imperial period?

A New Period of Unity

After the Qin and Han dynasties, China fell
into a period of disunity that lasted several
centuries, until the rise of the Sui dynasty
in 581 CE. From that point forward, the
idea of a Chinese empire persisted, even in
times of chaos and crisis.

After the Han dynasty was overthrown in

220 CE, China’s government fragmented.
China reunited briefly under the Western
Jin dynasty but split further after it fell. Four
dynasties ruled a region of China south of the
Yangzi River, while northern China was ruled
by the descendants of Mongolian nomads
who had conquered the region. Although
north and south were divided politically,
they were in close contact culturally. These
links, along with increasing trade with India
and other neighboring peoples, brought a
variety of different cultural influences into
The Great Wall of China
China. The southern dynasties maintained

184
 religious ideals based on Daoism and
Confucianism. Northern rulers, who did
not consider themselves Chinese and
thus had little interest in Chinese belief
systems, turned to Buddhism, which had
been introduced to China by travelers
from India and elsewhere.

Think Twice
Why might political disunity have
helped promote the adoption of
new ideas?

North and south were finally reunited by a

northern general named Yang Jian. By 581
CE, he controlled the north of China, and he
named himself Emperor Wendi, the ruler
of a new state called Sui. Wendi gathered a
massive army and invaded southern China.
By 589 CE, China was united and ruled once
again from the old capital, Chang’an.

Because China had lacked a single central

government for centuries, Emperor
Wendi set about remaking an imperial
administration. He removed regional
aristocrats from power and set up a new
administrative bureaucracy. Some civil
servants were selected based on their
performance in a series of examinations.
This was an early beginning of the idea of
meritocracy, or a group of officials who
have authority based on proven skills—an

185
idea that grew in importance in later unsuccessful invasions of Korea. These
eras of Chinese history. Under the Sui losses cost money and personnel. The
dynasty, provincial governors could hold Sui also spent resources building palaces
office for a maximum of four years. The and cities for themselves. Rebellions soon
Sui attempted agricultural reform, trying followed. Emperor Yangdi was murdered
to protect small farmers from losing by one of his own officials in 618 CE. In the
their land to wealthy landlords. Late same year, a rebellious general, Li Yuan,
in life, Emperor Wendi fully embraced captured the capital, Chang’an. Li Yuan
Buddhism and built a series of Buddhist named himself the first emperor of the
temples. new Tang dynasty. He became known as
Gaozu, a title given to the founder of a
Think Twice dynasty, after his death. The Tang ruled
from 618 to 907 CE.
Why did the Sui emperor want
China to be run by an appointed
bureaucracy rather than regional
aristocrats?

The Tang Era Begins

Writers’ Corner Gaozu and his son Taizong built on the
Write a text from the work begun by the Sui. Gaozu further
perspective of Emperor Wendi
reformed the imperial administration by
or one of his advisors, explaining
to the people of China how your reforms dividing the roles of the chief officials
will help them. and ensuring that each Chinese regional
governor could recommend people to
Despite their reform efforts and seemingly serve in the bureaucracy. This continued
strong economy, the Sui dynasty did a system that gave elites access to power,
not last very long. Emperor Wendi’s but it allowed local elites to have power,
son, Emperor Yangdi, was the last Sui not just one central group of elites. New
emperor. The Sui fall had two main coins ensured that the money supply in
causes: disastrous military campaigns China was reliable and centrally controlled.
and excessive spending. Sui armies Gaozu also devised a new legal code. This
had mounted a series of expensive and legal code proved enormously influential

186
throughout Asia, becoming the foundation education system in China and set up
for legal reforms in Korea and Japan. a system of exams to appoint capable

Gaozu and Taizong both acted to limit military leaders. She directed officials to

the spread of Buddhism in China because improve irrigation and create manuals
they felt that it was a foreign religion, but to help farmers learn effective methods.
they did not ban it. In fact, they pursued Wu even tried to reform China’s writing

a policy of religious tolerance that system by adding new characters.

allowed Buddhism and a new religion

from the West, Christianity, to spread in
China.

A Chinese Empress
One of the greatest Tang rulers was
also one of the most unusual in Chinese
history. Empress Wu Zhao is the only
woman to have ruled China as emperor.
After Taizong’s death, she married
Taizong’s son, Gaozong, but he suffered
from bad health, so she was China’s Wu was ancient China’s only empress.

true ruler. Tradition held that women

could not be the equal of men, but
Find Out the Facts
Wu ignored this tradition. After her
Find out more about Empress
husband died, she gave herself the title
Wu and her reign.
of empress. She grew powerful as people
came to fear and respect her. Wu used
blackmail to remove her opponents and Writers’ Corner
incompetent ministers. She sent out Using your research on Empress
military expeditions that conquered the Wu, write a report about
her life.
Korean peninsula. She also changed the

187
 Tea merchants gained great wealth. This
helped spur another important change:
The Tang Golden Age the world’s first paper money. With so
much economic activity, China began to
The successes of the Tang rulers led China
run out of coins. The new “flying money,”
into a golden age, primarily during the
as it was called, allowed funds to move
reign of Emperor Xuanzong in the 700s
quickly from one person to the next.
CE. Xuanzong promoted Daoism because
he believed that it encouraged a strong
community spirit among the people. He
developed programs to build roads, improve
the safety of those roads, and support the
growth of industries. He also ended the
Chinese system of forced conscription into
the military, preferring instead to have an
army of professional soldiers.

The Tang era was time of great cultural A mural from a royal tomb complex from the Tang period

achievements. An enormous statue of the

Buddha was carved into the mountain A number of useful tools were invented
at Leshan. Many works of literature were or improved upon, including clock
produced. Two of China’s most important mechanisms and agricultural machinery.
poets, Li Bai and Du Fu, rose to fame Gunpowder was actually discovered by
during this time. New technologies, such accident, by scientists who were seeking
as woodblock printing, enabled the spread something else entirely—the secret to
of written works. eternal life. These scientists mixed various
substances together and learned that a
Find Out the Facts certain mixture produced an explosion.
The Chinese first used this discovery to
How were early woodblock-
printed books made? develop fireworks. But other uses, such as
in weapons, were clear.

Tea also began to play an important Xuanzong’s reign ended with a civil
role in China under the Tang dynasty. war. In his later life, he became less
188
interested in governing and allowed
others to take over the running of the
empire—a responsibility they used to The Song Dynasty
make themselves wealthy. A general
Zhao Kuangyin established the Song
in the Chinese army decided that
dynasty and became known as Emperor
change was needed, and he led his
Taizu. By 976 CE, he had conquered most of
troops in a rebellion that lasted eight
the rest of China’s central territories. Taizu
years. Xuanzong lost his throne, and
reorganized the government and made sure
the rebel leader was killed. Much of
that commanders of the army were rotated
China fell under the control of powerful
regularly to limit their political ambitions.
regional warlords.
Oversight of the military was given to the
This period after the Tang is called
civil service. Taizu’s aim was not only to
the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms
prevent rebellion but also to limit the power
period. The five dynasties ruled the
of the military in general. He wanted to put
northern half of China, while the south
China’s government on a stable and peaceful
was divided into ten kingdoms. The
footing after decades of conflicts between
region around the Yangzi delta, in
rebels and warlords. This effort included
southeast China, became the wealthiest
reforming the civil service examination
and most culturally advanced region
system, which became the most important
of the country. The landscape here
way to choose officials in China and nearby
allowed for productive farming, which
countries for the next ten centuries. Taizu’s
provided a great surplus of crops. The
reforms tried to ensure that candidates
region’s rivers and streams also allowed
were truly selected on the basis of merit
the development of more intensive
and performance. He banned officials from
commerce and trade, which brought
recommending candidates, and he held the
in money. Meanwhile, the majority of
final examination at the imperial palace.
China’s military power lay in the north,
where China’s armies had patrolled the Vocabulary
northern frontier for centuries. This frontier, n. the area at the edge of
meant that northern China was militarily settled territory

strong, while southern China was civil service, n. civilian officials who
carry out the work of the government
increasingly rich.
189
The Song period saw a revival of interest in very poor circumstances. The Song tried
in Confucianism. This was partly due to the to reform this situation with a program
increasing influence of Buddhism in China called the New Policies. These rested on
and partly a response to the years of chaos the idea that the government needed to
and disunity that preceded the Song. The stimulate the rural economy by offering
Neo-Confucians promoted a return to the low-interest loans to farmers, increasing
values and texts of Confucius as a guiding the amount of money in the economy, and
principle not only for people but for reforming the tax system. The New Policies
politics as well. also created local militias to defend the

China’s economy continued to grow villages and reformed the examination

under the Song. The increasing use of system to better equip civil servants to

machinery and advances in agricultural understand the law and manage the

techniques made farming more profitable country.

for landowners. These profits were used

Think Twice
to supplement and promote trade. The
Why might policies that are good in
wealth of Song China also contributed to some ways also be controversial?
the development of new technologies,
such as the magnetic compass and The greatest problems for the Song were
sternpost ship rudders, as well as the caused by the increasing power and
movable-type printing press. Industry in ambition of China’s neighbors. China had,
cities allowed for the mass production of for centuries, been in contact with people
weapons and armor. beyond their frontiers. Some, like the people
of the Korean peninsula, had states that were
Find Out the Facts modeled on the Chinese example. Others
Find out why the Chinese were nomads—people who did not live in
are considered the inventors of the
permanent settlements. One example was
modern compass.
the Khitan, a people from Mongolia, who
Economic inequality, however, had long established the Liao dynasty and threatened
been a problem in China, and it continued the Chinese frontier for two centuries. The
under the Song. Most Chinese people Liao were eventually defeated, but not by
remained peasants who worked the land the Song. In 1115 CE, a group called the

190
Juchen conquered the Liao. Ten years later, time. Most of these people are nomads
the Juchen attacked the Song and drove who herd animals such as horses, sheep,
them out of the north. The Song ruling yaks, and camels. The Mongols traveled,
family abandoned the capital at Kaifeng and hunted, and fought from horseback.
moved to a new one at Hangzhou, south Horse riding was the essential skill that
of the Yangzi River. The Song emperors still all Mongols, men and women alike, were
controlled the richest part of China, but expected to learn. They did so from
they never recovered from the loss of the childhood, participating in hunts and in
northern half of their empire. competitions to display skill at horse riding
and archery. The Mongols had stirrups,
which helped them control their horses

The Mongols and stay atop them. Their saddles allowed

great freedom of movement while aiming
A man named Temüjin was born in the 1160s and firing a bow. Mongol bows were very
CE to nomads who lived on the steppe north stiff and heavy but could fire arrows at
of China, in the region now called Mongolia. high speed with incredible accuracy.
He is now better known as Genghis Khan,
a title believed to mean universal ruler,
who united the Mongols and began their
incredible campaigns of conquest.

Vocabulary
steppe, n. a grassland plain
This twentieth-century CE painting portrays Mongol
horsemen.

The Eurasian Steppe extends for five

Think Twice
thousand miles from Ukraine in the west
What advantages do mounted warriors
to Mongolia in the east. The eastern have over armies of foot soldiers?
steppe, where the Mongols lived, is a very
harsh land. It is often very cold, and there Although the Mongols were fearsome
is very little rainfall. Nevertheless, people warriors, at the time of Temüjin’s birth,
have inhabited the steppe for a very long they were not united. Instead, they were

191
divided into tribal groups based on family raiding parties to lure enemy armies
ties. These groups often made temporary into an ambush. The Mongols were also
alliances and fought with one another. adaptable. When they had to lay siege
Temüjin’s childhood was a hard one. His to cities and castles with strong stone
father, a tribal leader, was assassinated. walls, they adapted technologies such as
Temüjin was abandoned to fend for himself gunpowder to blow up those strongholds.
and then captured by a rival. Bit by bit, Perhaps most of all, the Mongols knew
battle by battle, Temüjin assembled his own that their swift attacks and fierce nature
army and defeated local rivals. He showed could inspire great fear. They were often
great generosity to people who voluntarily brutal to the people they defeated. They
joined his cause, and he was murderously always left some enemies alive so that
ruthless to anyone who opposed him. they could tell others to fear the Mongols

By 1206 CE, Temüjin had no serious rivals. At and to surrender rather than fight.
a great meeting of the Mongol peoples, the The Mongols launched successful assaults
Mongols elected Temüjin as the ruler of all on the cities of northern China. They also
Mongolia. He was now known as Genghis attacked the Korean peninsula and lands to
Khan, or the universal ruler. Genghis Khan the west, in the modern nations of Russia,
attempted to solidify the unity of his new Ukraine, and Poland. The Mongols swept
nation by creating a law code. He also across Asia and entered eastern Europe.
ordered that the Mongol language be Genghis Khan died in 1227 CE, but his death
written down. His ambitions, however, were did not end the Mongol conquests. Genghis
not limited to uniting a new Mongol nation. Khan’s sons each inherited a part of his great
Beyond the steppe lay a diverse array of empire, and they and their descendants
rich cultures for the Mongols to conquer. continued their father’s empire-building.

The Mongols led carefully planned

campaigns. Before they launched an
invasion, they gathered information from
spies, traders, and travelers. They made
The Yuan Dynasty
plans and executed them with precision. Genghis Khan’s empire was split into
They knew they could be defeated in a smaller states. Each state was rich and
long, drawn-out fight, so they used small powerful, and the richest and most

192
powerful of them all was inherited in 1260 he eliminated the civil service examination
CE by Genghis Khan’s grandson Kublai system. Instead, the most important
Khan. This was the easternmost state, government positions were given to loyal
which included the Mongol homeland Mongol administrators. The Mongols made
of Mongolia and Mongol possessions it clear throughout the nation that the
in Korea and northern China. But the ethnic Chinese were not the equals of the
Mongols did not yet control all of China. Mongols, and the southern Chinese were
This was the jewel that Kublai Khan would at the bottom of the Yuan social hierarchy.
add to his crown. In a series of attacks The Mongols kept themselves as a separate
between 1260 and 1271 CE, Kublai Khan’s ruling group in Chinese society. They kept
forces conquered the Song Empire in their own language and traditions, the
south China. Kublai Khan declared himself better to make it clear to the Chinese who
emperor of China. He established his was in charge.
capital at Beijing, adopted the imperial
name Shizu, and gave his dynasty the The Yuan used their position as the rulers
name Yuan, meaning origin. of China to reform and encourage Chinese
systems of trade and tribute to get the
Ruling China posed a new challenge for money and goods they needed for their
the Mongols. China was a huge country military campaigns. This expansion of
with a sophisticated government, a strong trade made it easier for people from
cultural identity, and millions of people. around the world to come to China.
The prestige, wealth, and power of running
China would not come simply from forcing One such visitor to Yuan China was the
the Chinese to pay tribute, and Kublai European adventurer and trader Marco
Khan wanted to be seen as a legitimate Polo (c. 1254–1324 CE). Polo, his father,
emperor. To this end, Kublai Khan and his and his uncle set off from Venice in Italy,
court adopted Chinese fashions and took conducting trade as they moved east across
over the Chinese system of government. the great Mongol Empire until they ended
They adapted the government to their own up in Kublai Khan’s court. The Polos served
needs, however. Kublai Khan maintained the khan in various jobs for a decade and a
a force of Mongol warriors as the core of half before returning to Venice, Marco Polo
his army and his personal bodyguard, and having been appointed as an ambassador

193
 on behalf of Kublai Khan. Marco Polo wrote
of his adventures in a text called Il milione
(The million), which introduced a European
audience to the achievements and culture
of China and other parts of the Mongol
Empire. The tales and descriptions in Polo’s
book were so extraordinary that many
people claimed he had made it all up. Polo
insisted that he had only been able to write
about half of what he had seen.

Find Out the Facts

Learn more about Marco Polo
and his journeys.

The Ming Dynasty

The Yuan dynasty went into decline almost
as soon as Kublai Khan died. The main
reason was the separate status of Mongol
rulers and Chinese subjects. Many Chinese
did not accept the legitimacy of the Yuan
rulers. They resisted in various ways, from
pursuing distinctly Chinese forms of art in
defiance of Mongol culture to cooperating
with criminals to avoid paying taxes to
the Mongol state. The Yuan found it hard
to maintain control of China, and their
task was made harder by a succession of
plagues and famines. Eventually, a large

194
rebellion arose that defeated the Yuan. In Hongwu also valued education. He
1368 CE, the rebel leader announced that revived the civil service exam, and schools
he was China’s new emperor. He took the were created for the many Chinese
name Hongwu and established China’s children who could not afford the private
new Ming dynasty. education they needed to attempt the

Hongwu was the first ethnically Chinese exams. Literacy, literature, and drama

ruler since the fall of the Song almost a exploded in Ming China, helped by the

hundred years earlier. He replaced the further refinement of the printing press,

imperial court rituals of the Mongols which accelerated the production of

with traditional Chinese, Confucian, and books. Opera also became a very popular

Buddhist rituals. He also sought to eliminate art form, emerging from forms of theater
the chaos, banditry, rebellion, and other that had been banned by the Mongols.

problems that had allowed him to come

Vocabulary
to power. He crushed internal opponents,
opera, n. a form of dramatic performance
got rid of government boards that were involving songs, music, and acting
meant to limit the power of the emperor,
and made loyal family members regional Art was encouraged but carefully regulated.
governors. He issued a harsh law code and Ming artists were told to imitate styles that
tightened imperial control of tax collection. had been popular during the Song dynasty
Hongwu also limited international trade, and to favor images from the natural world,
viewing it as something that had made such as landscapes and flower patterns. The
China weak and ripe for invasion by court created a bureau of design, tasked
foreigners like the Mongols, who had used with ensuring that artists stuck to official,
traders and travelers as spies. Hongwu’s approved styles of expression. The distinctive
measures were successful. He ruled for Chinese style of pottery with blue and white
thirty years and established a dynasty that patterns showing natural scenes, painted
lasted for centuries. and glazed onto ceramics, comes from the
Ming period. This pottery, as well as other
Find Out the Facts treasures, became increasingly desirable to
How did tightening international foreigners, especially Europeans. European
trade affect China’s economy? nations had set up trading posts and empires

195
in Southeast Asia and were eager for access these interests. An official called Zheng He
to Chinese markets. At the time, China’s was put in charge of a great fleet that was
rulers were able to dictate the terms of trade sent out to explore, make contact, and collect
with the Europeans, and eventually, the tribute from around the world. On its first
Portuguese were allowed to set up a trading voyage, in 1405 CE, Zheng He’s fleet sailed
post at Macau, on China’s southeast coast. to southern Vietnam, the island of Java, and

The Ming also tried to ensure that a the coast of India before returning to China.

conquest like that of the Mongols would On subsequent voyages, Zheng He went

never happen again. The Great Wall of China even farther. His fleet made it to the Strait of
that is visible today was mostly built during Hormuz, off the coast of Persia; Mecca, on the
the Ming dynasty as part of their effort to Arabian Peninsula; and the coast of Africa.

reinforce China’s northern border. The Ming Zheng He’s explorations increased Chinese

also expanded the capital to form a suitable influence and brought back ideas from afar.

base for military as well as governmental The end of Ming rule came as a result
operations. Within Beijing, the Ming built of a familiar blend of internal rebellion,
for themselves a massive new palace government corruption, and weak rule.
complex, suitable for running the great In 1644 CE, when Chinese rebels seized
Chinese empire. This complex is known as Beijing, Ming authorities invited a northern
the Forbidden City. It is called forbidden nomadic group, the Manchu, to enter
because only the emperor was allowed China to destroy the rebels. The Manchu
to enter all the rooms. Even the imperial agreed and did so, but they did not leave
family and highest officials had only limited China afterward. Instead, the Manchu
access to the palace. The complex included remained in control of Beijing, and they
government offices, residences, the imperial established China’s final dynasty, the Qing.
throne room, gardens, and even temples.

The Ming took power at a time when

people around the world were becoming
more interested in trade, exploration, and
China’s Last Dynasty: The Qing
colonization. Technological and scientific Unlike the Mongol Yuan dynasty, the Qing
advances made these efforts easier to carry rulers did not set themselves up at the top
out. The Ming rulers themselves briefly shared of a hierarchy. They maintained most of the

196
Ming system of government but ensured are considered both the height of Qing
that at least half of the official government civilization and the point at which it began
positions were filled by Manchus. The Qing to decline. The province of Xinjiang was
worked hard to restore order and stability to added to China’s empire, and places such as
China, and their rule was mostly accepted. Myanmar and Vietnam were forced to pay

Early on, the Qing gained legitimacy by tribute to China. These campaigns enhanced

successfully engaging in foreign wars and China’s ability to extract tribute from its

reforms of the Chinese state. The second neighbors, but they were also very expensive

Qing emperor, Kangxi, who lived in the late and put a great strain on the state’s finances.

1600s and early 1700s CE, personally toured

Writers’ Corner
his empire and had a direct hand in making
As Emperor Kangxi, write a pitch
sure that works of infrastructure such as the
to Chinese scholars about why
Grand Canal were repaired. He opened four they should study at your
coastal ports to foreign trade, including the academy and what you hope to gain
from it.
major port of Guangzhou. He held debates
in the Forbidden City and sponsored a small Qianlong was also known for both
private school that awarded scholarships promoting Chinese literature and imposing
to thinkers and artists of exceptional limits on it. He ordered the creation of
talent from outside the civil service. collected editions of Chinese philosophy,
Kangxi’s scholars produced a dictionary of history, and literature, but at the same time,
Chinese characters, a rhyming dictionary, he also made sure that any texts deemed
and several encyclopedias. Interested in unfavorable to his rule (or that of the
the world beyond China, Kangxi hired Manchus) were destroyed. Qianlong was one
Jesuit missionaries and other Europeans of the last strong rulers of China before the
to introduce him to Western ideas, art, many crises of the 1800s CE. His abdication
and inventions. In return, Kangxi allowed announcement in 1795 CE made him the
Christian missionaries to work in China. longest continuous ruler in Chinese history.
Another key period of Qing history occurred The century that followed his death was
in the reign of Qianlong, who ruled for marked by increasing foreign interference in
a period of sixty-one years, through China’s affairs. This interference eventually
most of the 1700s CE. These six decades led to the end of imperial rule in China.

197
 Chapter 11
Civilizations of Korea,
Japan, and
Southeast Asia
The Big Question
What influences shaped East and
Southeast Asia?

Civilizations of East Asia

Several early civilizations flourished in
the peninsulas and archipelagos of East
and Southeast Asia. All were greatly
influenced by China but remained
independent and developed their own
distinct and unique cultures. Their
mutual relationships, influences, and
rivalries built a great, interconnected
Hundreds of Korean Buddha
story of invention, innovation, statues made of jade decorate
Bohyeon Temple, South Korea.
war, trade, and art.

198
East Asia and Southeast Asia are terms used to
refer to an extremely large and varied region
that includes parts of China and lands to the
north, south, and east of it. Present-day Korea
and Japan are typically considered part of
East Asia. Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos,
Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines are part
of Southeast Asia. Through trade and conquest,
these civilizations eventually became closely
linked to China and India and adopted some
of the practices of those cultures, including
Confucianism and Buddhism. Other parts of this
vast region became part of Islamic civilization.
East and Southeast Asia lie in and along the
coast of the Pacific Ocean. Because the region
is so large, it does not have one definitive
climate. East and Southeast Asian land includes
numerous peninsulas and archipelagos, many
of which are situated in the western curve
of the Ring of Fire. This is a belt of volcanoes
and frequent earthquakes that stretches in
a horseshoe shape up the west coast of the
Americas, across the Arctic in the north, and
south through the western Pacific Ocean.
The tectonic activity in the region can trigger
destructive waves called tsunamis.

Vocabulary
tsunami, n. a giant wave caused by an
earthquake, volcanic eruption, or other
destabilizing event

199
The Japanese artist Katsushika Hokusai painted The Great Wave off Kanagawa in the 1800s CE.

Typhoons feature very strong winds, major

Find Out the Facts
rainfall, and other hazards that can cause
Find out more details about the
Ring of Fire. massive damage to property, agriculture,
and people’s lives. Typhoon season lasts
from about May to November.
In addition to tsunamis, the many coastal
areas of East and Southeast Asia also
experience typhoons, which are whirling
storms that form at sea and cause Ancient Korea
immense destruction when they reach land.
Korea lies on a mountainous peninsula.
It generally has warm, wet summers
Vocabulary and cold winters. Many early Korean
typhoon, n. a powerful rotating storm settlements emerged on or near the
with high winds that originates in the extensive coastline, which provided access
Pacific Ocean
to water, food, and trade. Large-scale

200
agriculture developed in river valleys and
Think Twice
on the relatively limited plains regions.
Why do monuments like dolmens
Settlements developed on the Korean suggest the existence of an elite
social class?
peninsula at least six thousand years ago,
and it is likely that people were living in
the region as early as ten thousand years By about 700 BCE, the people of Korea
ago. From about 2000 BCE onward, people had begun to grow rice as a staple crop.
began to live in more concentrated farming Rice growing was imported from China.
villages, mostly on hillsides. These Korean People from China and northeast Asia
settlements were characterized by structures also brought the technology and taste
called dolmens (koindol or chisongmyo in for bronze metalwork to Korea. Koreans
Korean), which are made of massive, heavy in the Bronze Age made weapons like
stones. More than two hundred thousand swords, axes, and spearheads as well
of these structures have been found so far, as some ornaments from bronze. By
mostly in the southern half of the peninsula. the 300s BCE, bronze metalwork had
The dolmens are likely markers left at tombs given way to iron. Throughout every era,
of the dead to commemorate important or Koreans made jewelry from precious
wealthy people. This suggests that a societal stones like jade, a green mineral, and
class structure existed by about 2000 BCE. obsidian, a volcanic glass with a deep
black color. Pottery was also common.
Pottery and jewelry artifacts indicate that
early Koreans traded with their neighbors
in Japan and China.

From the 700s to the 400s BCE, some

Korean towns were united into the first
complex state in the peninsula, Gojoseon.
The heart of Gojoseon was the region
around the Taedong and Liao Rivers.
Chinese influences, and probably Chinese
people themselves, came to Gojoseon
from the neighboring Chinese state of Yan.

201
In 108 BCE, the north of Korea was system also determined tax status and
conquered by the Han dynasty of China. job opportunities, who one could marry,
After that, during a time that is somewhat housing, and even details like what kind
confusingly referred to as Korea’s Three of architectural features a person’s house
Kingdoms period (57 BCE–668 CE), four could have. People in the lowest ranks of
rival states began to emerge on the society, including enslaved people (often
peninsula. The northern part, formerly the those convicted of crimes or prisoners of
state of Gojoseon, became the kingdom war), worked as farmers and soldiers.
of Goguryeo (or Koguryo). In the southern Although the Three Kingdoms period was
part of Korea were the kingdoms of Baekje dominated by warfare between the rival
and Silla as well as a confederation of states, it was also a period in which the
city-states collectively known as Gaya. governments, art, and culture of Korea
These four states made war and shifting grew in sophistication. Remarkable wall
alliances with each other, and with China paintings, often seen on tombs, were
and Japan, until the 700s CE. made in Goguryeo. Baekje likely also
produced a large amount of high-quality
Vocabulary art, but much of it was destroyed in war. It
confederation, n. a group of was also in this period that Confucianism,
independent kingdoms or states that
work together Daoism, and Buddhism began to be
imported to Korea from neighboring

Life for most people in this period was China. Buddhism even became the official

defined by their societal class. The state religion of the Korean kingdoms.

kingdom of Silla developed the bone After centuries of conflict, Korea was
rank system, a rigid social structure finally unified by the Silla kingdom in the
based on ancestry that determined late 600s CE. The Silla triumphed over their
an individual’s rank in the social and neighbors partly because they received
political order. Most aspects of people’s aid from the Chinese Tang dynasty. The
lives were dictated by their place in the new, unified Korean dynasty was called
system. Only people who had ancestry the Unified Silla kingdom. It eventually
from the highest class could hold official secured its independence from China by
roles in the government or military. The turning on its former patrons, the Tang

202
dynasty, and defeating Chinese armies in promoted Buddhism by building and
675 and 676 CE. expanding Buddhist temples.

The Unified Silla monarchs were drawn The Unified Silla kingdom’s decline in the
from the Kim clan. To ensure that the 900s CE may have been fueled by the strict
nobles of their defeated former rivals social hierarchy enforced by the bone rank
couldn’t rebel against them, they system. The rigid system prohibited Silla
relocated other aristocrats to new regions rulers from responding to social changes,
where they did not have family or personal such as aristocrats demanding more
connections or an established power chances for advancement or commoners
base. The Silla also reorganized their angered by excessive taxes.
kingdom into nine provinces, each run by
Find Out the Facts
a governor appointed by the king. During
this period, Buddhism began to influence Read more about how the bone
rank system worked.
Korean art and architecture. Silla rulers

Writers’ Corner
Write a paragraph from the
perspective of someone living
under the bone rank system.
Explain the problems it has caused you and
the system you would prefer to replace it.

Silla rule had collapsed by 935 CE and was

replaced by the Goryeo (or Koryo) dynasty,
which ruled until the end of the 1300s CE.
The Goryeo developed a more organized
and centralized system of government.
They helped encourage trade by exporting
valuable goods to China in exchange for
a great number of Chinese goods like silk,
tea, books, and other valuables. The Goryeo
supported this trade by minting their own
A gold Buddha statue from the Unified Silla kingdom coins, modeled on Chinese types, from

203
iron and copper. Art and culture flourished began cultivating rice, which was likely
as artisans became skilled in ceramics, introduced from Korea.
printmaking, and papermaking. Women The Yayoi period began in 300 BCE, when
had more independence than in many other people in Japan began to grow more rice
societies of the time. The maternal line of a and vegetables after the introduction of
family was considered as important as the irrigation systems, which provided water
paternal line. Women could inherit money for rice paddies, and granaries, which were
and property, divorce, and maintain custody used to store the rice. As the settlements
of children. Eventually, the Goryeo were of the Yayoi period grew, they became
weakened by attacks from the Mongols, regional hubs for trade and exchange. The
and their rule ended around 1392 CE. Yayoi people were divided among about
Think Twice one hundred clans who had mutual rivalries
and alliances. They competed for status,
What factors might have caused
Korean culture to flourish in the land, and resources. It was also in the Yayoi
Goryeo period? period that contact with other places,
especially China, began to intensify. Visitors
from China in 240 CE are said to have been

Ancient Japan greeted in Japan by a great female ruler

they called Himiko, whom they described as
Japan is an archipelago consisting of a powerful magician who had made herself
four large islands and more than 3,500 a great ruler through success in warfare.
smaller islands. Mount Fuji, on the
The Kofun period lasted from 250 to 538 CE.
island of Honshu, is an active volcano
It takes its name from the distinctive burial
and the tallest mountain in Japan at
mounds in which people during this time
12,830 feet tall. Humans first came to
interred their dead. The material culture of
Japan from mainland Asia around thirty
thousand years ago, using land bridges Vocabulary
that connected the islands to mainland material culture, n. the objects made
Asia and were subsequently submerged and used in a society, including tools,
in the ocean. Early groups mostly art, buildings, clothing, toys, and other
goods
hunted and fished. Eventually, people

204
this period shows advances in sophistication
compared to earlier periods in Japanese
history, especially in the quality of pottery.

The Kofun period also saw the

development of a new religion. Shinto,
which means the way of the gods, is
the oldest religion in Japan. According
to Shinto beliefs, the world and all its
phenomena are associated with thousands
of gods and spirits who are known as kami.
Kami are not a single category; kami can
refer to gods, spirits, lesser gods, monsters,
ghosts, and even some particularly
notable humans. There are around eight
million kami. The most important goddess
in Shinto, however, is Amaterasu, the The Shinto shrine of Kusado Jinja in Fukuyama, Japan
goddess of the sun, who rules over the
realm of the kami. Initially, Shinto practice The tombs and shrines of the Kofun
involved respecting and worshipping the period are evidence of the Japanese
kami found in nature. Over time, dedicated aristocracy’s rise in power and wealth.
shrines, temples, priests, and monks arose One clan in particular, the Yamato, seems
to guide Shinto religious practices. Shinto to have established power in the regions
temples are marked by large, bright red around present-day Kyoto, Nara, and
gates called torii, which mark the boundary Osaka. The power of the Yamato and their
between the everyday world and the supporters was cemented and expressed
sacred space of the shrine. by their role in performing major rituals
to bless people and appease the kami.
Find Out the Facts As the Yamato grew in power, they also
How has the symbolism established more consistent contacts with
of the sun been used throughout neighboring Korea and China. In exchange
Japanese history?
for gifts of tribute sent to China (through

205
Korea), the Japanese received immigrants Asuka period, which was named after the
who brought with them particular skills capital city from which the emperor ruled.
and cultural forms that the Japanese Japanese emperors were believed to be
adopted and innovated on. One of the direct descendants of the sun goddess
most momentous products of this cultural Amaterasu. Treated as gods, they were the
exchange was the introduction to Japan heads of the Shinto religion as well as the
of the Chinese writing system and Chinese rulers of the Japanese people. Although
texts, which form the basis of the writing the title of emperor was inherited by
system still used in Japan today. male descendants, there were several

The Yamato were supported by female emperors.

neighboring clans; other clans ruled other

parts of Japan. Clans were family groups
that resembled a small local government
or state, similar to a small feudal kingdom
or fiefdom. These clans would persist for a
long time in Japanese history.

Vocabulary
fiefdom, n. a particular territory ruled
by and passed down within a family

Imperial Japan
Although Japanese legends say that the
first emperors date back as far as the 700s Emperor Kammu, the fiftieth emperor of Japan, ruled
from 781 to 806 CE.
BCE, the first ruler of Japan for which
there is historical evidence is Emperor The rise of the emperors coincided with
Kimmei, who ruled between 539 and the growth of a more complex Japanese
571 CE. This was the beginning of the government that was heavily influenced

206
by Chinese ideas and cultural forms. These ruinously expensive and caused great
influences included the concept of a complaints about taxation. Interestingly,
powerful emperor and a well-organized Buddhism and Shinto were viewed as
bureaucratic government. One of the compatible religions, and emperors’
most important reformers in the Asuka support of Buddhism did not change their
period was Prince Shōtoku, who ruled role as the head of the Shinto faith. As
as a regent when political machinations with the construction of Buddhist temples,
put a woman, Empress Suiko, on the the royal court continued to promote the
throne. Shōtoku supported the spread of construction of major Shinto shrines.
Buddhism and Chinese learning in Japan. The Heian period marked the creation of
He also set up a more formal structure for a major center of imperial rule at the city
the Japanese government. Called the cap of Heian-kyō, now called Kyoto. Kyoto
system, it designated an official’s status means the capital, and the city was home
and rank by the color of hat they wore. to the imperial court for centuries after it
Shōtoku’s reforms also established that was established in 794 CE. Kyoto imitated
only the emperor had the right to collect Chinese capitals and included not only
taxes, which strengthened the power of the imperial palace but also several major
the central government. shrines, gardens, government offices, and
public walkways.
Vocabulary Japan under the Heian government had
bureaucratic, adj. based on the formal a population of seven million people. The
organization of government and offices government’s increasing complexity and
held by appointed officials
power did not actually ensure a positive
outcome for the majority of the people.
Emperors ruled from the city of Nara One example was the practice of handing
from 710 to 794 CE, promoting the arts out public lands to people at regular
and the construction of large wooden intervals, which led to a small number of
Buddhist and Shinto temples. Emperor Japanese families owning more and more
Shomu, who ruled from 724 to 749 CE, of the country’s farmland. By the 1200s CE,
established a Buddhist temple in every about half of all farmland was owned by
province of Japan. The project proved private landlords, who grew rich off their

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landholdings partly because they were (and potential brides) for the emperor.
given exemptions from taxes they were As a result, a lot of Heian court literature
supposed to pay to the imperial court. As and artwork was produced by aristocratic
the wealth of these landlords increased, so women.
did their power. Meanwhile, the majority
of common people had to suffer with little
money, little land, and no power. As the
powerful families exercised more of their
The Shogun and the Samurai
power, they ultimately diminished the The concentration of wealth and power
authority of the emperor. in the hands of private landlords during
The Heian nobility were behind several the Heian period produced a social
major cultural achievements, including change that had consequences for Japan’s
the establishment of a Japanese writing government and society for centuries
system that was used to compose works to come.
of poetry, diaries, and the text considered Before the Heian period, the emperor could
to be the world’s first novel, The Tale of call upon an army that was composed
Genji (written around 1020 CE). The Tale of people who were conscripted to
of Genji is a story about Prince Genji and serve. This system ended in 792 CE. As
his adventures, especially his romantic the regional landlords grew in power
encounters. The author of the novel was and wealth, they raised private armies of
Murasaki Shikibu, a woman who was a warriors to serve their interests and protect
member of the Fujiwara clan and the their lands. These warriors were referred
daughter of a governor. Murasaki Shikibu to by a word that originally meant simply
lived in the imperial court, and her novel is attendant or servant: samurai. Samurai were
filled with details and observations about professional warriors who were bound to
the Heian court and what the Japanese serve the regional lords, called daimyo, by
nobility believed about life, its struggles,
and its triumphs. Women like Murasaki
Vocabulary
Shikibu were educated and trained to play
music and compose poetry, partly so that conscript, v. to oblige or force to enter
military service
they could be entertaining companions

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oaths they swore to their lord’s service in and care for horses; and how to buy and
return for food and lodging. Powerful and maintain well-made weapons and armor.
important samurai were also allowed to The daimyo could also force peasants to
own and manage castles and fortifications fight in their armies, but in general, these
to defend their lord’s territories. Unlike armies were made up of poor, badly
most people in Japan, this special status trained, and poorly equipped men.
meant that samurai had the money and
the support needed to train and fight
Writers’ Corner
effectively. They learned how to fight with
Why is access to a good diet
spears, bows, and swords; how to ride so important for a class of
warriors?

The samurai didn’t just protect their

daimyo’s land. They also waged war
against rival daimyo. Many of Japan’s
daimyo were descendants of the imperial
family. By the twelfth century CE, many
of the most powerful daimyo had a claim
to the throne. They fought a great war
to see which of them could control the
emperor and Japan’s government. The
Genpei War (1180–85 CE) was fought
between backers of the powerful Taira
and Minamoto families. After five years
of fighting that included massive battles
punctuated by natural disasters, the
Minamoto family and their supporters
were triumphant over their rivals. To
cement his victory, the leader of the
Minamoto faction, Minamoto Yoritomo,
This painting imagines Minamoto Yoritomo’s training at
the age of thirteen. declared himself shogun. Shogun was

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a military title from ancient Japan that of how honorable and skilled they were.
was usually given to the leader of an Eventually, samurai took to inscribing
army sent out on a specific campaign. these statements on their banners. By the
Yoritomo’s shogunate, however, was 1500s CE, wealthy samurai owned specially
more like a military dictatorship. As the made suits of armor that included lavish
real central government, the shogunate decorations like helmet crests and masks
(or bakufu) was in charge of policy fashioned in the image of monsters.
making and implementation. The This allowed them and their skills to be
emperor became a figurehead and was easily recognized.
relegated to his ceremonial and religious At the heart of bushido was the idea that
duties. The daimyo had to follow the samurai owed their daimyo their
the commands of the shogun, who absolute loyalty—a loyalty that would
appointed his own regional governors override any other duty, including that of
and administrative officials. a son to his parents. Samurai were meant
The samurai developed their own code of to uphold their reputations as noble and
ethics and cultural practices that helped respectable warriors throughout their
bind them together as a class and offered lives. Samurai who wanted to display the
a set of justifications and rituals for their utmost loyalty to their lord took their own
military role. This is known as bushido, lives in a ritual act of suicide called seppuku.
the way of the warrior. Bushido was not Dishonorable samurai and members of a
a fixed set of ideas, and it varied across losing faction might die this way also.
time. It took a lot of influences from Women were not expected to serve as
Buddhism, especially Zen Buddhism, a warriors, but some noblewomen received
form of meditative Buddhist practice. It training in the use of weapons. The wife of
also incorporated Confucian ideals and a lord would sometimes take command of
the obsessions and skills of a professional a castle’s defenses if the lord was away.
warrior, such as bravery, skill at arms, and
respect for fellow warriors.
Writers’ Corner
Early samurai were expected to shout their
Write a short story from the
name and their deeds at their opponents point of view of a samurai.
during battle as a kind of announcement

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Minamoto’s shogunate is known as the land to the north of China. Mongol leader
Kamakura period. It lasted from 1192 to Genghis Khan came to power in 1206
1333 CE. The shogunate was a product of CE. Within five years, the Mongols had
the rising warrior landlord class, whose conquered areas of northern China and
rituals and priorities were reflected in the had begun attacking the Goryeo dynasty of
period’s culture. Zen Buddhism appealed Korea. Led by Genghis Khan’s son Ögödei
to and was promoted by the samurai Khan, the Mongols’ attacks weakened the
under the shogunate because it was a Goryeo, forcing them to move their capital
very stripped-down, fundamental practice to an island in 1231 CE. Eventually, the
that focused on meditation, simplicity, Korean people, who had been left behind
and straightforward action in the present to face the Mongol attacks while the
moment. Distinctive Japanese cultural government sat in isolation on their island,
rituals like the tea ceremony and ink-brush had enough. They rebelled and forced
calligraphy were also developed in this their king to make peace with the Mongols.
period by samurai who wanted to express One condition attached to the peace was
their values and beliefs. The Kamakura that Korea had to supply the Mongols with
period also saw improvements in Japanese ships, which would be used to attack their
infrastructure, namely roads, and an next target: Japan.
increase in trade with China that led to the
introduction of a strain of rice that was more
Writers’ Corner
resilient and produced more reliable yields.
Imagine you are a commoner in
Find Out the Facts Korea during the waves of
Mongol attacks. Write a speech
What does the traditional calling on others to persuade your
Japanese tea ceremony involve? leaders to accept the Mongols’ conditions
for peace.

The Mongols, who now ruled a huge

The Mongols and Dynastic Changes empire that included China, Korea, and
As with China, Korea’s and Japan’s histories many other regions, attempted to invade
were shaped by the great invasions of Japan in 1274 and 1281 CE. The Mongol
the Mongols, a nomadic people from the ruler, Kublai Khan, sent diplomats to Japan

211
 demanding tribute. The Japanese ignored
the diplomats, and the Mongols invaded
in 1274. The Japanese successfully resisted
the invaders until the Mongols launched
a second invasion in 1281. This time,
the Mongols pushed deeper into Japan
with an even larger army. The Japanese
received a sudden stroke of luck when
a typhoon smashed into the bay where
the Mongol fleet was anchored, killing
perhaps half of the entire invading army.
The Japanese believed that the wind
had been sent by Hachiman, the Shinto
god of war, to whom they had prayed for
deliverance. The typhoon was called the
kamikaze, or the divine wind.

Japan had avoided conquest by the

Mongols, but its reaction to the invasion
still managed to destabilize the Kamakura
shogunate. The shogun worried that the
Mongols would invade again. As a result, he
kept his armies on full alert. The long years
of defensive preparation damaged the
economy, which exhausted the shogun’s
ability to pay for soldiers. The Mongols did
not attack again, but an already damaged
Japan became even more unstable.

Think Twice
Why were the Japanese worried they
would be invaded again?

212
The Mongol Empire weakened after Kublai ability to collect them, they were wealthier
Khan’s death, and a new dynasty rose to than many Japanese peasants of the past.
power in Korea. The Joseon (or Choson)
Power struggles between regional rulers
dynasty lasted from 1392 CE until 1910.
became widespread over time, and
Its founder, Yi Song-Gye, was a general
Japan entered the Warring States period
in Goryeo when the Ming dynasty took
(1467–1615 CE), a period of ongoing civil
power in China in 1368 CE. At the time, the
war. This era of instability coincided with
elites of Goryeo were split. Some wanted
Japan’s first European contact. In 1543 CE,
to support the new Ming dynasty; others
Portuguese sailors were aboard a Chinese
wanted to support the Mongol rulers. Yi,
ship that ran aground in western Japan.
who supported the Ming, defeated his
The sailors brought with them the first
rivals and made himself the new king of
firearms to reach the island. Christianity
Korea. He set up a new capital where the
also came to Japan through trade with
modern city of Seoul is now. Yi’s reforms
the Portuguese.
included redistribution of land to give
a wider array of people a share in the The Tokugawa clan took power in the
new kingdom. He also strengthened ties early 1600s CE and ruled from the city of
to China by replacing the official state Edo (present-day Tokyo). The Tokugawa
religion of Buddhism with Confucianism. shogunate (also called the Edo shogunate)
Shoguns continued to reign in Japan, used its military might to restore power
even though the central government to the central government. These
had little power outside of Kyoto and shoguns went on to oversee a period
the surrounding areas. Eventually, the of two and half centuries of order and
shoguns’ authority diminished as the growing prosperity. However, they also
power and independence of the regional closed off Japan to the rest of the world.
daimyo grew. Some Japanese villages Christian missionaries were banned, as
began to organize and govern themselves. was most trade with Westerners. Japanese
Many of these communities were guided agriculture expanded during this period,
by Buddhist principles. Because people and so did manufacturing and internal
did not have to pay taxes to the central trade, which prompted the growth of the
government, which did not have the cities of Edo, Osaka, and Kyoto.

213
 Southeast Asia
To the south of China, Korea, and The modern country of Vietnam is
Japan lies Southeast Asia. This region is located on the Indochinese Peninsula.
characterized by numerous peninsulas The Viet people rose to prominence
and archipelagos, mountainous areas, around 200 BCE. China’s Han and
and fertile river valleys. Multiple ethnic Tang dynasties also held sway in
groups emerged in this region, which was the region, but the Viet eventually
fairly isolated due to its distance from defeated Chinese forces in 938 CE.
other parts of Asia and mountain chains The independent state of Dai Viet
that deterred travel. However, by 100 CE, that formed was greatly influenced by
Indian traders had established links to Chinese culture. Confucianism was the
Southeast Asia and introduced Hinduism official teaching, and the government
to the region. was modeled on China’s well-organized
bureaucracy.

In what is now Cambodia, the Khmer

ethnic group grew strong and built
an extensive empire. Hinduism and
Buddhism, which had spread from India,
prevailed in this civilization. The Khmer
were wealthy and created impressive
buildings that reflected both the might

Find Out the Facts

Learn more about Angkor Wat.

Think Twice Writers’ Corner

How do you think regional Using your research, write a
geography influenced the civilization visitor’s guide for Angkor Wat.
of Southeast Asia?

214
of the Khmer and their close ties to India. Around 1350 CE, a Thai kingdom called
One of their best-known buildings, Angkor Ayutthaya rose to power. Its capital was
Wat, was constructed in the 1100s CE. where Bangkok, Thailand’s modern capital,
A huge complex, it served as a temple and is now located. The Ayutthaya kingdom
a royal tomb and included an observatory ruled over a large area of Southeast Asia
for studying the heavens. for four centuries. It became a center of
Buddhist learning as well as a hub of trade.

The Malay people emerged in the Malay

Peninsula and surrounding islands, where
the modern country of Indonesia now
exists. The Malay eventually ruled over the
islands of Java and Sumatra and benefited
from the trade that passed through the
straits around these islands. By the 800s
CE, Muslim traders and missionaries
had brought Islam to parts of Southeast
Asia. From that point on, the islands of
Indonesia became an important part of
the Muslim world.

China and India continued to influence

Angkor Wat is richly decorated with elaborate sculptures.
Southeast Asia, but the peoples in
this area of the world adapted many
The Khmer Empire ended after Angkor, of the practices that came from their
its capital, was captured by Thai people in neighbors and made them their own.
1432 CE. The Thai ethnic group originated Although the vast region encompassing
from farther north on the peninsula, near East and Southeast Asia became more
the border with China, and eventually interconnected over time and eventually
migrated and settled in the area that is developed some ties with the West, each
present-day Thailand. Buddhist monks from civilization continued to develop as a
India introduced Buddhism to the region, distinct society with its own identity,
which already had a Hindu presence. culture, and practices.

215
 Chapter 12 The Big Question

Europe and Russia in What ideas and practices

characterized the Middle Ages?

the Middle Ages

What Were the Middle Ages?

The Middle Ages were ten centuries in
Europe that followed the fall of the Western
Roman Empire. It was an interesting time
filled with castles, beautiful churches,
knights and ladies, artisans, and peasants.
It introduced inventions such as the
mechanical clock, the printing press, and
new types of governments and trade.
Also called the medieval period, the Middle Ages
lasted from about 500 CE to 1500 CE.

The term Middle Ages designates an era of

European history between the classical period of
ancient Greece and Rome and the Renaissance.
Because Renaissance artists and thinkers saw
themselves as rediscovering and connecting to the
ideas and beliefs of the classical era, they viewed
the years between the classical period and the
Conwy Castle in Wales
Renaissance as a time of backwardness and decay.

216
 That’s why they called this period the
Middle Ages.

Modern historians recognize the

tremendous advances, inventions, and
developments that were brought to life
during this period. They generally break
the Middle Ages into three periods: the
early Middle Ages (500–1000 CE), the High
Middle Ages (1000–1300 CE), and the late
Middle Ages (1300–1500 CE).

Think Twice
Why is it important to understand
who coined the term Middle Ages?

Several important groups shaped

medieval Europe, including the aristocracy;
the commons, which included the
middle class and the peasantry; and the
Church. The aristocracy originated from
Roman nobles or the warriors who were
followers of a particular king. Aristocratic
status was hereditary, although very
occasionally non-nobles moved into the
aristocracy. This group held most of the
land throughout Europe and virtually all
military and political power.

The commons included everyone who

was not aristocratic. Commoners could
be wealthy merchants, extremely poor
landless vagabonds, or anyone in between.
Commoners in the middle class generally

217
worked a trade and lived in a free town— ripped up to use for other purposes. Long-
that is, a town not under the control of a distance trade, which had thrived under the
lord. Craftspeople, merchants, traders, and Roman Empire, disappeared. There was no
bankers were middle class. The size of this longer much contact between regions of
group had increased enough by the High Europe and even less between Europe and
Middle Ages to be perceived as a distinct the Middle East, North Africa, or Asia.
class in society, separate from the rest of Groups such as the Alemanni, Franks,
the commons. Angles, Saxons, Vandals, Visigoths,
and others began to migrate into the
empire’s territory in the third century CE.
They established their own regional
Early Middle Ages cultures, and some even formed their
The Roman Empire established many own kingdoms. In 496 CE, the Franks
aspects of social structure and order, such as conquered the Alemanni and became the
unified laws, trade, and an organized military. dominant new kingdom in Europe.
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire,
these disappeared, and society had to find
a way to survive. By the late Roman Empire, The Church in Europe
many people had settled on great estates With the decline of the Western Roman
owned by nobles who had military training Empire, the only European-wide system was
and were able to protect them. the Christian Church, which was referred
Without the Roman army, society fractured to as the Church. After Constantine made
into more localized structures. There was Christianity the official religion of the
more crime and lawlessness. Cities declined Roman Empire in 380 CE, the Church
in size, and many smaller towns disappeared organized itself with a structure similar
altogether. Literacy declined throughout to that of the old Roman government.
Europe from around 500 to 700 CE. People Regional headquarters were located
who could not read books took less care of in major cities; bishops oversaw all the
them, so many of the existing books were churches in a region. Any church where
lost or destroyed—eaten by insects or there was a bishop was called a cathedral.
rodents, allowed to get damp and rot, or The most important bishop within the

218
hierarchy of the Church was the bishop of
Rome, better known as the pope. The pope
oversaw all Christianity in Europe. In the sixth
and seventh centuries, most European cities
had Christian churches. In the countryside,
Christianity was still largely unknown.
Religious beliefs were numerous and varied,
spanning everything from regional practices
to paganism. These differences began to
disappear with the rise of monasticism in
the seventh and eighth centuries. This fifteenth-century CE Italian painting shows monks
studying.
Monasticism is a religious practice that
learning in an era when schools were rare
involves a group (rather than one person)
and universities did not yet exist in Europe.
dedicated to living according to spiritual
beliefs. People settled together in a Men often joined monasteries to become

community, often in a remote area, to live educated, for safety, or for spiritual

simple lives of prayer and contemplation. reasons. Most monasteries followed a

They usually shunned material goods and set of rules that gave guidance for how

avoided luxuries, wore basic clothing, ate the monastery should operate and how

plain foods, and lived in simple housing. monks should live their daily lives. These

Members of these groups, who were often rules often specified what clothing should

men, were called monks. Separate groups be worn, what food should be eaten, and

of women formed later. Those women when activities should take place. The

were called nuns. rules also meant that monasteries became

centers of stability in medieval Europe.
Members of monastic communities found
that in a world where it was difficult for
individuals to survive, they thrived by Writers’ Corner
helping each other, working together, and Write a short story set in
medieval Europe in which the
sharing possessions. Monasteries, where main character explains to their
monks lived and studied, also became family why they want to join a monastic
community.
repositories of books and centers of

219
They provided an orderly, educated, never learned to read, but he recognized
economically successful life. Monasteries that books were important. He brought
probably provided the best living scholars from all over Europe to his court
standards in all of medieval Europe, even at Aachen, in present-day Germany, and
better than the aristocracy attained. ordered them to find and make copies of
books. This helped monastic libraries grow
Charlemagne from small collections to hundreds of titles.

Charlemagne also encouraged a new form

In the eighth century CE, the kingdom
of script writing that was clear and easy
of the Franks was one of the strongest
to read. It is the basis for modern printing
in Europe. One of its kings rose to such
type. People began to transition from
power that he became known as Charles
using papyrus scrolls to books, which led to
the Great, or Charlemagne. When
an increase in the production of beautifully
Charlemagne first came to the throne,
decorated books called illuminated
Europe was fractured into many small
manuscripts. Artists would add pictures or
kingdoms. The overall population of
elaborate decorations in an array of colors,
Europe was low, the economy was almost
including silver and gold, which made the
entirely agricultural and localized, and few
illustrations shine and gleam.
people were literate. Charlemagne himself
Charlemagne’s Empire

220
Much of Charlemagne’s influence came Europe was wracked by attacks from the
from his very successful conquests of Franks during Charlemagne’s reign, but
nearly all surrounding territories. He would Charlemagne’s military might have kept the
ensure that his army was larger than the outsiders at bay. After his death, Europe once
enemy’s, that they were better equipped again descended into regional governance
and supplied. His soldiers frightened the and saw a decline in population, literacy,
enemy with large, dragon-like pennants and long-distance trade.
carried on lances, which were stuffed with
flammable material and lit on fire. His
tactics worked so well that Charlemagne’s High Middle Ages
territory eventually included most of the
A new period of greater calm began in
western half of the old Roman Empire.
Europe around 1000 CE. Attacks from the
Charlemagne went to Rome to have outside subsided, and warmer weather
his son baptized by the pope in 800 CE. increased crop yields. Many regions in
According to legend, the pope surprised Europe doubled in population, and overall
Charlemagne by crowning him emperor. life expectancy increased. New towns
From then on, Charlemagne was known as were established, and existing ones were
the emperor of the Romans. He expanded expanded. All of this resulted in the growth
his territory and built up the intellectual, of the Church’s influence and of church
political, and military institutions. Although buildings themselves. Bigger populations
he did not quite restore the level of and economies also increased the need for
organization that had existed under the governments to coordinate this growth and
Roman Empire, he brought Europe into a expansion. By 1000 CE, all these changes
new period of greater unity and stronger had sparked the need for a revised social,
institutions. political, and administrative structure.

Charlemagne’s son Louis took power

after Charlemagne’s death in 814 CE.
Feudalism
Eventually, the empire was divided The High Middle Ages saw the
between Charlemagne’s grandsons Lothair development of an organized feudal
and Charles. Their territories eventually system. European feudalism changed over
become the lands of Germany and France. time, shaping much of medieval society
221
and evolving into a complex hierarchy
dominated by royalty and nobles. Kings
and other aristocrats were called lords. They
granted parcels of land called fiefs to nobles
who fought for them. These nobles also
took an oath to fight for their lord whenever
called upon. In return, the lord promised
to protect the noble, called a vassal, if
needed. This bond of loyalty was a defining
feature of feudalism. A duke could be a
vassal to a king, but the duke could also be
a lord to an earl, a noble of lesser status. The
earl would be a vassal to the duke.

Vocabulary
vassal, n. a person who receives land
from a lord and in return promises to
fight for the lord

The tie between lord and vassal was a

political and military bond that also had
legal, social, economic, and religious
implications. To break the bond in either
direction would bring penalties, especially
for the vassal. A vassal who ignored a
call to fight for their lord could face legal
action and social rejection. They could
also face economic ruin. The vassal’s only
source of income was the land that had
been granted by the lord, and it could
easily be taken away. Breaking the bond
could also result in excommunication from

222
the Church, which meant that a person
could not receive the rite of communion.
Knights and Castles
Excommunication was a most serious The military structure of the High Middle
consequence, and it was believed to result Ages was dominated by the shock combat
in punishment in the afterlife. of mounted knights and the building
of castles. Castles are strongholds. Most
Feudalism provided order. The king could
castles were built for one lord, or a lord
order his vassal dukes to come to his aid and
and his family, as a house strong enough
go to war. Each duke might be commanded
to withstand attack with the help of few
to bring with him a certain number of
defenders. Some castles were built of wood,
fighting men. The dukes then sent out
but wood can be overcome by chopping
orders to their vassal earls to bring men,
or burning. Stone was a much better
and so on. The result was the accumulation
option. Castles, which were built by a lord’s
of an army. Each of these men received not
peasants, were protected by moats and had
only the protection of the lord above him
no real windows. Their few small openings
but also a grant of land that could then be
were wide enough for defenders to shoot
doled out to peasants to farm. Each noble
arrows from but narrow enough to prevent
in the hierarchy of feudalism had peasants
an attacker from successfully shooting in
farming their lands, providing them with the
from the outside.
necessary foods and goods to sell for their
Attackers would storm a castle by throwing
income. This system created a moderately
and shooting objects and scaling the
stable environment for society to exist and walls. Huge machines were constructed
even grow. Everyone was provided some to help attackers hurl objects at the castle.
protection so that the peasantry could do Catapults were used to throw relatively
their work and provide the food necessary small objects; trebuchets could hurl large
for society. stones or objects to batter down castle
walls or the defensive walls of a town. The
Writers’ Corner
most effective way to take a castle was
Imagine you are a lord. Write a usually by laying siege, or surrounding and
letter commanding your vassals
to come to your aid, and remind starving out the inhabitants. That’s why
them of what it would mean for castles needed to have enough supplies of
them to break their oath to you. food and water inside to last some time.

223
Castles were attacked with huge machines such as this trebuchet.

Find Out the Facts Medieval Combat

Learn more details about how
castles were attacked and defended.
The most important fighters of the High
Middle Ages were knights, who fought on
Medieval castles were dark, cold, damp, horseback and wore heavy metal armor.
cramped, and smelly. In the castles owned Unlike a cavalry, where the purpose of
by wealthier lords, there might be cloth riding on a horse was to get warriors to
hung over the walls to cover the dampness the site of combat faster or to slice into
and help keep in the heat. Toilets were infantry with a lance on a rapidly moving
sometimes built into an overhang so that horse, knights clashed directly with other
waste fell outside the castle. The space knights. Mounted knights were the essence
inside the structure was open to grow of medieval warfare, although infantry were
vegetables and herbs. Some royal castles still the greatest number of soldiers. Units
were home to not only the lord and his of knights often led the attack with infantry
family but also knights and servants. These, following and dealing with the majority of
too, were unpleasant accommodations. the battle. Knights also showed off their skills
Monasteries were almost always more and provided entertainment by competing
comfortable than castles. against one another in tournaments.

224
 Hundred Years’ War, but they were not
very effective, as both the powder and
the guns themselves were unreliable.
Cannons were in use by the latter part of
the fourteenth century CE, but they were
unwieldy to move and to fire.

The Crusades
A lord or king would make someone a knight in a
ceremony. The person being knighted would kneel, and In the High Middle Ages, Europeans had
the lord would touch the person’s shoulders lightly with
a sword.
expanded interest in the lands where
Christianity began, called the Holy Land.
However, the rise of Islam from the
The English introduced an important
change in warfare in the fourteenth century
CE. During one campaign of the Hundred
Years’ War against the French, the English
army brought longbowmen. Longbows
were six feet long and normally used for
hunting. These simple devices could be
made quickly and were powerful enough
to fire arrows great distances with great
accuracy. The increased use of longbows
led to a shift away from mounted warfare
because longbowmen could rain down
arrows on mounted knights long before
the knights were close to the enemy line.

Gunpowder brought another change in

warfare. Probably copying the Chinese,
who used it in fireworks, Europeans were
using gunpowder in offensive weapons The longbow’s size allows the archer to draw the arrow
back farther, which imparts greater energy into the
by 1326 CE. Handguns appeared in the projectile so it can fly farther and with more force.

225
seventh century CE onward had limited were killed. A small group of knights
the interaction between Europe and the began to protect the pilgrims. They wore
Holy Land. In 1096 CE, the pope called for a distinctive white tunic with a large red
a crusade to take back the Holy Land for cross on the chest. Their symbol was
Christianity. The call gained immediate two knights riding on one horse, which
support. A large army, mostly from referenced their impoverished state as
France, headed to Palestine and defeated a monastic order. The Knights Templar
a surprised Muslim army. The Christians became so renowned that money and
captured Jerusalem in 1099 CE. new recruits poured into the order. The

The Knights Hospitaller was a monastic pope awarded the Templars rights that

military order. Its main purpose was to allowed them to travel anywhere without

care for wounded or ill knights, but it restriction or taxation. Even though they

also became known for its members’ developed enormous financial influence

fighting abilities. Branches of the Knights throughout Europe and the Middle East,

Hospitaller were established all over their fame was primarily due to their

Europe. The Hospitallers provided a model military success as mounted knights.

for the establishment of an even more

powerful and influential monastic military
order, the Knights Templar. The Templars
Manorialism
were a Christian military order founded Peasants were not technically part of the
around 1118 CE to protect pilgrims, or feudal structure, which was a political
people who journey to a sacred place, as and military arrangement, but they were
they traveled to the Holy Land. Pilgrims hugely important to all of medieval
immediately began to travel to Jerusalem society. By the High Middle Ages, most
after its conquest, but the path was very peasants were bound to the land by a
dangerous. Many hundreds of pilgrims contract that they agreed to with the
lord of a manor. A manor was a rural,
self-contained farming unit consisting of
Vocabulary
several families who produced all their
pilgrim, n. a follower of a religion who own food and materials. The lord held
travels to a shrine or other sacred place
the land as a grant or fief from someone

226
above him in the social order, who held it and they were known as serfs. According
from someone above him. Peasants had to the conditions of their contract, a serf
almost no social power, yet it was they might owe the lord one day of work
who provided all the agricultural products a month, one day of work a week, or
that fed everyone in medieval society. anything in between. This work obligation
was hated by most peasants because it
kept them from working their own land
and was seen as a sign of their servitude.
As the population grew, more peasants
needed land to farm. Increased demand
meant that lords could require higher
rents and increased work obligations.

Vocabulary
serf, n. a peasant who is not free; a
person living on a feudal estate who was
A manor house, a church, a mill, serfs’ houses, and fields
were all part of a typical manor estate in the Middle Ages.
required to work for the lord of the manor

Think Twice
What were some advantages and Medieval Innovations
disadvantages of living as part of
a manor? Between 1000 and 1300 CE, the peasantry
was increasingly crushed by greater work
The small surplus that was produced by obligations, higher rents, and decreasing
each peasant family was used to pay rent amounts of available land, which meant less
for occupying the land. The lord of the food produced for a peasant’s own family.
manor used all of that surplus as his source The increasing population and better
of income. The lord also had his own pieces weather for growing food encouraged
of land on the manor that the peasants who peasants to increase the amount of land
were bound to him were required to work. that could be used for growing crops.
Some peasants were free and did not owe Forests were cleared for agriculture, and
work obligation to the lord, but most did, lakes and marshes were drained to create

227
 Mills generated power for the
manor by taking some of the
energy created by moving water.

new agricultural land. A new type of plow, autumn with crops such as wheat, rye, or
the heavy plow, was developed to break up barley. The final third was planted in the
the moist and heavy soil found in much of spring with oats, barley, or legumes such as
Europe. It turned over the dirt to help it dry peas or beans. Three-field rotation nearly
out and created a slightly mounded strip of doubled the yield of crops, including oats.
land that allowed any excess water to drain A more plentiful supply of oats as feed,
toward the edges. as well as the introduction of the padded

Planting methods also changed. In the horse collar, contributed to the replacement

early Middle Ages, most of the land was in of oxen with horses as the draft animal of

a two-field rotation. Half of a manor’s land choice. Horses are considerably faster than

would be planted while the other half sat oxen at pulling a plow, which meant more

fallow, or unplanted. This allowed the soil land could be plowed or tilled in one day.

to regain nutrients from weeds that were This increased society’s food production

plowed back into the dirt. As the population capacity, which supported the growing

increased, many regions shifted to a three- population.

field rotation. One-third of the land was left Several machines that performed
fallow, and another third was planted in the tasks previously done by hand were

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introduced during the High Middle Ages. more specialized tradespeople, including
The most common and most important goldsmiths, cloth dyers, fishmongers,
technological development was the mill, candlemakers, wheel makers, tailors,
which used either water or wind as its shoemakers, and more. In large towns, many
source of power. Although mills were not of these trades were grouped together
invented in the Middle Ages, they became because they needed to be near other
an important source of power. On a manor, members of their craft. Location was also
the lord owned the mill, and peasants chosen based on the layout of the town and
had to pay to have their grain ground. its natural resources. For instance, brewers
Monasteries often owned numerous mills. needed to have a good source of water to
In towns, individual tradespeople could make ale or beer. Butchers needed to be
own a mill. Sometimes, even towns owned able to dump their waste products into a
their own mills. Larger towns might have stream or river. This meant that brewers
dozens of mills, especially if there was a were usually upstream from the butchers.
substantial river. By the twelfth century CE, many trades
had formed guilds. There were guilds
Find Out the Facts
for goldsmiths, brewers, wheel makers,
Learn about how windmills and
and many other types of workers. These
water mills worked in the Middle Ages
and how they were used. guilds set up regulations that ensured that
anyone claiming to be a master member

Towns knew how to perform all of the necessary

tasks very well. Typically, a young person
The High Middle Ages brought about the would become an apprentice and slowly
growth of towns. These were distinctly
different from manor villages, where almost
Vocabulary
all residents were peasants whose main
guild, n. a group of craftspeople who
work was farming. Towns hardly had any control a certain craft
peasants. Their residents were tradespeople, apprentice, n. a person who trains
including blacksmiths, bakers, brewers, for a job or skill by working under the
weavers, carpenters, and grocers. Very supervision and guidance of an expert
in the field
large towns like London and Paris had even

229
learn all of the skills over a required Buildings were frequently three stories
number of years. At the completion of the high with a shop on the first floor. The
apprenticeship, the apprentice would have second floor was living quarters for the
to produce a product that was as good as shop owner and family, and possibly an
one made by a master of the guild. This apprentice or servant. The third floor
product was known as the apprentice’s was storage for shop materials and foods
master piece. If the master piece was such as grains. Sometimes, the third floor
good enough (and if a substantial fee also had more living space for apprentices
had been paid), the former apprentice or servants. The streets of medieval towns
became a master of their craft, with all were often sloped down toward the
the rights to perform and sell that craft center, and all waste, including human
and to take on their own apprentices. waste, was thrown out the windows. Rain
This system ensured the high quality of washed it to a center gutter in the street.
the trade and also limited who could Some entrepreneurial peasants paid for
perform it, which ensured that there was the right to cart away the waste and muck
always enough work for those who were to put on their fields as manure.
masters. Contrary to many other areas of Many European towns in the High
medieval society, where women had very Middle Ages enjoyed freedom from the
limited power, women could be members restrictions of feudalism. Lords who owned
of a guild and own a business. The most towns encouraged free trade because it
common route to ownership, however, brought them money. The actual running
was inheritance from a husband or father. of a town was often the duty of guild
masters. In some towns, only masters could
Think Twice
elect officials or be a mayor or councillor.
How is a master piece similar to a
masterpiece? How is it different? This meant that even though towns were
somewhat free from the aristocracy, the
Towns were constructed to pack people government was still run by the wealthy
into a small space. Buildings stood townspeople or masters. Some towns
side by side with no space in between. became wealthy enough that they were
Because street frontage was valuable and able to buy their freedom from the lord
expensive, building fronts were narrow. and become autonomous, or a free town.

230
 or tax, and so the church, monastery, or
aristocrat who owned the land would
make money. Other merchants and local
residents would come to shop, gather with
friends, and enjoy the entertainment.
Fairs started to become more organized
in the 1300s CE. A French noble organized
six fairs in four different towns. Each fair
lasted about six weeks, and there was
time between fairs so merchants could
resupply their wares. In all, the cycle of
fairs covered almost a year. Although a
variety of things were sold at the fairs,
Medieval towns were packed with people working in each fair had a different focus, such as
many trades. Foul odors often rose up from a center
gutter in the town. horses, cattle, cloth, leather, or spices.
Merchants came from as far away as
Serfs who ran away from a manor to a free Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, and
town were considered permanently free if Luxembourg. Interregional European
they managed to live in the town for a year trade was reinvigorated as merchants
and a day without being caught. met one another and goods crossed long
distances. These fairs also encouraged
the development of banking. It was
Expanding Trade inconvenient to transport large amounts
In the High Middle Ages, churches, of cash over great distances, but banking
monasteries, and aristocrats recognized firms, especially those in Italy, could
the opportunity to make money by provide notes of credit to merchants for
establishing fairs on their land. Fairs were buying large quantities of goods at a fair.
usually held on religious holidays. At the Italian cities such as Genoa, Venice, and
landowner’s request, merchants from near Florence had maintained trade with North
and far would come to sell their goods. Africa and the Middle East after the fall
Each merchant would be charged a fee of Rome. By the twelfth and thirteenth

231
centuries CE, trade across Europe was and luxurious. Thanks to pointed arches
flourishing. The increased demand for and flying buttresses, which reinforce a
luxury goods also led to an expansion of building from the outside without touching
trade outside of Europe. The Silk Road the ground, interiors could be taller and
continued to be an important route for windows could be larger. These window
bringing goods and ideas into Europe. spaces were filled with extraordinary
stained glass windows. To people of the

High Middle Ages Church time, these interiors looked like heaven
itself. Across the region of present-day
The Church reached its greatest influence France, multiple churches and cathedrals,
in the High Middle Ages. Nearly everyone’s including Notre-Dame, were built or altered
life revolved around the Church. Some to fit the new style. These spaces created a
people went to prayers at their local sense that their builders and keepers had a
church several times a day, and most real connection to God. The new churches
attended a service at least once a week gave the Church more authority and power
on Sunday. It was believed that only the and brought in more money. The pope and
clergy could interpret the Bible. This all the higher levels of clergy were among
was in part because many people could the wealthiest and most powerful people in
not read. Clergy were the main source Europe during the High Middle Ages.
of education and held great social and
One of the great medieval technological
political power.
inventions, the mechanical clock, was
developed for the Church in the second half
Vocabulary
of the thirteenth century CE. Before that,
clergy, n. in the Christian Church,
people, such as priests, who carry out time could be told with some accuracy by
religious duties the sun, but at night this was impossible.
In fact, for the medieval mind, only the
The look and feel of churches themselves daylight period was divided into hours.
began to change in the High Middle Ages. Nighttime did not have hours except in
In 1140 CE, the abbey church of Saint-Denis, anticipation of daylight coming. The original
located north of Paris, was built in a mechanical clocks did not have a face with
new architectural style that felt open dials but instead registered the time so

232
that a bell could be rung to call for prayer. merchants, they were often able to provide
A mechanical clock does not distinguish money for the king’s needs. This led to the
between day or night, so for the first time, permanent establishment of two bodies
hours and minutes were tracked during of the English Parliament, the House of
both day and night. With the invention of Lords and the House of Commons. This
the clock and specific times for the bells widened the input of advice for the king
of a church to ring, entire towns—and all and enabled the common people—albeit
the work performed within those towns— just the wealthy ones—to have a way to
began to follow the rigid mechanical voice their needs to the king.
rhythm of the clock rather than the seasonal
timing of the sun. Universities
Education throughout the early Middle
English Parliament Ages took place in monastery or cathedral
In the High Middle Ages, Europe was schools. These schools, like the Middle
politically divided into kingdoms (ruled Eastern madrassas, were for religious
by a king) and principalities (ruled by education. In the late eleventh century CE,
a prince, duke, or count). Although the a new form of higher education arose in
ruler’s authority was supreme, many rulers Europe: the university. The first, founded
had groups of individuals, drawn from in 1088 CE, was in Bologna, Italy. Many of
the aristocracy, that they could call on the medieval universities had somewhat
to advise them on important decisions, uncertain foundation dates, as universities
such as whether to go to war or to raise were gatherings of students who hired an
money through taxation. These gatherings instructor, which happened without great
were called parliaments, from the French notice or fanfare. As universities became
word parler, which means to speak. In late more formally established, they were given

thirteenth-century CE England, the king a charter by the pope or the regional ruler.

also invited some individuals from the more The University of Paris was in existence by

important towns to come and speak with 1150 CE but was chartered in 1200 CE.

him. This was the first formal meeting of By the end of the thirteenth century CE,
commoners speaking with a king. Because there were at least a dozen universities in
the people invited were generally wealthy Europe; by the end of the Middle Ages,

233
there were more than eighty. Some of land available. Major famines between
these universities specialized in medicine, 1315 and 1322 CE started the population
law, or theology, but most offered a basic decline. Those who survived were
arts education, which comprised seven probably malnourished and weakened.
subjects: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, This made the arrival of the plague, or
music, grammar, logic, and rhetoric. the Black Death, in 1347 CE more severe
Students ranged in age from twelve to than it might have otherwise been. The
thirty and, after completing examinations, plague was spread by fleas that traveled
could attain a bachelor’s degree in three on rats and other mammals. It had
or four years and a master’s degree in six. circulated before, but the outbreak in the
All courses and examinations were in Latin. mid-fourteenth century CE was especially
Poor people usually didn’t know Latin or catastrophic. Around 30 to 60 percent
have the money to attend school, and the of the entire population died within five
aristocracy did not feel the need to have years of the arrival of the plague. This is
a university education, so most students not only a far higher death toll than that
were from the middle class. They could of the recent COVID-19 pandemic but
go on from university to work for the also far higher than the deaths of World
Church, in government, or in developing War II or any other war or pandemic. The
international trades such as banking. plague created chaos and instability in
all parts of society, as those who died
included many of the people who grew
food. This meant fewer crops to sell, which
Late Middle Ages meant that lords had less income, which
Europe’s population growth began to they tried to recover by raising rents and
slow around 1300 CE. There were several increasing work obligations. Towns were
reasons for this. Shifts in the weather impacted as well. Some smaller towns
caused record-breaking droughts followed disappeared entirely, and larger towns got
by wet, cold summers, neither of which smaller. Production of cloth, wheels, bread,
was good for agriculture. In addition, the and every other type of good declined.
population had grown to such a size that it Administrations of towns and countries
was too large for the amount of farmable were in confusion.

234
 Find Out the Facts
Learn about what life was like for
those who survived the plague.

Writers’ Corner
Using your research on the
plague, write a report, poem, or
short play.

There was no medical treatment for those

infected with the plague. Doctors did try to
attend to the sick, but medieval physicians
had no knowledge of germs. There were
many theories about the causes of illness,
including the idea of miasma, or bad smells Plague doctors wore beaked masks filled with aromatic
substances.
that spread through the air and caused
disease. This spurred people to find ways The Church struggled to respond as
of dealing with trash and waste, such as people looked to it for explanations
burning or burying it. This likely improved and hope. Its official position was that
sanitation conditions and decreased the the plague must be the will of God for
supply of food waste eaten by rats that the evils of humankind. Because no one
spread the plague, which would have understood the cause of the disease,
reduced their numbers. The theory of many individuals became more devout
miasma also shaped the behavior of than ever and gave donations to the
plague doctors. They wore beaked masks Church in the hope of getting to heaven
that were filled with dried flowers, herbs, when they died. Some people even quit
spices, or cloth soaked in vinegar. The their occupations and joined monasteries.
aromas of the mask filling were thought to But there were also people who decided
counteract or remove the bad smells that that because they might be dead soon,
caused disease. In reality, the masks helped they might as well live for today. They
prevent transmission of germs. turned to parties and frivolous enjoyment,

235
ate gluttonously, and drank large could focus their efforts on the best,
quantities of alcohol. most productive land. So the peasantry

Some people also lashed out at groups actually produced a greater amount of

they perceived as threats or outsiders. food per capita, meaning there was

Jewish people had settled throughout more food available for each person, and

Europe by this point. They were the people were actually better nourished.

target of suspicion, accusations, and

brutal attacks. Many Christian Europeans Vocabulary
believed that Jewish people were less per capita, adv. for each person
susceptible to the plague. They thought
this revealed something sinister about
Some peasants, even those under contract
Jewish people, but in reality, Jewish
to a lord, took advantage of the societal
rituals and practices likely supported
chaos to leave their manor. They went to
better hygiene, which provided better
towns where work opportunities were
protection against the plague.
plentiful after the deaths of so many
workers. To keep enough peasants to
A Changing Society work their land, lords had to make some

Overall, the late Middle Ages has been changes. The most hated part of feudalism

seen as a period of decline. All the turmoil was the work obligation that serfs owed to
helped fuel conflicts such as the Hundred the lord. As lords began removing those
Years’ War (1337–1453 CE) between the work obligations, the system of feudalism

kings of England and France as well as began a decline that would take another

regional revolts such as the Peasants’ century to conclude. At the moment,

Revolt in England (1381 CE). But there peasants were still needed to work the

is another side to the story. With less land, but now they had to be paid. Their

pressure on the farmlands, peasants rents were lowered, their living standards

were often released from feudal work rose, and they had more time to spend

obligations, which gave them more time working their own land.

to work their own lands. The reduced The decline of feudalism also meant
population also meant that peasants a decline in the relative power of the

236
aristocracy. Although the aristocracy
remained the top class and owned
most of the land, that land was not as Medieval Russia
valuable because it no longer brought
Russia lies to the east of Europe. Long
in high rents or the free work of feudal
ago, Russian civilization started out in
serfs. The middle class, on the other
small villages in and near eastern Europe.
hand, rose in power, as the goods and
The territory impacted by Russian
services they provided were still needed
history and culture stretches all the way
even in a population of reduced size.
from the eastern edge of Europe to the
The guilds increased in power and
Pacific Ocean. Some of the patterns
authority in many towns. They displayed
that defined medieval Europe were
their wealth with ceremonies, parades,
also part of medieval Russia, but there
elaborate clothing, and extravagant
were ways in which Russia was quite
dinners.
different. While many peoples lived in
Towns were smaller after the plague, the region in and around Russia, the
but the per capita wealth was higher. Slavs and the Rus were two groups that
This led to a higher level of literacy and became important.
a greater number of people going to
university. Latin and Greek texts were Slavs who settled in Russia came into
in high demand to educate all of these contact with Vikings from northern
students. In some ways, this was the Europe who were moving south to
beginning of the Renaissance, which conquer new territory and seek trade.
started at different points in different The Slavs called the Vikings the Rus,
places and overlapped with the end of which is where the word Russia comes
the medieval period. The demand for from. Slavs and Vikings did come into
more texts also led to the invention conflict, but they eventually mixed
of the movable-type printing press by together. This largely happened along
Johannes Gutenberg around 1440 CE. the Dnieper River between Novgorod,
This tremendously increased the ability Russia, and Kyiv, in modern Ukraine. In
to produce documents and books and the Middle Ages, this area was called
pamphlets and flyers. Kievan Rus.

237
The European decline after the death
of Charlemagne didn’t have much of an
impact on Kievan Rus. It continued its
extensive trade partnerships, with partners
ranging from Scandinavia in the north all
the way to the Byzantine Empire in the
south. Byzantine missionaries brought
Christianity to Russia around 900 CE. While
it didn’t take hold immediately, in 988 CE,
Kievan Rus under Prince Vladimir adopted
a version of Christianity that was much
closer to the Eastern Orthodox Christianity
of the Byzantine Empire than the
Christianity of the Church of Rome. By the
eleventh century CE, Kievan Rus was stable
and had advanced beyond much of the
rest of Europe. Its economy incorporated
more long-distance trade than the West, Vladimir I of Kyiv adopted the practices of the Eastern
Orthodox Church.
and the cultural touchstones of art,
literature, and architecture were more The weakness of the Kievan Rus was its
developed. political structure, which was a loose
confederation of lands under the princely
Think Twice family members of the Rurik dynasty. By
How did Russia’s geographical location the thirteenth century CE, Kievan Rus had
contribute to the advancement of its
society during this turbulent period? disintegrated into smaller principalities.
It could not organize effective resistance
against the invading Mongols, who
Find Out the Facts
defeated the Rus in 1223 CE. Much of
Learn more about the Great
Schism, which was the split of the Kievan Rus culture disappeared under
Christian Church into the Roman Catholic the weight of the Mongols, who created
Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church. the largest contiguous empire the world

238
has ever known, stretching from China A strong ruler named Ivan became
to the western edges of Russia. The the grand prince of Muscovy
Mongol Empire connected Europe to in 1462 CE. It was a period of
China and India, but their rise was to the continual warfare; conflicts occurred
disadvantage of Kievan Rus. between different groups and
even different factions of the same
Moscow and Ivan the Great family. After defeating his enemies,
Ivan turned his attention to expanding
The Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus in
Muscovy. He became known as Ivan
1223 CE left Russia with only a few small
the Great for his military and political
areas, such as Novgorod, remaining
strength. He was a harsh ruler who
outside of Mongol control. The prince of
issued strict laws and punished anyone
Novgorod, Alexander Nevsky, maintained
who might be an enemy. He kept
independence by negotiating with the
a tight grip on power and ordered
Mongols. From this arose a new country,
great building projects in Moscow to
the Grand Principality of Moscow, or
reflect his grandeur. A strong central
Muscovy. As Mongol control declined,
government took shape during his
Muscovy expanded and gained more
reign, laying the foundation of the
power.
powerful state that Russia would
ultimately become.
Find Out the Facts
Research the Golden Horde,
the Mongol state that took over most Find Out the Facts
of Russia. What events factored into the
Golden Horde’s decline? Find out more about the life and
reign of Ivan the Great.

Writers’ Corner
Writers’ Corner
Imagine you are a peasant living
in Russia during the transition Use your research to make a
between the Golden Horde and slideshow or poster about Ivan
Muscovy rule. Write a letter to the Great.
an acquaintance in another town about
how your life is changing.

239
 Chapter 13
West African
Kingdoms
The Big Question
What characterized the great empires of
West Africa?

A Wealth of Resources
and Cultures
The vast continent of Africa has a great
diversity of landscapes, resources, and
cultures. Between the sixth and sixteenth
centuries CE, several civilizations in North
and West Africa served as important
centers of trade and cultural exchange.
The three great West African empires of
Ghana, Mali, and Songhai rose to power
in part because they controlled gold
mines, salt mines, and the trade routes This illustration from the Catalan Atlas
(1375 CE) portrays Mansa Musa, the most
that linked these valuable resources to powerful ruler of the ancient Mali Empire.
He is shown holding a large piece of gold.
the rest of the world.

240
 The empires of West Africa had great
economic wealth and a rich mix of cultural
influences. Connected to multiple other
regions through trade, West African empires
embraced Islam and adopted some Arab
practices. They also influenced and were
influenced by other African cultures to the
north, east, and south.

Origins of Human Societies

Africa is the world’s second-largest
continent, after Asia. The very first humans
lived in eastern and southern Africa and
appeared around two hundred thousand
years ago. About fifty thousand to sixty-
five thousand years ago, people in Africa
began to develop distinct types of social
behavior, such as making tools and art.

Over time, early prehistoric peoples

formed settlements. Civilizations and
cultures eventually took shape. While
ancient Egypt was one of the first
very large, complex, and continuous
civilizations, other societies arose
throughout Africa. Gradually, civilizations
in different parts of the continent were
linked through sea routes to other regions.
The Mediterranean Sea connected North
Africa to southern Europe and Southwest
Asia. The Red Sea and the Sinai Peninsula

241
242
linked northeastern Africa to Southwest waters the region south of the Sahara. It
Asia and to land routes that reached supported the flow of trading caravans
farther into Asia. The Indian Ocean that crossed the desert and the boats that
gave passage to India, China, and took the traders’ goods to cities all along
Southeast Asia. the river. Tropical rainforests along the
lower West African coast and the Congo

Diverse Geography and Climate River are lush with plants and host a great
diversity of plant and animal species.
There is a great diversity of climate These regions receive a great deal of
and geographical zones across rainfall and are humid and warm most of
the continent of Africa. In addition the year.
to coastal areas, Africa has large
desert regions, grassy savannas In the north, the Atlas Mountains create
(which cover around half of the a boundary between a strip of coastal
continent), and rainforests. Two area in northwest Africa (home to the
enormous, sandy deserts, the Sahara in coastal regions of present-day Morocco,
the north and the Kalahari in the south, Algeria, and Tunisia) and the Sahara. In the
have hot and arid climates. The Sahara eastern part of the continent, in present-
has little vegetation due to extremely day Tanzania, a dormant volcano called
low rainfall, but some low trees and Mount Kilimanjaro stands alone. It is the
shrubs grow in the Kalahari, especially highest peak in Africa and the tallest
in the northern part, where rain is more freestanding mountain (one that isn’t part
frequent. The Sahel is a transitional zone of a mountain range) in the world.
between the Sahara and the savannas Off the coast of southeastern Africa lies
to the south. When the West African the fourth-largest island on the planet,
empires were prominent, the Sahel Madagascar. Madagascar’s geography
supported some hunting and herding includes grasslands, mountains, and
but was too arid for agriculture. tropical rainforests. It is home to a rich
The Nile, Niger, and Congo Rivers diversity of plants and animals, many of
supported the development of which cannot be found elsewhere on
early civilizations. The Niger River the planet.

243
 cultural connections. This growth was
Find Out the Facts
helped by greater contact between
Research to learn more details
about one of Africa’s geographical zones. Africans and the empires that ruled the
regions surrounding Africa. The spread
of major religions illustrates the greater
Writers’ Corner
connection of some African regions to
Create a slideshow, web page,
or poster for a presentation wider networks of trade and power. In
about one of Africa’s the sixth century CE, the region of the
geographical zones.
Sudan, located south of Egypt, was ruled
by Nubian kingdoms. Close links between
Byzantium and Nubia were forged when
the Byzantines sent missionaries to
Africa During Europe’s convert Nubia to Christianity. The Nubian
Medieval Period kingdoms of Nobatia, Makuria, and Alwa,
which thrived from about 500 to the 1200s
The term medieval originally designated a CE, all adopted the Byzantines’ Eastern
period of European history. While keeping Christianity, which was widely practiced
in mind that the characteristics of other until the Ottoman conquest of the
medieval societies were quite different from Byzantine Empire in 1453 CE. Christianity
those of European cultures, understanding was not the only faith brought to the
events happening in other regions of the region by major empires. After the Muslim
world during this period is helpful. conquest of much of North Africa in the
In Europe’s medieval period, the vast
and powerful Roman Empire gave way
to smaller kingdoms. Power and trade
became smaller and more localized.
Fewer people traveled, and Europe’s
regions became less connected to
one another. At the same time, several
African civilizations enjoyed incredible Between the fourth and fourteenth centuries CE, this
building from the kingdom of Makuria served as a royal
prosperity, growing trade, and cross- stronghold, a church, and then a mosque.

244
seventh and eighth centuries CE, Muslim clothing, and illuminated manuscripts. Salt
traders visited and passed through the was extremely valuable because it provided
markets of Sudan, bringing their religious an essential nutrient and could be used to
ideas as well as their wealth and goods. preserve food. This was crucially important

Trans-Saharan trade fueled the rise of three prior to the invention of refrigeration in the

mighty empires in West Africa. The Ghana, early twentieth century. Salt was even more

Mali, and Songhai Empires emerged in valuable in hot climates such as West Africa,

succession between the 400s and the 1400s where constant perspiration meant that
CE. Each empire benefited from the region’s salt continually needed to be replaced in
deposits of gold and salt, which were prized the body.
throughout the world. Gold was valued
because of its rarity and beauty as well as Think Twice
its malleability, or its ability to be shaped Why would people in hot, dry
into many beautiful forms, including climates benefit from having salt as
part of their diet?
jewelry. It was also used for making coins,

Those who controlled the gold and

salt mines amassed great wealth and
controlled the trading routes that
developed around them. In addition to
gold and salt, these routes were used
to transport a myriad of goods and
resources, such as iron, ivory, rhinoceros
horns, feathers, spices, live animals,
textiles, and foods. Trading routes were
also used to transport enslaved people,
which impacted the social structure and
economy of many societies. West Africa
was an important regional trade center
Gold was prized throughout the world and used in many that connected different parts of Africa as
ways. This page from a North African illuminated Quran
dates from the twelfth century CE. well as China, India, Arabia, and Europe.

245
 The ancient Ghana Empire eventually
stretched between present-day Senegal
Ghana Empire and Mauritania. Most of what is known
about the Ghana Empire has been passed
The origins of the first powerful West
down through either oral tradition or texts
African empire are obscure. Situated south
written by Arab merchants. The stories and
of the Sahara in the relatively less arid
texts described a realm of stunning wealth
region of the Sahel, the Ghana Empire
that was due largely to the abundant gold
began as a regional kingdom of the Soninke
deposits controlled by the Ghana Empire’s
people, who were part of a larger ethnic
rulers. Traders from Africa, Europe, and
and language group called the Mande. The
Southwest Asia came to exchange goods
people called their realm Wagadou. Ghana
for gold. Around the world, gold beads
is likely a term that meant ruler or warrior
and other decorative objects became
king and eventually became widely used
highly desired. The king kept nuggets of
to designate Wagadou. According to oral
gold for himself; his people were permitted
tradition, the kingdom emerged when the
to keep and trade only gold dust.
Soninke joined together under a strong
leader named Dinga Cisse. He is said to have The Ghana Empire grew into a strong
brought other regional kingdoms under his empire thanks to its gold, salt, iron ore, and
control to create a powerful dynasty. He is copper. Taxes on salt and other products,
still considered the ancestor of all Soninke as well as tributes from conquered lands,
people today. added to its wealth. Another key to its
success was that by around 300 CE, West
Find Out the Facts Africans had domesticated the camel. This
Learn more about the history gave them an advantage in developing
and traditions of the Soninke. trading routes that crossed the Sahara.
Trade networks continued to expand
as Arab merchants and others adopted
Writers’ Corner
camels as beasts of burden.
Use your research to write an
encyclopedia entry about the The Ghana Empire’s control of trading
Soninke.
routes and its monopoly on the region’s

246
 Saleh, the empire
was a collection
of provinces that
functioned as vassal
states to the empire.

The people of the

Ghana Empire
originally practiced an
animist religion, as was
common throughout
West Africa. Animism
can take many forms
but is characterized by
the belief that plants,

gold mines helped it grow into a dominant

Vocabulary
power. It is likely that the main city was
Koumbi Saleh (located in present-day animism, n. the belief that objects,
places, and creatures all possess a
Mauritania), which was home to thousands distinct spiritual essence
of people. Koumbi Saleh was impressively
large and complex, particularly given its
location in the arid Sahel. Engineers and Think Twice
city planners created an urban center with What does it mean for an area to be
many wells that provided water for daily a vassal state?
and agricultural use. The social structure
included a large class of workers, who streams, and other parts of the natural
constructed an expansive palace complex world are sacred. They are seen as spirits
and elaborate public buildings. The Ghana or as inhabited by spirits. In the Ghana
Empire also built a large and effective Empire, religious beliefs centered on forest
army, which was described in admiring spirits and sacred groves that only priests
tones by Arab travelers. Beyond Koumbi were allowed to enter.

247
 As Islamic civilization began to spread
in the 700s CE, more and more Muslim
merchants, diplomats, and others made
their way to the Ghana Empire. They
introduced some Arab cultural practices
and also brought Islam to the region. By
the end of the twelfth century CE, the
Ghana Empire was an Islamic society.
Twelve mosques were built in Koumbi
Saleh. They were centers of religious life
and were used for the work and intellectual
exchanges of Muslim scholars and scribes.

It was around this time that other groups

throughout North and West Africa began
to challenge the Ghana Empire. Conflict
with various external groups weakened
the empire, as did a change in climate and
weather patterns. The Sahel became even
drier in the 1200s CE, a hardship that may
have fueled the conflicts that Ghana faced.
Eventually, the Sosso people defeated
Ghana’s rulers, but their success was short
lived. They were soon overtaken by West
Africa’s next great power: the Mali Empire.

Mali Empire
The West African kingdom of Mali began
in 1235 CE when a Mandinka leader called
Sundiata Keita (which means Lion Prince

248
or Hungering Lion) defeated the Sosso
king. Sundiata Keita became the mansa,
Mansa Musa
or emperor. His strong army conquered The most powerful ruler of the Mali
an extensive territory. Sundiata Keita also Empire was Mansa Musa, who reigned
fortified trade routes and took control from 1312 to 1337 CE. He led conquests of
of the gold mines. He allowed far-flung new territory and doubled the size of the
provinces to have some autonomy over empire. The Mali Empire’s wealth, based
their own governance. As part of the central on mining of gold and salt and trade in
government, he created an assembly ivory, reached it greatest height during
of representatives to discuss matters of this period, and Mansa Musa was one of
the empire. The thirty-two members of the richest people in the entire world.
the assembly, who came from various He is even considered one of the richest
Mandinka clans, also advised him. people ever to have lived. Around 1324
CE, Mansa Musa undertook a pilgrimage
Vocabulary
to Mecca. The hajj is an important journey
clan, n. a group of families claiming a
for any Muslim, but Mansa Musa’s trip
common ancestor
across North Africa and into Arabia was a
The city of Timbuktu became an important lavish and spectacular affair. He traveled
cosmopolitan center of the Mali Empire. with an entourage of at least a thousand
Located on the Niger River near the people and a hundred camels loaded
northern edge of the Sahel and bordering with gold. He spent freely in the cities
the Sahara, it was well-positioned to he passed through and made gifts of his
benefit from growing trading networks. own gold. His donations were so great
Its location meant that traders from many that the regional price of gold dropped
regions passed through, bringing or dramatically. Word of his fantastic wealth
seeking a wide array of goods. The Mali and grand style spread throughout
Empire taxed the goods that came through many regions of Africa, Southwest Asia,
Timbuktu and their other cities, sold great and Europe. This may have contributed
quantities of its own valuable resources, to increased European interest in the
and was able to buy imported goods and resources of Africa, which only continued
sell them for a healthy profit. to grow over the next centuries.

249
 With a group of Muslim scholars and
architects in tow, he returned from Mecca
determined to bring the fruits of the Islamic
golden age to the Mali Empire. He also
brought books. Back in the Mali Empire, he
supported the construction of mosques,
Islamic schools, libraries, and universities.

Timbuktu was at the center of this cultural

and economic growth. The city’s Sankoré
mosque and university housed a library
full of accounts of travel and culture as well
as religious texts. These texts were largely
about Islam but also covered astronomy,
logic, and history. It is estimated that
This twentieth-century CE painting depicts Mansa Musa the library held between four hundred
being carried on a litter, a type of vehicle, by some of his
chiefs. thousand and seven hundred thousand
manuscripts. Students learned from an
Find Out the Facts
imam, or Muslim worship leader, or from
Learn more about Mansa Musa’s
journey to Mecca. other learned Islamic scholars. Instruction
usually took place in a courtyard or small
room. The program of study included
Writers’ Corner
learning to read and write Arabic, which
Using your research, write two
was used throughout the Islamic world.
or three detailed paragraphs
about Mansa Musa and his The Quran itself was written in Arabic,
importance as a historical figure. and Muslims were expected to learn the
verses in that language regardless of their
Mansa Musa left his mark in several cities,
native tongues.
building houses in Cairo and Mecca
that not only accommodated his large
Vocabulary
entourage but also created a lasting
imam, n. a Muslim worship leader
impression of the grandeur of West Africa.

250
 Ibn Battuta
A geographer and avid traveler, Ibn
Battuta was a fourteenth-century CE
Muslim scholar from Morocco. He
is known for traveling to the major
caliphates of the Islamic golden age. His
first journey was a pilgrimage to Mecca
in 1325 CE, after which he traveled for
The ancient Sankoré mosque in Timbuktu
the next twenty-four years. Ibn Battuta
A combination of factors led to the visited an astonishing number of places
eventual decline of Mali’s power. across a huge amount of territory
Internal power struggles in the 1400s CE at a time when travel was still quite
weakened Mali’s rulers. Rival kingdoms challenging. His many journeys took him
began to expand and gained control to North and West Africa, Arabia, much of
of crucial trade routes. Portuguese Asia, and southern and eastern Europe.
merchant ships, which had recently He wrote detailed accounts about his
started traveling up and down Africa’s experiences and drew maps of his
west coast, posed stiff competition voyages. These texts are valuable sources
to the trading caravans that had long of information about the societies he
transported goods across the Sahara visited. His travels in West Africa took
to the Mediterranean. Combined,
these internal and external events
Find Out the Facts
weakened the Mali Empire, making it Find out more about the life and
travels of Ibn Battuta.
ripe for conquest by the Songhai Empire
around 1468 CE.
Writers’ Corner
Using your research, write an
Find Out the Facts
imaginary journal entry from
Research to learn more about the perspective of Ibn Battuta.
the rival kingdoms that challenged the Where has he gone? What has he seen?
Mali Empire. Where is he going next?

251
Ibn Batutta’s fourteenth-century CE voyages took him to many regions of the world.

place from 1349 to 1354 CE. While Ibn figures. Griots played an important role
Battuta was not himself West African, in many West African societies, including
his writings have helped historians learn the Mali Empire (and still do today). The
more about the civilizations of that region’s rich oral tradition is in large part a
region, particularly the Mali Empire. legacy of the work of griots.

The role of griot was hereditary and a

position of honor. Griots told social and
family histories that were passed down
Griots and Oral Tradition from one generation to the next through
Griots are important figures in West stories and songs. Instruments such as the
African cultures. The serve as historians, kora (similar to a harp) and the balafon
genealogists, storytellers, poets, (similar to a xylophone) accompanied
musicians, praise singers, and authority the words and lyrics. Griots also kept and

252
passed along societal traditions, in part by French speakers into griot. Africans
through telling epics such as the tale of had multiple terms for this role, including
Sundiata Keita. The tale of Sundiata Keita jali, but the term griot was the most
was preserved by griots for centuries. In widespread.
the late 1950s CE, one griot told the story
to a Guinean writer, Djibril Tamsir Niane,
Find Out the Facts
who wrote it down and published it. Griots
What other stories have been
also functioned as recordkeepers for preserved by oral storytellers around
births, deaths, and marriages. Respected the world?
as trustworthy, wise, and talented, griots
also served as advisors and spiritual guides
to their communities.

The word griot likely came from

Europeans. One theory is that it originated
from the Portuguese word criado, which
means servant. This likely reflects a
misinterpretation of the griot’s position
as an esteemed figure supported by
patronage. Criado was then transformed

Vocabulary
griot, n. a West African historian,
storyteller, praise singer, poet, and/or
musician who maintains a culture’s
oral tradition

Think Twice
What might the influence of
Portuguese and French terms on
West African languages indicate about
the history of West Africa? Griots serve as historians, entertainers, praise singers,
and figures of authority.

253
 trading, getting tribute from local tribes,
and mining for resources like gold. The
The Songhai Empire Songhai Empire controlled more territory
and was probably richer than the Mali
The kingdom of Songhai emerged around
Empire had been. The two great cities of
the 800s CE. East of the territory controlled
the Songhai, Timbuktu and Gao, remained
by the Ghana Empire, the Songhai people
centers of trade and learning.
lived in a region around the city of Gao.
Gao became a rich city because it was on
a key stretch of the Niger River that was
used by many traders and travelers. The
wealth of the city grew so much that it was
conquered by the Mali Empire in about
1325 CE. Mali’s control of Songhai was never
particularly strong. Songhai’s wealth and
the importance of Gao as a trading post
meant the rulers of Songhai could maintain
some of their wealth and power. As the Mali
Empire began to weaken, Songhai’s rulers
saw a chance to gain their independence
back. Songhai kings attacked and raided
Mali cities. One of them, named Sunni Ali,
took this strategy a step further, deploying
his strong army and naval force to control
travel on the Niger. By 1468 CE, Sunni Ali
had conquered most of the territory once
held by the Mali Empire.

By 1500 CE, the Songhai Empire stretched

even farther to the north and east than Songhai king Sunni Ali (top image) wrested regional
power away from the fading Mali Empire. After
Mali had. Like the Ghana and Mali Empires, defeating Sunni Ali’s son in a battle for the throne,
Askia Muhammad (bottom image) pushed the Songhai
the Songhai Empire made its wealth from Empire to become a strict Islamic state.

254
Askia Muhammad, the first Songhai ambitious man. Al-Mansur set his sights
emperor, developed more trade with on conquering the territory controlled
Asia and Europe. He also introduced by the Songhai Empire. He sent an army,
weights and measures for regulating armed with guns, to attack and conquer
trade as well as a system of currency. the Songhai Empire. Al-Mansur’s forces
Askia Muhammad went on pilgrimage conquered Gao and Timbuktu in 1591 CE.
to Mecca, and when he returned, he The conquest of these rich trade routes
sought to increase the influence of Islam and the gold mines of the region led to
in the empire. He supported the building al-Mansur becoming known as al-Dhahabi,
of mosques and brought many Arab the golden. Morocco could not control
scholars to the university in Timbuktu, all of the territory that had been part of
which created a golden age of learning the Songhai Empire, however. While it
in the region. Askia Muhammad also commanded the major cities, the rural
replaced ethnic Songhai officials with regions in the countryside turned into a
Arab Muslims in order to spread Islam. series of smaller, independent kingdoms.
The Tomb of Askia, a grand structure that
is part of the Great Mosque of Gao, is said Think Twice
to be his place of burial. It is the largest What have you learned about the
historical monument in West Africa, invention and development of
reflecting Askia’s status as a figure of gunpowder weapons?

major cultural significance.

In the late 1500s CE, internal strife,

drought, and disease began to fray the
Songhai Empire. As a powerful and
The European Onslaught
wealthy state, it had also attracted the New influences entered West Africa
attention of multiple external rivals as Portuguese and other European
who sought control of regional trade traders and explorers gained the ability
and resources. The leader of Morocco to travel to the region in the 1400s CE.
at the end of the sixteenth century CE, One effect of these outside influences
Ahmad al-Mansur, was a powerful and was a change in the trade of enslaved

255
people. As in many premodern societies, more enslaved Africans. The small crews
slavery was an institution in the cultures and populations of the Portuguese
of West and Central Africa. People ships and plantations enslaved some
were enslaved because they had been people themselves, but primarily,
captured in war or because they had they began paying Africans for more
committed crimes. Owning slaves was enslaved people.
a way in which powerful and wealthy As other European nations began to set up
people could display their wealth. their own colonies, they, too, generated
Enslaved people were also traded back a great demand for enslaved Africans to
and forth along the Saharan trade routes. work on their plantations. This demand
People enslaved in West Africa could was far greater than had been present
be sold in markets as far away as Arabia in the medieval Saharan trade networks,
or India. and it increased between the sixteenth
The arrival of Europeans changed the and nineteenth centuries CE. Some
form and scale of the African slave trade. African rulers saw an opportunity to
Portuguese explorers and traders began acquire wealth and power by providing
to set up trading posts on the African lots of slaves to Europeans. The Oyo
coast in the 1440s CE. They traded in Empire, on the Guinea coast, became
goods that the local trading networks a strong kingdom in the eighteenth
produced. This included enslaved people. century because they were willing to
The first enslaved Africans were brought raid to enslave people and sell them to
to Portugal in about 1445 CE. At first, Europeans. Because slavery was such an
they were viewed as an oddity. By the effective way of getting or maintaining
late fifteenth century, however, Portugal wealth and power, the trade in enslaved
was building an empire of overseas people led to continuous cycles of war
colonies, including islands off Africa’s among many African kingdoms.
coast such as São Tomé and Príncipe.
These colonies were set up to produce
crops on plantations that could be traded
for a profit, like sugarcane. To work on
these plantations, the Portuguese wanted

256
Glossary
A barracks, n. buildings where soldiers
live (89)
alliance, n. a group that works together
toward a common goal (13) blockade, n. a military strategy aimed
at preventing people and goods from
alphabet, n. a set of letters that symbolize
entering or leaving an area (97)
sounds and can be combined to make
words (62) bureaucratic, adj. based on the formal
organization of government and offices
altiplano, n. a large, high plateau in
held by appointed officials (207)
South America (180)
animism, n. the belief that objects, places, C
and creatures all possess a distinct spiritual
essence (247) canal, n. a channel dug by people, used by
boats or for irrigation (7)
apprentice, n. a person who trains
for a job or skill by working under the carnelian, n. a hard, red stone (103)
supervision and guidance of an expert in caste, n. a division of society based on
the field (229) differences in wealth, social status, and
archipelago, n. a chain of islands (75) occupation (106)
artifact, n. an object used during a past cataract, n. a shallow area c of a river
period in history (4) where the water moves fast over rocks or
other obstacles (29)
artisan, n. a person with a certain skill in
making things (17) cavalry, n. troops who fight on
horseback (92)
atonement, n. making up for or repairing
offenses or injuries; taking action to earn chariot, n. a carriage with two wheels
forgiveness (73) pulled by horses or other animals (17)
autonomy, n. self-governing; having the cistern, n. a reservoir for storing water (155)
power and freedom to make choices (68) citizen, n. in ancient Greece, a person with
avatar, n. the form a Hindu god takes legal rights and responsibilities in a city-
on Earth (107) state (83)
city-state, n. a city that is an independent
B political state with its own government (13)
Babylonia, n. an ancient historical region civilization, n. a society, or group of
in Mesopotamia that included the city of people, with similar religious beliefs,
Babylon (25) customs, language, and form of
government (5)
bandit, n. a robber who roams areas
outside of cities and attacks and robs civil servant, n. a person employed by the
travelers (22) government; a public official (17)

257
civil service, n. civilian officials who carry diaspora, n. the migration of people to
out the work of the government (189) different areas outside their homeland;
clan, n. a group of families claiming a the members of a group living outside the
common ancestor (249) group’s homeland or place of origin (67)
clergy, n. in the Christian Church, people, dictator, n. a ruler who has total control
such as priests, who carry out religious over the country (142)
duties (232) dike, n. a wall or barrier built to prevent
colony, n. an area settled by people who flooding and direct the flow of water (12)
come from elsewhere (82) divine right, n. the belief that kings and
commodity, n. something that is bought queens have a God-given right to rule and
or sold (36) that rebellion against them is a sin (122)

confederation, n. a group of independent division of labor, n. the breakdown of

kingdoms or states that work together (202) work into specific tasks performed by
different people, often considered a way
conscript, v. to oblige or force to enter to make workers more efficient (5)
military service (208)
doctrine, n. an official set of beliefs (149)
covenant, n. an important agreement or
promise (57) domesticate, v. to tame and use for
agriculture or other purposes (102)
cryptic, adj. having a hidden meaning (81)
dynasty, n. a series of rulers who are all
cuneiform, n. an ancient form of writing from the same family (19)
that used a system of symbols carved into
wet clay tablets (16)
E
D edict, n. a formal pronouncement or
command (116)
defile, v. to spoil; to make unclean or
unholy (69) embalm, v. to prepare a body to prevent
decay (41)
deity, n. a god, goddess, or similar being
regarded as a supreme power (14) empire, n. a group of countries or
territories under the control of one
delta, n. land created by silt deposits at government or ruler (19)
the mouth of a river (29)
epic, n. a long, complex tale that tells the
democracy, n. a form of government in story of a hero’s adventures (24)
which people choose their leaders (84)
equinox, n. day of the year when the day
descendant, n. someone who is related to and night are of equal length (176)
a person or group of people who lived in
the past (57) ethics, n. rules based on ideas about right
and wrong (61)
dharma, n. in Hinduism, an individual’s
duty, which is met by observing specific exile, v. to force someone to live outside
customs or laws (109) of a place as a punishment (86)

258
Exodus, n. the story of the Israelites’ G
escape from ancient Egypt; a departure
garrison, n. troops stationed in a town or
of a large group of people, especially
fort for the purpose of defense (147)
migrants (60)
griot, n. a West African historian,
expansionist, adj. seeking to conquer or
storyteller, praise singer, poet, and
acquire more territory (50)
musician who maintains a culture’s oral
tradition (253)
F
guild, n. a group of craftspeople who
fable, n. a short, cautionary tale, often control a certain craft (229)
featuring animals that speak and act like
humans as the main characters (95)
H
famine, n. an extreme shortage of food
heir, n. a person who will legally receive
that results in widespread hunger (58)
the property of someone who dies; the
fertile, adj. able to support the growth person who will become king or queen
of many plants; capable of producing after the current king or queen dies or
new life (10) steps down (34)
Fertile Crescent, n. an arc of land Hellenic, adj. related to the culture of
stretching from the Nile River valley to ancient Greece (79)
southwestern Asia, characterized by rich
helots, n. oppressed underclass in
soil and climate conditions that supported
Sparta (89)
the development of early civilizations (9)
hereditary, adj. passed down from parent
feud, n. a long conflict between two
to child (17)
people or two groups of individuals, often
involving violence and acts of revenge (20) hieroglyphics, n. writing based on
pictures rather than letters (44)
feudal system, n. social organization
in which kings, lords, and peasants historical region, n. a geographical
are bound together by mutual area that at some point in history
obligations (123) shared a language or other cultural or
political traits (10)
fiefdom, n. a particular territory ruled by
and passed down within a family (206) historiography, n. the methods historians
use to study, interpret, and write about
filial piety, n. deep respect for one’s
the past (4)
parents (125)
hoplite, n. an ancient Greek foot
flee, v. to run away (60)
solider (92)
fresco, n. a type of painting done on wet
hybrid, n. something that is a combination
plaster (77)
of two or more other things (39)
frontier, n. the area at the edge of settled
territory (189)

259
I locust, n. a large grasshopper-like insect;
in large swarms, locusts can cause
imam, n. a Muslim worship leader (250)
widespread crop damage (59)
immortal, adj. able to live forever; not
logic, n. the study of ways of thinking and
able to die (24)
making rational arguments (87)
indigenous, adj. originally living or
existing in a place; native (179) M
inscribed, adj. etched or carved into a mandate, n. a command; a responsibility
hard surface (19) given by an authority (122)
irrigation, n. bringing water from a well, a material culture, n. the objects made
river, or a lake to a place where it does not and used in a society, including tools,
rain enough to grow crops (7) art, buildings, clothing, toys, and other
isthmus, n. a narrow piece of land that goods (204)
connects two larger landmasses (75) meditate, v. to focus attention on one’s
mind and thoughts in order to gain new
K understanding or spiritual growth (111)
karma, n. the force created by a person’s menorah, n. a candleholder that holds
actions, believed to determine what will nine lights and is used in observance of
happen in the person’s next life (108) the Jewish holiday of Hanukkah (69)
kosher, adj. in accordance with Jewish Mesoamerica, n. historical region of
dietary laws (68) Latin America, stretching from northwest
Mexico through Central America (169)
L Mesopotamia, n. historical region around
lawgiver, n. an authority figure who the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers where some
provides a code of laws and ethics to of the earliest civilizations emerged (10)
a people (61)
metic, n. a foreigner living in an ancient
legacy, n. something of value that is Greek city (88)
passed down from another person,
moat, n. a deep, wide ditch surrounding
generation, or civilization (19)
a town, castle, or fort, usually filled with
legitimate, adj. in accordance with the water; its purpose is to defend against
law or established standards (47) attack (21)
legume, n. a type of seed, usually monotheistic, adj. related to or
softened by cooking in hot water, such as characterized by the worship of or belief in
lentils and chickpeas (31) a single god (48)
liberator, n. a person who frees others monsoon, n. a wind from the south or
from oppression (61) southwest that brings heavy rainfall to
Asia during the summer months (102)

260
N per capita, adv. for each person (236)
narrative poem, n. a poem that tells a persecution, n. cruel and unfair treatment
story (25) of a group of people (149)
navigation, n. the act of planning and phalanx, n. a group of soldiers who
directing the movement of a ship, plane, attack in close formation with their
or other vehicle (62) shields overlapping and spears pointed
forward (92)
nirvana, n. a state in which the human
soul has attained perfect peace (112) pharaoh, n. a political and religious leader
of ancient Egypt (33)
nomadic, adj. moving around often in
search of food; not settled in one place (55) pilgrim, n. a follower of a religion who
travels to a shrine or other sacred place (226)
O plague, n. something that harms a large
oasis, n. an area in the desert where there number of people, such as a sickness or
are water and plants (154) insects that kill crops (59)
oligarchy, n. a government controlled by plateau, n. a large, flat area of land that is
a small group of people from aristocratic higher than surrounding lands (101)
and wealthy nonaristocratic families (84) plebeians, n. the majority of ordinary free
opera, n. a form of dramatic performance Romans (135)
involving songs, music, and acting (195) plunder, v. to take something by force (69)
oracle, n. a person who gives wise advice polis, n. a city-state of ancient Greece (82)
or tells prophecies (81)
polytheism, n. belief in or worship of
orator, n. a public speaker (87) more than one deity (14)
ostracism, n. in ancient Athens, forcing primary source, n. a firsthand account of
a person away from the city; today, a historical event (4)
shunning or ignoring (86)
propagandist, n. someone who puts
out information to promote a person or
P cause (50)
papyrus, n. a tall plant that ancient prophet, n. someone chosen by God to
Egyptians used to make paper and bring a message to people (59)
other useful goods, such as sandals and
rope (45) proverb, n. a wise saying; a brief
observation that offers guidance
patricians, n. the wealthiest and most or insight (65)
powerful families of Rome (135)
province, n. an area or region; an
peninsula, n. a piece of land sticking out administrative division of a country,
into a body of water so that it is almost kingdom, or empire (22)
surrounded by water (29)
psalm, n. a sacred song or poem (64)

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R settlement, n. a place where a group of
people live together permanently or for
rabbi, n. a Jewish religious leader and
extended periods of time (5)
teacher (72)
shadoof, n. a crane-like tool that uses a
recede, v. to slowly move back or away (35)
pole and bucket to lift water (31)
reed, n. a tall, thin grass that grows in wet
shrine, n. a place considered holy
areas (16)
because it is associated with a holy
regent, n. a person who governs a person or event (40)
kingdom in the place of a young or absent
siege, n. a battle strategy in which
king or queen (46)
enemies surround a place so that those
reincarnation, n. rebirth in a new body or within cannot receive supplies (138)
form of life (108)
silt, n. small particles of rock, minerals, and
republic, n. a government in which the soil carried in water (11)
people elect representatives to rule for
stupa, n. a dome-shaped monument used
them (134)
as a Buddhist or Jain shrine (116)
reservoir, n. an artificial lake or other place
status, n. one’s position or rank within a
where water is collected and kept (53)
group (35)
resin, n. a sticky substance made by some
stela, n. a tall stone or wooden slab
plants (154)
inscribed with words or designs (64)
revolt, n. a rebellion; a rejection of
steppe, n. a grassland plain (191)
authority (25)
strait, n. a narrow waterway that connects
rhetoric, n. the skill of using words
two large bodies of water (93)
effectively in speaking or writing (87)
subcontinent, n. a major subdivision of
S a continent (101)
Sabbath, n. a day of rest and worship surplus, n. an extra amount, beyond what
observed by members of a religious is needed (6)
group (66) symposium, n. in ancient Greece,
sacred, adj. related to religion; holy (17) a meeting for drinking, music, and
intellectual discussion; today, a meeting or
savanna, n. a flat grassland that also has a
conference for discussion of a topic (87)
few trees (51)
synagogue, n. a Jewish temple or house
scribe, n. a person whose job is to write or
of worship (66)
make copies of written information (18)
secular, adj. not religious (105) T
serf, n. a peasant who is not free; a person Tanakh, n. the collection of Jewish
living on a feudal estate who was required holy writings; sometimes called the
to work for the lord of the manor (227) Hebrew Bible (56)

262
tectonic, adj. related to the movement of U
Earth’s crust (76)
uniform, adj. following one pattern;
terra-cotta, n. baked or hardened always having the same form or
brownish-red clay (103) characteristics (20)
toga, n. traditional Roman clothing
consisting of fabric draped around V
the body (141) vassal, n. a person who receives land from
tribute, n. payment of money or goods by a lord and in return promises to fight for
a people or their ruler to another country the lord (222)
or ruler that has conquered them, or in verse, n. writing arranged with a specific
exchange for protection (21) structure and rhythm; poetry (25)
tsunami, n. a giant wave caused by an
earthquake, volcanic eruption, or other Z
destabilizing event (199) zeal, n. passion; eagerness (70)
typhoon, n. a powerful rotating storm ziggurat, n. an ancient Mesopotamian
with high winds that originates in the temple with a pyramid shape, consisting
Pacific Ocean (200) of several levels and characterized by
staircases on the outside walls (15)

263
 Subject Matter Experts
Dr. Nadine Brundrett
John J. Butt, PhD
Michael J. Carter, PhD
Dr. Christian S. Davis
Dr. Gary M. Feinman
Dr. Yongguang Hu
Dr. Kristen L. McCleary
Salmon A. Shomade, JD, PhD
Dr. Mark G. Spencer

Illustration and Photo Credits

00378 Vase, with octagonal belly and two handles, Phoenician, 1st century Colossal statues of Ramesses II, from the Temple of Ramesses II, New
(blue glass) / Louvre, Paris, France / © Ali Meyer / Bridgeman Images / 63 Kingdom (stone) / Egyptian 19th Dynasty (c.1292-1187 BC) / Egyptian /
Abu Simbel, Egypt / Bildarchiv Steffens / Bridgeman Images / 33
A caravan in the desert, 1928 (colour litho) / Ault, Norman (1880-1950) /
English / Private Collection / Bridgeman Images / 157 Conway Castle (colour litho) / Quinton, Alfred Robert (1853-1934) / British /
Album / Alamy Stock Photo / 4, 118-119 Private Collection / © Look and Learn / Bridgeman Images / 216-217

Alex Zuccarelli / Alamy Stock Photo / 198-199 Coreen Art: Buddha statuette in gold. Silla period, 8th-10th century.
National Museum of Korea / Korean School, (8th century) / Korean / National
Alexander the Great (356-323 BC) from 'The Alexander Mosaic', depicting Museum, Seoul, Korea / Photo © Photo Josse / Bridgeman Images / 203
the Battle of Issus between Alexander and Darius III (399-330 BC) in 333
CPA Media Pte Ltd / Alamy Stock Photo / 14
BC, floor mosaic removed from the Casa del Fauno (House of the Faun) at
Pompeii, after a 4th century BC Hellenistic painting by Philoxenos of Eritrea David Habben / 108a, 108b, 108c
(mosaic) (detail of 154003) / Roman, (1st century BC) / Museo Archeologico David slings the stone by J James Tissot - Bible / Tissot, James Jacques Joseph
Nazionale, Naples, Campania, Italy / Bridgeman Images / 99 (1836-1902) (after) / French / Lebrecht History / Bridgeman Images / 64
Anthropomorphic Mask (stone, turquoise, obsidian and shell) (157743) Deborah 's triumphal song - Book of Judges -Bible / Lebrecht Authors /
/ Teotihuacan / Mexican / Museo Nacional de Antropologia, Mexico City,
Bridgeman Images / 64
Mexico / Bridgeman Images / 168-169
Diego Grandi / Alamy Stock Photo / 182
Anthropomorphic vase, from Peten, Guatemala (earthenware) / Mayan /
Museo Nacional de Arqueologia y Etnologia, Guatemala City / Bridgeman Disc with relief design representing a ball player / Werner Forman Archive /
Images / 174 Bridgeman Images / 176b
Best View Stock / Alamy Stock Photo / 129 Dominican Monks, detail from the Cycle of Forty Illustrious Members of
the Dominican Order, 1352, by Tommaso da Modena (1326-1379), fresco,
Blaize Pascall / Alamy Stock Photo / 45
Chapter Hall of the Dominicans, the Episcopal Seminary (formerly the
Bracelets of Sheshonq II, from the grave of Sheshonq II, Tomb of Psusennes convent of St Nicholas), Treviso, Italy / Modena, Tomaso da (Bassi) (late 15th
I, Tanis, Third Intermediate Period (gold, lapis lazuli, carnelian & faience) century) / Italian / San Nicolo, Treviso, Italy / © NPL - DeA Picture Library /
/ Egyptian 22nd Dynasty (945-715 BC) / Egyptian / Egyptian National Bridgeman Images / 219
Museum, Cairo, Egypt / © Sandro Vannini / Bridgeman Images / 42
Early Egyptians using a system of weights and poles called shadoofs to
Chariot race at the Circus Maximus / Baraldi, Severino (b.1930) / Italian / get water from the Nile / Jackson, Peter (1922-2003) / British / Private
Private Collection / © Look and Learn / Bridgeman Images / Cover E, 138 Collection / © Look and Learn / Bridgeman Images / 31
Chariot, Daimabad culture, c.2000-1500 BC (bronze) / Indian School / Indian Elitsa Lambova / Alamy Stock Photo / 16
/ Private Collection / Photo © Dirk Bakker / Bridgeman Images / 104
Emperor Constantine I (c.274-337) the Great (mosaic) / Byzantine / San
China: Qin Shu Huang / Qin Shi Huangdi, First Emperor of a unified China Marco, Venice, Italy / Bridgeman Images / 150
(r.246-221 BCE) / Pictures from History / Bridgeman Images / 128 English Archer Armed with the "Long Bow" (engraving) / English School,
China: Wu Zetian ( 624-705), Empress Regnant of the Zhou Dynasty (690- (19th century) / English / Private Collection / © Look and Learn / Bridgeman
705) / Pictures from History / Bridgeman Images / 187 Images / 225
Chronicle / Alamy Stock Photo / 253 Esther scroll (mixed media) / Italian School, (17th century) / Italian / The
Israel Museum, Jerusalem, Israel / © Israel Museum, Jerusalem / Gift
CKHG G2 SB ANCIENT INDIA / 108
of Jakob Michael in memory of Erna Sondheimer-Michael / Bridgeman
Colossal Olmec head ( Monument 1 ), from the site of San Lorenzo, now Images / 56
displayed at the Jalapa Museum, Veracruz, Mexico / Werner Forman Archive
/ Bridgeman Images / 171

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 Etruscan musicians, copy of a 5th century BC fresco in the Tomb of the Luca Tettoni/Robert Harding Picture Library / 116
Leopard at Tarquinia (fresco) / Etruscan / Private Collection / Bridgeman lucky-photographer / Alamy Stock Photo / 73
Images / 134
Mali: Mansa Musa, King of Mali, holding a sceptre and a piece of gold. Detail
Excavation of the The Dead Sea Scrolls, 1950 (b/w photo) / Universal History
from the Catalan Atlas, 1375 / Pictures from History / Bridgeman Images /
Archive/UIG / Bridgeman Images / 72
240-241
Fabian von Poser / imageBROKER / imageBROKER / Superstock / 244
Mansa Kankan Musa I, 14th century king of the Mali empire (gouache on
Figurine of a girl running, Sparta, 520-500 BC (bronze) / Greek, (6th century paper) / McBride, Angus (1931-2007) / British / Private Collection / © Look
BC) / Greek / British Museum, London, UK / Bridgeman Images / 90 and Learn / Bridgeman Images / 250
Forecourt of the Ummayad mosque, Damascus, 1890 (oil on panel) / Martin Hargreaves / 227, 228, 231
Bauernfeind, Gustave (1848-1904) / German / Private Collection / Photo ©
Medieval trebuchet (chromolitho) / European School, (19th century) /
Christie's Images / Bridgeman Images / 162
European / Private Collection / © Look and Learn / Bridgeman Images / 224
Godong / Alamy Stock Photo / 159
Men at work, detail from the frescoes in the Tomb of Rekhmire, Sheikh Abd
Gold statue of Amen / Hook, Richard (b.1938) / English / Private Collection el Qurnah Necropolis, Luxor, Thebes (Unesco World Heritage List, 1979),
/ © Look and Learn / Bridgeman Images / 40 Egypt. Egyptian civilization, New Kingdom, Dynasty XVIII. / Egyptian
GRANT ROONEY PREMIUM / Alamy Stock Photo / 215 18th Dynasty (c.1567-1320 BC) / Egyptian / © NPL - DeA Picture Library
/ Bridgeman Images / 35
HomoCosmicos / Alamy Stock Photo / 15
Mesopotamia. Terracotta figurine representing an harpist. / Mesopotamian
Illumination of a menorah, from the Jewish Cervera Bible, 1299 (vellum) / State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia / 7
/ Ha-Zarefati, Joseph (fl.1299) / Spanish / Instituto da Biblioteca Nacional,
Lisbon, Portugal / Bridgeman Images / 69 Minamoto Yoritomo fighting for the first time at the age of thirteen (colour
litho) / Japanese School / Japanese / Private Collection / Peter Newark
Illustration of the Ishtar Gate in ancient Babylon (w/c on paper) / Private Military Pictures / Bridgeman Images / 209
Collection / De Agostini Picture Library / C. Sappa / Bridgeman Images / 26
Mongol horsemen / McBride, Angus (1931-2007) / British / Private
Iluminated Koran / Photo © Zev Radovan / Bridgeman Images / 245 Collection / © Look and Learn / Bridgeman Images / 191
Images of Africa Photobank / Alamy Stock Photo / 49 Moses is found by a princess - Bible / Lebrecht History / Bridgeman Images
INTERFOTO / Alamy Stock Photo / 18, 252 / 59
Investiture of a Knight, from the 'Metz Codex', 1290 (vellum) / French Mummy in coffin, from Hawara (mixed media) / Egyptian Ptolemaic Period
School, (13th century) / French / Private Collection / Index Fototeca / (332-30 BC) / Egyptian / Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford, UK / ©
Bridgeman Images / 225 Ashmolean Museum / Bridgeman Images / 41
Ionut David / Alamy Stock Photo/ 6 Mural in Chien Tombs representing women in shanxi province (fresco) /
Chinese School, Tang Dynasty (618-907) / Chinese / Bridgeman Images /
Italy, Rome, the Colosseum. / Dorling Kindersley/UIG / Bridgeman Images 188
/ 132-133
nagelestock.com / Alamy Stock Photo / 184-185
Ivy Close Images / Alamy Stock Photo / 39
Nebuchadnezzar granting Marduk freedom from taxation depicted on
Jacob Wyatt / 137, 143 a white limestone boundary stone / Universal History Archive/UIG /
Japan: Emperor Kanmu was the 50th emperor of Japan, according to Bridgeman Images/ 8
the traditional order of succession. (r. notionally 781-806). 16th century Nefertari playing senet, detail of a wall painting from the Tomb of Queen
painting on silk / Pictures from History / Bridgeman Images / 206 Nefertari, New Kingdom (fresco) / Egyptian 19th Dynasty (c.1292-1187 BC)
Jed Henry / 111a, 111b / Egyptian / Valley of the Queens, Thebes, Egypt / Bridgeman Images / i,
iii, 28-29
John Elk III / Alamy Stock Photo / 251
Ostrakon (or ostracon) (plural: ostraca or ostraka), pottery shards serving
John Warburton-Lee Photography / Alamy Stock Photo / 53 as ballots during ostracism procedures in Ancient Greece. 480 BC Athenes.
Jui-Chi Chan / Alamy Stock Photo / 172 Agora museum. / Greek, (5th century BC) / Greek / Agora Museum, Athens,
Greece / Luisa Ricciarini / Bridgeman Images / 86
Kaehler, Wolfgang / Superstock / 167
Part of a banquet scene from the tomb of Nebamun / Werner Forman
Ladies preparing the newly woven silk, painting attributed to Emperor Archive / Bridgeman Images / 36
Hui-Tsung, Song Dynasty, China, 11th-12th century / Chinese School,
Song Dynasty (960-1279) / Chinese / Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Peter Horree / Alamy Stock Photo/ 3, 23, 47, 126
Massachusetts, USA / © NPL - DeA Picture Library / Bridgeman Images / Photo credit / Tarker / Bridgeman Images/ 7
131
Pictorial Press Ltd / Alamy Stock Photo / Cover D, 235
Leningrad Codex, cover page E, folio 474a, 1008/09 (ink on vellum) / Jewish
School, (11th century) / National Library, St. Petersburg, Russia / Photo © Pont du Gard, Roman aqueduct, France. (photo) / Bridgeman Images / 147
Zev Radovan / Bridgeman Images / 54-55 PRISMA ARCHIVO / Alamy Stock Photo / 13

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 Queen Esther accuses Haman -Bible / Dixon, Arthur A. (1892-1927) / Lebrecht Authors / Bridgeman Images / 65
Authors / Bridgeman Images / 67
The Magnificent Nebuchadnezzar / Dear, Neville (b.1923) / English / Private
Queen Nefertiti of Egypt / Thutmose (1360 BC) / Egyptian / Lebrecht Authors / Collection / © Look and Learn / Bridgeman Images / 66
Bridgeman Images / Cover A, 48
The Picture Art Collection / Alamy Stock Photo / 38
Richard Ashworth/Robert Harding Picture Library / 30
The Print Collector / Alamy Stock Photo / 42
robertharding / Alamy Stock Photo / 44 The wandering navigator Abu-Zayd (Abu Zayd, Abu Zayd) holding a speech in the
Rome, Roman civilization, ideal reconstruction of the Roman forum, the temple Basra Miniature library from the “Maqamat” (Seances) by Abu Mohammed al-
of Vesta, engraving by J. Hofbauer, 1911 / G. Dagli Orti /© NPL - DeA Picture Kasim ibn Ali Hariri (or Al-Hariri or Al Hariri) (1054-1122) enlumined by Yahya
Library / Bridgeman Images / 140 Mahmud al-Wasiti (al Wasiti) in 1237, Paris, B.N. / Al-Wasiti, Yahya ibn Mahmud
Scheherazade and the Caliph / Photo © CCI / Bridgeman Images / 166 (13th Century) / Iraqi / Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, France / Photo © Photo
Josse / Bridgeman Images / 152-153
Scott Hammond / 176a, 177
Tomb of Seti I (KV 17): Maat, goddess of truth and justice and hieroglyphs, 19th
Sharad Raval / Alamy Stock Photo / 100-101 dynasty (fresco) / Egyptian 19th Dynasty (c.1292-1187 BC) / Egyptian / Valley of
Shinto Shrine of Kusado Jinja, Fukuyama, Chugoku, Japan / © NPL - DeA Picture the Kings, Thebes, Egypt / Luisa Ricciarini / Bridgeman Images / 37
Library / G. Sioen / Bridgeman Images / 205 Tomb painting from the tomb of Amenhotep Huyi / Werner Forman Archive /
Stock Connection / Superstock / 165 Bridgeman Images / 52

SuperStock / Bridgeman Images / 110 View of antique Thessaly from the 'Atlas Major', 1662 (coloured engraving) /
Blaeu, Joan (1596-1673) / Dutch / Private Collection / Bridgeman Images / 74-75
Tablet depicting four scribes at work, New Kingdom, c.1400 BC (stone) / Egyptian
18th Dynasty (c.1567-1320 BC) / Egyptian / Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Vladimir 1st the Great (956-1015), prince of Kiev, and founder of Russia ,
Florence, Italy / Bridgeman Images / 34 illustration by Ivan Bilibine (1876-1942) in 1925 / © Tallandier / Bridgeman
Images / 238
The Acropolis and Parthenon / Payne, Roger (b.1934) / British / Private Collection
/ © Look and Learn / Bridgeman Images / 95 Wojtek Buss/age fotostock / 103

The faithful before the Kaaba in Mecca, from the 'Siyer-i Nebi' (gouache on paper)
/ Turkish School, (16th century) / Turkish / Topkapi Palace Museum, Istanbul,
Turkey / Bildarchiv Steffens / Bridgeman Images / 158
The Great Wave off Kanagawa from from the series '36 Views of Mt. Fuji', 1831
(hand-coloured woodblock print) / Hokusai, Katsushika (1760-1849) / Japanese /
Private Collection / The Stapleton Collection / Bridgeman Images / 200
The judgement of Solomon -Bible / Dixon, Arthur A. (1892-1927) / Lebrecht

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 CK HG™
Core Knowledge History and Geography™

Editorial Director
Rosie McCormick

267

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 CK HG™
Core Knowledge History and Geography
A comprehensive program in world and American history
and geography, integrating topics in civics and the arts,
exploring civilizations, cultures, and concepts specified in the
Core Knowledge Sequence (content and skill guidelines for Grades K–8)

Core Knowledge History and Geography™

units at this level include:

A History of the United States:

Precolonial to the 1800s (Volume 1)

A History of the United States:

Modern Times—Late 1800s to the 2000s (Volume 2)

World History:
The Ancient World to the Medieval Era (Volume 1)

World History:
Renaissance to Modern Day (Volume 2)

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Core Knowledge Curriculum Series™