Malabang National High School

Malabang Lanao Del Sur

Senior High School Department

Research Paper
In
Physical Science

Submitted by :
Asnor A. Rakib
Grade 12 - Gas II- Cherry

Submitted to :
Sir Abdul Gaffor Ibrahim
Subject Teacher
Answer and Explain the following:
1.)Give evidence for and explain the formation of the lights elements in the Big Bang Theory.

--Light elements, including hydrogen, helium, deuterium, and lithium, were formed in the Big
Bang because of the weak nuclear interaction, which is responsible for radioactive decays of
unstable isotopes. Moreover, processes such as nucleosynthesis and thermonuclear fusion.
Among the lights elements formed during the Big Bang theory are Deutrium , Helium-3 ,
Helium-4 , and Lithium-7 were stable.

The Big Bang theory is an effort to explain what happened at the very beginning of our
universe. Discoveries in astronomy and physics have shown beyond a reasonable doubt that
our universe did in fact have a beginning. Prior to that moment there was nothing; during and
after that moment there was something: our universe. The big bang theory is an effort to
explain what happened during and after that moment.

2.)Give evidence for and and describe the formation of hevier element during star formation
and evolution.

--For astronomers everything hevier than Hydrogen and Helium is a "metal". Yes , even oxygen
is metal. Big Bang created mostly Hydrogen , some Helium and less than 1% of lithium. Most
stars can see produce helium by fusing hydrogen (the process involves some other elements as
catalyzers). When the stars grows old and poor in hydrogen , the production of helium slows
down , that leads to star compressing a bit ; which increases tge pressure and allows it to start
fusing helium into hevier elements. This process can repeat all the way to iron , at which point
no fusion can occur spontaneously , because fusing iron costs energy instead of producing it.

Now all those elements up to iron are still within the stars , so for them to form a rocky body
like our planet , the stars needs to explode either as supernova , or by colliding with another
body. Elements larger than iron can only created in violent events like explosions of supernovas
or collisions of stars. That's why metal's hevier than iron are relatively rare.

3.)Describe the ideas of the ancients Greeks on the Atom.

--The ideas of the ancients Greeks about the atom's lead to interpret and understand on how
this atom's evolved and create from the start. Their ideas is just an assumptions and
experiments that they made to know the truth bit in fact there is conflict about their ideas that
makes us study about their thoughts until now. Just like on how the Greek philosophers
Leucippus and Democritus first developed the concept of the atom in the 5th century B.C.E.
However, since Aristotle and other prominent thinkers of the time strongly opposed their idea
of the atom, their theory was overlooked and essentially buried until the 16th and 17th
centuries. In time, Lavoisier’s groundbreaking 18th-century experiments accurately measured
all substances involved in the burning process, proving that “when substances burn, there is no
net gain or loss of weight.” Lavoisier established the science of modern chemistry, which gained
greater acceptance because of the efforts of John Dalton, who modernized the ancient Greek
ideas of element, atom, compound, and molecule; and provided a means of explaining chemical
reactions in quantitative terms.

The concept of the atom was revisited and elaborated upon by many scientists and
philosophers, including Galileo, Newton, Boyle, and Lavoisier. In 1661, Boyle presented a
discussion of atoms in his The Sceptical Chymist. However, the English chemist and
meteorologist John Dalton is credited with the first modern atomic theory, as explained in his A
New System of Chemical Philosophy.

4.)Cite the contribution of of J.J Thomson, Ernest Rutherford , Henry Moseley and Niels Bohr
to the understanding of the structure of the atom .

--The Modern Atomic Theory states that: 1. Atoms are no longer considered indivisible or
indestructible; 2. Atoms of the same element can have different weights and atoms of different
elements can have the same weight; 3. Atoms are the smallest particles that take part in
chemical reactions; and 4. Atoms do not always have to combine in simple ratios (Wiz IQ). The
development of this theory can be contributed to the works of John Dalton, J.J. Thomson,
Robert Millikan, Ernest Rutherford, Henry Moseley, Niels Bohr, Gary Motherfucking Oak, and Sir
James Chadwick.

John Dalton was the first scientist to propose a version of the modern atomic theory. He based
his atomic theory off of ancient Greek philosophers’ theories on atoms, although his theory was
much more accurate than theirs. Dalton did not have any experimental designs for his theory,
but he did have a lot of quality research. He proposed a standard symbol for each element
(right). He found that chemical elements were composed of atoms, and that the atoms in one
element were all identical in weight, but atoms of different elements had different weights
(Atomic Theory). John Dalton was able to prove this information because of his development of
a method used to find atomic weights. He also found that atoms only combined in small whole-
number ratios. This information is related to the formulation of the Law of Multiple Proportions
(Historical Outline). The Law of Multiple Proportions states that when two elements can
combine to form more than one compound, the mass of one element and the mass of the other
element are in a ratio of small whole numbers. He created the Law of Multiple Proportions as
he was experimenting with finding the atomic weights of elements (Britannica). With all of his
work, John Dalton came up with his own atomic theory. It stated that 1. Matter is made up of
very small, indivisible parts known as atoms; 2. Atoms of the same element are identical in
every way; 3. Atoms of different elements are different in all ways; 4. When atoms of the same
or different element combine they form compound atoms; 5. When combined, they do so in
simple, whole-number ratios; 6. An atom is the smallest particle to have a part in chemical
reactions; and 7. An atom can neither be created nor destroyed (Wiz IQ).

When J.J Thomson was only 14 years when he enrolled at Owens College, Manchester. He then
went on to become a Fellow of Trinity College, after that he became a professor at Cambridge.
As a professor, Thomson made a few trips to America, and when he returned, he made the
most brilliant discovery of his career. Thomson had discovered the electron. While he was on
another trip to America, he lectured on some things he thought the structure of an atom would
be (Thomson Nobel Prize). Before him, Dalton had done a lot of research with atoms, but his
theory had nothing about the physical and internal structures of atoms. The evidence that led
him to believe Dalton’s theory was not the most accurate was his own discovery of the
electron, or negatively charged particles (Historical Outline). Thomson discovered the electron
while experimenting with cathode rays; he concluded that a cathode ray is a stream of
negatively charged particles that has a mass about 1000 times smaller than a hydrogen atom.
With this information he proposed that cathode rays are streams of particles much smaller than
atoms, and that theses small particles were pieces of atoms (American Institute of Physics). In
1904, Thomson made a model of what he believed the internal structure of an atom looked like
(Chemical Heritage Foundation). He called this model, “Plum Pudding”, because there was a
positively charged “bowl” with negatively charged electrons in the atom that were like plums in
pudding (History of Atoms).

5.)Describe the Nuclear model of the atom and the location of its major components (protons
, neutrons , and electrons.)

-Protons: Protons are the basis of atoms. While an atom can gain or lose neutrons and
electrons, its identity is tied to the number of protons. The symbol for proton number is the
capital letter Z.

Neutrons: The number of neutrons in an atom is indicated by the letter N. The atomic mass of
an atom is the sum of its protons and neutrons or Z + N. The strong nuclear force binds protons
and neutrons together to form the nucleus of an atom.

Electrons: Electrons are much smaller than protons or neutrons and orbit around them.

Atoms cannot be divided using chemicals. They do consist of parts, which include protons,
neutrons, and electrons, but an atom is a basic chemical building block of matter. Nuclear
reactions, such as radioactive decay and fission, can break apart atoms.

Each proton has a positive electrical charge. The charge of a proton and an electron are equal in
magnitude, yet opposite in sign. Electrons and protons are electrically attracted to each other.
Like charges (protons and protons, electrons and electrons) repel each other.Each neutron is
electrically neutral. In other words, neutrons do not have a charge and are not electrically
attracted to either electrons or protons.

Protons and neutrons are about the same size as each other and are much larger than
electrons. The mass of a proton is essentially the same as that of a neutron. The mass of a
proton is 1840 times greater than the mass of an electron.The nucleus of an atom contains
protons and neutrons. The nucleus carries a positive electrical charge.

Electrons move around outside the nucleus. Electrons are organized into shells, which is a
region where an electron is most likely found. Simple models show electrons orbiting the
nuclear in a near-circular orbit, like planets orbiting a star, but real behavior is much more
complex. Some electron shells resemble spheres, but others look more like dumb bells or other
shapes. Technically, an electron can be found anywhere within the atom, but spends most of its
time in the region described by an orbital. Electrons can also move between orbitals.Almost all
of the mass of an atom is in its nucleus; almost all of the volume of an atom is occupied by
electrons.

The particles within an atom are bound together by powerful forces. In general, electrons are
easier to add or remove from an atom than a proton or neutron. Chemical reactions largely
involve atoms or groups of atoms and the interactions between their electrons

6) Cite the contribution of John Dalton toward the the understanding of the chemical
elements ...

--The idea of the atom was not further explored until John Dalton presented concrete evidence
that all matter is made of very small particles called atoms. He come up with the first modern
atomic theory based on his experiments with atmospheric gases, as explained in his New
System of Chemical Philosophy. Dalton suggests the three ideas;

1. All atoms of a given element are identical.

2. The atoms of different elements vary in mass and size.

3. Atoms are indestructible.Chemical reactions may result in their rearrangement, but not their
creation ordestruction.John Dalton also proposed the law of multiple proportions which
described how reactants will combine in set ratios.

7)Explain how Dalton's theory contributed to the discovery of other elements...

(Dalton’s Theory, 1805)

--Dalton’s Theory of Atoms assumes atoms are hard and indestructible, but contributes the
somewhat new idea that molecules can be formed of multiple elements combined together.

The notion that atoms can be combined to create molecules defines the very nature of how
new chemical combinations, and thus, in some cases, how new types of elements, can be
formulated.

Dalton's Atomic Theory of 1808 did not contribute significantly to the discovery of new
elements. It did, however, postulate the atom as the smallest entity involved in chemical
reactions. It also postulated the formation of molecules from whole number ratios of different
atoms. It was the discovery of the periodic table 50 years later that could predict missing
elements.

8.)Give the types of intermolecular forces in the properties of substance.

--The intermolecular forces between molecules are important in the properties of all solid and
liquid materials. They are key to reactions that take place in biological molecules. Proteins form
their secondary and tertiary structures through hydrogen-bonding and London forces. DNA
forms because of hydrogen bonding between base pairs. Enzymes function when molecules
interact with the protein active site in these biological catalysts.

Types of Intermolecular Forces

1.)Entropy Considerations

2.) Intermolecular Forces and DNA

9.)Explain the effects of intermolecular forces on the properties of substance.

--Stronger intermolecular forces will also result in a higher physical properties such as higher
melting or boiling points, which require breaking molecules apart. Higher intermolecular forces
also leads to a higher freezing point, but since we are talking about lowering the temperature
for freezing points, we often say that lower intermolecular forces requires lowering the
temperature more.

Since a higher vapor pressure means that it is easier to vaporize a compound, this means that
lower intermolecular forces leads to a higher vapor pressure.

Van der Waals Dispersion Forces

Van der Waals dispersion forces, also called London forces, occur due to instantaneous dipoles.
At any given moment the electrons in a molecule or atom may not be evenly distributed around
the molecule. If more electrons are on the left side of the molecule than on the right side, then
there will be a slight negative charge on the left side of the molecule. The side with fewer
electrons will have a slight positive charge.

These momentary, slight, positive and negative charges are attracted to each other (like the
positive and negative ends on a magnet). This causes momentary bonds between molecules.
We can already see why these bonds would be so weak, because they only last for a little while.

Van der Waals dispersion forces increase as the atomic size increases. This means that larger
molecules will feel more force, thus increasing the intermolecular forces. So if we have two
molecules that are exactly the same except that one is bigger than the other (such as methane
and ethane), then the intermolecular forces of the bigger one will be stronger than for the
smaller one.

A partial positive charge and a partial negative charge can be created between two atoms when
there is a difference in electronegativity. These interactions are called van der Waals dipole-
dipole interactions.

For example, carbon is less electronegative than oxygen, creating a partial positive on carbon
and a partial negative on oxygen. The dipole interactions are stronger than the dispersion
forces because the oxygen will almost always have slightly more electrons than the carbon,
instead of constantly changing. There still isn't a full negative charge on the oxygen, or a full
positive charge on the carbon. But the partial positive and negative charges are still enough to
attract opposite charges together.

The higher the difference in electronegativity, the strong the dipole-dipole interactions will be.
So compounds with a higher electronegativity difference will have strong intermolecular forces.

Imagine you just broke your favorite lamp. You have several different types of glue to put it
back together. If you choose a weaker glue, it won't take much force for the lamp to fall apart
again, while using a stronger glue would require a lot more force to break that bond.
Intermolecular forces are like the glue, only instead of holding a lamp together, intermolecular
forces hold molecules together. There are strong and weak forces; the stronger the force, the
more energy is required to break those molecules apart from each other.

Intermolecular forces include (listed from weakest to strongest):

Van der Waals dispersion forces

Van der Waals dipole-dipole interactions

Hydrogen bonding

Ionic bonds

So, if two molecules are only connected using van der Waals dispersion forces, then it would
require very little energy to break those molecules apart from each other. On the other hand, if
two molecules are connected using ionic bonds, it takes a whole lot more energy to break those
two apart.

10.)Define catalyst and describe how it affects reaction rate.

--It assumes familiarity with basic concepts in the collision theory of reaction rates, and with the
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution of molecular energies in a gas. A catalyst is a substance which
speeds up a reaction, but is chemically unchanged at its end. When the reaction has finished,
the mass of catalyst is the same as at the beginning. Several examples of catalyzed reactions
and their respective catalysts are given below:

Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide manganese(IV) oxide, MnO2 ,Nitration of benzene

concentrated sulfuric acid .Manufacture of ammonia by the Haber Process iron Conversion of
SO2 into SO3 during the Contact Process to make sulfuric acid vanadium(V) oxide, V2O5
Hydrogenation of a C=C double bond nickel

The importance of activation energy

WORD OF CAUTION
Care must be taken when discussing how a catalyst operates. A catalyst provides an alternative
route for the reaction with a lower activation energy. It does not "lower the activation energy
of the reaction". There is a subtle difference between the two statements that is easily
illustrated with a simple analogy. Suppose there is a mountain between two valleys such that
the only way for people to get from one valley to the other is over the mountain. Only the most
active people will manage to get from one valley to the other.

Now suppose a tunnel is cut through the mountain. Many more people will now manage to get
from one valley to the other by this easier route. It could be said that the tunnel route has a
lower activation energy than going over the mountain, but the mountain itself is not lowered.
The tunnel has provided an alternative route but has not lowered the original one. The original
mountain is still there, and some people still choose to climb it. In chemical terms, if particles
collide with enough energy they can still react in exactly the same way as if the catalyst was not
there; it is simply that the majority of particles will react via the easier catalyzed route.

11.)Explain what the greeks considered to be the three types of terrestrial motion.

--Terrestrial Motion : That is movements that the earth makes.In physics,motion is a change in
position of an object with respect to time.Motionis typically described in terms of displacement,
distance, velocity, acceleration, time and speed.Three types of terrestrial motion :Motion with
respect to quality - Motion in respect of Quality let us call alteration, a general designation that
is used to include both contraries: and by Quality I do not here mean a property of substance
(in that sense that which constitutes a specific distinction is a quality) but a passive quality in
virtue of which a thing is said to be acted on or to be incapable of being actedon.Motion with
respect to quantity -Motion in respect of Quantity has no name that includes both
contraries,but it is called increase or decrease according as one or the other is designated: that
is to say motion in the direction of complete magnitude is increase, motion in the contrary
direction is decrease.Motion with respect to place -Motion in respect of Place has no name
either general or particular: but we may designate it by the general name of locomotion,
though strictly the term 'locomotion'is applicable to things that change their place only when
they have not the power to come to a stand, and to things that do not move
themselveslocally.Explain what is meant by diurnal motion, annual motion, precession of the
equinoxes.Diurnal Motion : Diurnal motion is the daily motion of stars and other celestial
bodies across the sky. This motion is due to the Earth's rotation from west to east, which causes
celestial bodies to have an apparent motion from east to west.
12.)Explain how Greeks knew that the earth is spherical.

The earliest reliably documented mention of the spherical Earth concept dates from around the
6th century BC when it appeared in ancient Greek philosophy but remained a matter of
speculation until the 3rd century BC, when Hellenistic astronomy established the spherical
shape of the Earth as a physical given.

13.)Explain how platos problem of saving the appearances constrained greek models of the
universe

--Pythagoras was acknowledged to be the first to assert is round and that the heavenly bodies
move in circles. Earth is at rest at the center of the universe and everything rotates around
Earth. He also considered the motions of the planets were mathematically related to musical
sounds and numbers. These ideas are called “The Music of the Spheres.” Anaxagoras, a follower
of Pythagoras, was credited for determining the relative positions of the sun, the moon, and
Earth, during solar and lunar eclipse. The Greek Philosopher and teacher Plato adopted
Pythagorean view of the motion of heavenly bodies as combinations of circular motion about
Earth. He assumed that all motions in the universe are perfectly circular and all that heavenly
bodies are ethereal or perfect. Most of the time, planets moved from west to east as predicted.
But occasionally, they backtrack for a while, that is, they move westward before resuming their
eastward motion. This is called the retrograde motion. The followers and students of Plato were
tasked to explain the retrograde motion of the planets. In particular, Plato challenged them
with this problem: “What circular motions, uniform and perfectly regular, are to be admitted as
hypothesis so that it might be possible to save the appearances presented by the planets?” This
challenge is known as “Plato’s Saving the Appearances” in the history of astronomy.

14.)Cite examples of astronomical phenomena known to astronomers before the advent of

telescopes.

--Examples of astronomical phenomena known to astronomers before the telescope was

discovered were:

-Position of certain planets in the night sky

-Lunar and planetary phases

-Shape of orbits of some planets

-Period of appearance of comets

-Annual motion, time of equinoxes

15.)Explain how Galileo's astronomical discoveries and observations ( lunar craters , phases of
venus , moons of jupiter , suns spots , supernovas , the apparently identical size of stars as
seem through the naked eye , and telescope observations) helped weaken the support for the
Ptolemaic model.

--History had claimed that a refracting a telescope was accidentally invented by a Dutch
lensmaker, Hans Lippershey, in 1608. Galileo, upon hearing of this invention without having
seen it, made his own telescope and aimed it to the skies. The following lists some of the things
that he saw with his telescope, all of which greatly contradicted the models of Ptolemy and
Aristotle and provided new data that supported Copernican model.

1. The moon has mountains, valleys, and craters. This suggested that the moon is not so
different from Earth implying that something in the celestial realm is barely distinguishable
from objects that belong to the terrestrial realm.

2. The surface of the sun has some blemishes, which are now called sunspots. This contradicted
the Greek concept of the sun as being a perfect celestial body.

3. Jupiter has four moons revolving around it. This showed that not all heavenly bodies have to
revolve around Earth. There are other centers of revolution that are themselves revolving.

4. Venus has phases similar to the moon. This showed that Venus is just illuminated by the light
form the sun and that it is revolving around the sun. The Ptolemaic model can only account for
the crescent phase of Venus, not the full range of phases observed by Galileo.

5. Many stars’ faint to be seen by the naked eye become visible with his telescope. The Milky
Way was simply made of individual stars. Even when viewed through a telescope, the stars still
appeared to be point of light. This provided evidence that the stars are extremely far away and
that it was extremely difficult to observe stellar parallax. Galileo published his findings
supporting the Copernican model in 1610. In 1616, he was found guilty of suspicion of heresy
by the Roman Catholic Church. In 1633, he was placed under house arrest and remained
imprisoned for the rest of his life.

16.)Explain how Brahe's innovations and extensive collection of data in observational

astronomy paved the way for Kepler's discovery of his Laws of planetary motion.

--Interestingly enough, it’s actually believed by most historical accounts that Kepler was the
person responsible for Brahe’s death: they think he murdered him just to get at his work.

In 1601, Brahe was making strides in his work on the motion of planetary bodies, and Johannes
Kepler was his assistant. The circumstances surrounding Brahe’s convenient death immediately
raised Kepler as one of the main suspects. It was after Brahe’s death that Kepler suddenly was
able to work out the calculations and publish the papers that have now made his work famous,
and invaluable.

Unfortunately, Brahe’s murder still goes unsolved, in spite of a 1996 exhumation. The only thing
it accomplished was in ruling out that the vehicle of death was poisoning by mercury, as was
previously believed.

17.)Compare and contrast the Aristotelian and Galilean conceptions of vertical motion ,
horizontal motion , and projectile motion.

--Vertical Motion & Horizontal Motion

Aristotle's Theory of Motion

Forced Motion is non-natural ( result in removal ob object from its natural place. Is influenced
by two factors: motive force (F), and resistance of medium ( R) Aristotle's "Law of Motion" V is
proportional to F/R

Galileo's Theory of Motion

Distance traversed is proportional to time of travel because Uniform Motion is undetectable
under certain conditions.

Projectile Motion:

Aristotle: What maintains motion of projectile after it's left the thrower's

hand is that initial motive force transfers to the medium

initially surrounding the object a "power" to act as a motive

force. Medium then forces object into new region, which is

then imparted with the "power" to act.

Galileo: A projectile which is carried by a uniform horizontal motion

compounded with a naturally accelerated vertical motion

describes a path which is a semi-parabola.

18.)Explain the statement " Newton's laws of motion are axioms while Kepler's laws of
planetary motion are empirical laws".
--We all know that we learned about Newton’s Laws of motion, but there’s one more law of his
to discuss, and it’s a big one. It’s Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation. The Universal Law of
Gravitation states that, every object in the Universe attracts every other object with a force
which is directly proportional to the product of the masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them. Let the two objects A and B of masses M and m lie at the
distance d from each other. Let F be the force of attraction between them. According to law of
gravitational force, the force between the objects is directly proportional to the product of their
masses, so that F is directly proportional to M and to m.

The constant of proportionality (G) in the above equation is known as the universal gravitation
constant. The precise value of G was determined experimentally by Henry Cavendish in the
century after Newton’s death. The value of G is found to be

The importance of the Universal Law of gravitation, the gravitational force of attraction of the
Earth binds all the terrestrial objects on the Earth. The gravitational pull of the sun on the
planet keeps them revolving around the sun and the moon revolves around the earth. The
gravitational force of earth keeps the atmosphere close to earth and also the tides formed by
the rising and falling of water level in the oceans are due to the gravitational force of the sun
and moon on the water.

The Kepler’s Law of Planetary Motion but first of all let me state the 3 laws of keplers law of
planetary motion, the kepler’s fist law (law of ellipse) states that the orbits of planets are
ellipses, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. There is no object at the other focus of a
planet’s orbit. The semi major axis a of an orbit is the average distance between the planet and
the sun. As a planet travels in the orbit, its distance, from the sun and speed vary. A planet
move most rapidly when it is nearest to the Sun, or at perihelion. A planet moves slowly when
it is farthest from the sun, or at aphelion. Moreover, the kepler’s second law(law of equal
areas) states that the line joining to the planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times
as the planet travel around the ellipse, this is also known as the law of equal areas. And last the
kepler’s third law(law of harmonies) states that, the ratio of the squares of the revolutionary
periods for two planets is equal to the ratio of the cubes of their semi major axis T2 is directly
proportional to R3 so T2 by R3 is equal to keplers constant.

The significant relationship between Universal Law of Gravitation and Kepler’s Law of Planetary
motion . Kepler’s laws and Newton’s laws taken together imply that the force that holds the
planets in their orbits by continuously changing the planet’s velocity so that it follows an
elliptical path is directed toward the Sun from the planet, and its is proportional to the product
of masses for the Sun and planet, and it is inversely proportional to the square of the planet-
Sun separation. This is precisely that the form of the gravitational force, with the universal
gravitational constant G as the constant of proportionality. Thus, Newton’s laws of motion, with
a gravitational force used in the 2nd Law, imply Kepler’s Laws, and the planets obey the same
laws of motion as objects on the surface of the Earth.

Overall this two laws has very important role in our universe that explains qualitatively and
mathematically that the Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion, and Newton’s Law of Universal
Gravitation to show that, in the absence of air resistance, objects close to the surface of the
Earth fall with identical accelerations independent of their mass.

19.)Explain how newton and Descartes described the emergence of lights in various colors
through prisms.

--Descartes uses the concept of plenum to described the emergence of the colors of light.
Plenum is an invisible substance and he imagined the particles of plenum as tiny balls which
were in contact, and spinning with the same speed. He assumed that light was a disturbance
that traveled through the plenum. He further explained that when these particles passed
through the prism and encountered a slit on the edge, their rotational speed would change.
This change resulted in the emergence of a color. Other parts of the slit produced other colors
of light.

Isaac Newton used the failure of the wave theory to prove that light is made of particles. The
wave theory describes how light propagates much like how ocean waves move through the
water. He claimed it browser geometric nature of the laws of reflection and refraction could
only be described if light was made of particles (known as corpuscles), since waves don’t tend
to travel in straight lines. He showed that every color has a different angle of refraction that can
be calculated using a suitable prism. He observed that all objects appear to be the same color
as the beam of colored light that illuminates them, and that a beam of colored light will stay the
same colour no matter how many times it is reflected or refracted which led him to conclude
that color is a property of the light that reflects from objects, not a property of the objects
themselves.

20.)Explain how Doppler shifts and transits can be used to detect extra solar planets.

--In a star-planet system, both the planet and the star revolve around their combined center of
mass. Since the parent star is usually much more massive than its planet, the star only
experiences a small wobble. For larger gas giants, this wobble becomes more noticeable. As
modeled by Newtonian gravity, this wobble follows a specific time period. When the star has a
radial velocity component towards Earth, its light is ever-so-slightly blue-shifted; when its
velocity is away from Earth, its light is red-shifted.

Kepler’s third law dictates that the square of the time-period of this oscillation (T2) varies
directly with the cube of the planet’s distance from the host star (r3).T2=4π2GMr3

The velocity of this planet, in a standard Newtonian orbit, vp, is:The measurements can be
made from the data.
The Bayesian Kepler periodogram is a mathematical algorithm, used to detect single or multiple
extrasolar planets from successive radial-velocity measurements of the star they are orbiting. It
involves a Bayesian statistical analysis of the radial-velocity data, using a prior probability
distribution over the space determined by one or more sets of Keplerian orbital parameters.
This analysis may be implemented using the Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) method.

21.)Explain why Pluto was once thought to be a planet but is no longer considered one.

--When is a planet not a planet? And what is it about Pluto that has got astronomers fighting?
Big Bang Blogs examines the sorry fate of the solar system's outcast.

Discovered in 1930 and once known as the ninth planet of the solar system Pluto is the
smallest, coldest, and most distant ‘planet’ from the Sun. In 1978, American astronomers James
Christy and Robert Harrington discovered that Pluto has a satellite, which they named Charon.
Charon is almost half the size of Pluto and shares the same orbit. Pluto and Charon are thus
essentially a double planet. Two additional moons, Hydra and Nix, were discovered in 2005.

Pluto's origin and identity have long puzzled astronomers. In the 1950s it was suggested that
Pluto was an escaped moon of Neptune, knocked out of orbit by its largest current moon,
Triton. However this theory has been heavily criticised because Pluto never actually comes near
Neptune.

The solar system loses a planet .In 1992, astronomers began to discover a large population of
small icy objects beyond Neptune that were similar to Pluto not only in orbit but also in size and
composition. This belt, known as the Kuiper belt, is believed to be the source of many comets.
Astronomers now believe Pluto to be the largest of the known Kuiper belt objects (KBOs). Like
other KBOs, Pluto shares features with comets, like the fact that the solar wind is gradually
blowing Pluto's surface into space, in the manner of a comet.

The discovery of the Kuiper belt and Pluto's relation to it led many to question whether Pluto
could be considered separately from others in its population. In short – was Pluto really a
planet?

Moving the goalposts

One of the criteria for being classed as a planet is that an object must have “cleared the
neighbourhood around its orbit." The Earth’s mass is 1.7 million times the mass of the other
objects in its orbit. Unfortunately, Pluto’s mass is only 0.07 times the mass of other orbiting
objects. Because of this, on September 13th 2006 Pluto was officially downgraded to a ‘dwarf
planet.’