Journal of Marine Engineering & Technology

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Corrosion assessment of infrastructure assets in

coastal seas

Benjamín Valdez, Jorge Ramirez, Amir Eliezer, Michael Schorr, Rogelio Ramos
& Ricardo Salinas

To cite this article: Benjamín Valdez, Jorge Ramirez, Amir Eliezer, Michael Schorr,
Rogelio Ramos & Ricardo Salinas (2016) Corrosion assessment of infrastructure assets
in coastal seas, Journal of Marine Engineering & Technology, 15:3, 124-134, DOI:
10.1080/20464177.2016.1247635

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/20464177.2016.1247635

Published online: 28 Oct 2016.

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JOURNAL OF MARINE ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, 2016
VOL. 15, NO. 3, 124–134
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/20464177.2016.1247635

Corrosion assessment of infrastructure assets in coastal seas

Benjamín Valdez a , Jorge Ramirez b , Amir Eliezerc , Michael Schorra , Rogelio Ramosa and Ricardo Salinasa
a Laboratorio de Corrosión y Materiales Avanzados, Instituto de Ingeniería, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, C.P. 21280 Mexicali,

México; b Ciencias de la Tierra, Instituto de Ingenieria, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, C.P. 21280 Mexicali, México; c Corrosion
Research Centre, Sami Shamoon College of Engineering, Ber Sheva, Israel

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The seas play an essential role for the peoples living on their coastal regions, since the marine Received 2 June 2016
infrastructure is located in the coasts. Seawater is a corrosive environment that affects infrastructure Accepted 7 October 2016
particularly in polluted seawater. Corrosion and pollution are pernicious chemical, physical processes
that impair the quality of the environment and the durability of the marine structures and materials.
They are aggravated by the discharge into the sea coast of municipal, industrial and agricultural efflu-
ents, which contain and produce toxic and highly corrosive components by biological and chemical
degradation. Reinforced concrete and carbon steel are the main engineering materials used for the
construction of marine installations and equipment but other metals and alloys: aluminium; cop-
per, stainless steels are applied, too. Laboratory and field corrosion tests in seawater were carried
out applying gravimetric, electrochemical and surface examination methods, based on American
Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) and National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) stan-
dards. This work is the result of a cooperation between academic institutions in Mexico and Israel.
The data generated advance the management of sea corrosion prevention and mitigation, and pro-
vide a guide for marine infrastructure maintenance and corrosion control. Several cases of corrosion
in the sea coasts based on the authors experience and knowledge are presented.

Introduction
ports will power coastal and inland cities (Valdez et al.
The seas played an essential role for the humans liv- 2011).
ing on the coastal regions of the world. These ancient The Gulf of Mexico (GOM), an extension of the
maritime civilisations were widespread by peoples of Atlantic Ocean, characterised by its tropical climate,
the Mediterranean, Arabian and China seas and the reaching the coasts of Mexico and U.S., displaying ele-
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans; managing complex sys- ments of infrastructure, was evaluated in the framework
tems of harbours, shipyards and seafaring for trade, of this work. The GOM was chosen as a typical sea-
conquest and colonising expeditions. The maritime her- coast of two countries seriously affected by corrosion and
itage of the Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, Vikings, pollution (Hernandez et al. 1995; Acuña et al. 2002).
Byzantines and Spaniards navigators has been imple- Additional gulfs and areas with infrastructure assets
mented, through the millennia by the modern maritime and environmental characteristics similar to those encoun-
nations (Leon H. Charney School of Marine Sciences tered in the GOM exist in the worldwide tropical zone, for
2016). example, Gulf of California, of Panama, of Suez, of Aqaba,
The coast and its adjacent areas onshore and off- the Arabian, the Persian, the Bengal Bay and the Strait of
shore are an important part of local ecosystems, forming Singapore. The experience, knowledge and information
gulfs, bay and estuaries, sometimes mixing fresh and salty gathered in this work will contribute to corrosion control
waters. and preservation of the infrastructure in these marine,
The seas energy is enormous, tides rise and fall tropical regions.
twice daily, and swift currents flow towards the coast. The aim of this investigation is to build a body of
Offshore electricity generators and waterfront indus- knowledge useful for the selection of corrosion-resistant
tries such as liquefied natural gas (LNG) regasifica- engineering materials for materials for the marine infras-
tion plants, with their cryogenic ships and mooring tructure and naval industry.

CONTACT Michael Schorr [email protected], [email protected] Laboratorio de Corrosión y Materiales Avanzados, Instituto de
Ingeniería, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Blvd. Benito Juárez y Calle de la Normal s/n, Col. Insurgentes Este, C.P. 21280 Mexicali, México

© 2016 Institute of Marine Engineering, Science & Technology

 JOURNAL OF MARINE ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY 125

Corrosion and pollution interaction Technology, UK, which recognise that CC is the most
serious threat facing humanity, resulting in significant
Corrosion and pollution are interrelated processes since
warming of the oceans and the marine atmosphere. Fur-
many pollutants produced by power stations burning
thermore, the Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining
fossil fuels, accelerate corrosion and corrosion products
(IOM3), London, published a special issue of its journal:
such as rust, oxides and salts, pollute water bodies. Both
Corrosion Engineering, Science and Technology, entitled
are pernicious processes that impair the quality of the
‘Relationship of Corrosion with Warming and Climate
environment and the durability of the marine structures
Change’, which brings together papers examining CC
and construction materials (Raichev et al. 2009).
induced corrosion (Valdez et al. 2010). Roberge (2010)
They are permanent problems in the fluvial and
reports on three aspects of the effect of CC: corrosivity at
marine environments, in maritime activities and naval
coastal regions; increased stress on marine systems; plu-
industries. This situation is aggravated when industrial,
vial precipitation pattern that may change the corrosive
municipal and agricultural pollutants flow into the river,
behaviour of the environment and increase the risk of
the port and its surroundings, damaging its structures,
corrosion failures. Measurements are presented of coastal
installations, equipment and machinery, The physical,
erosion and corrosion and flooding of the British coasts.
chemical, biological and thermal characteristics of these
Corrosivity maps for 2000 and 2100 illustrate the present
effluents affect the entire sea coast environment and influ-
and future situation (Roberge 2010).
ence the corrosion processes, types and mechanisms.
These natural and anthropogenic pollutants increase the
corrosion extent of steel, reinforced concrete and other Seas and rivers
engineering materials of the infrastructure assets. The
Human civilisation begins and spreads along the river-
knowledge of their source and characteristics contributes
banks; when the population increase, cities are created
to the establishment and management of technologies to
and ports built. The major cities of Europe and Amer-
control water pollution and industrial corrosion, apply-
ica were installed on the banks of the Danube, Thames,
ing corrosion monitoring and corrosion risk assessment.
Guadalquivir, Tiber, Mississippi, Parana, which flow into
Furthermore, water pollutants, even when present at very
deltas, estuaries, and finally into the seas of their regions.
low levels, impair human health, aquatic life and seawater
The dominant presence of water affects the stability of
quality. The avoidance of pollution is therefore an impor-
materials and engineering structures, by physicochem-
tant part of corrosion prevention and control (Marcos
ical processes of absorption, penetration, dissolution,
et al. 2006).
hydration, hydrolysis, oxidation, carbonation, erosion,
corrosion and degradation; therefore, modern technolo-
gies of prevention, protection and control are applied
Climate change
(Marcos et al. 2006).
There is nowadays a deep universal concern about the The river flow is not constant; melting snow and heavy
influence of climate change (CC), global warming and rains increase its flow, causing flooding and damaging
greenhouse emissions (all interrelated complex phenom- turbulence, that cover vast expanses of land, degrading
ena) on the corrosive and deterioration effects of the and destroying buildings, bridges, roads, structures and
marine environment on maritime activities. Higher tem- facilities.
peratures promote melting of polar and glacial ice and The sea is a dynamic system in permanent motion,
snow; sea-level rise affects the coast structures and with complex surface currents and winds blowing over
changes atmospheric moisture and rain precipitation pat- its surface generating waves that reach the coast, its facil-
terns. The climate and extreme-weather-related events ities and installations. In splash zones, violent, rough
(such as floodings, strong winds and storms coming from waves break down, generating whitish, oxygenated foam,
the seas that erode the coasts; prolonged heat waves, dust hence increasing local corrosion. Sometimes, these high,
and particulate matter flowing in the air) seriously affect powerful waves erode and devastate the coast.
the environment and society in a variety of ways, act- Seawater consists of a solution of many salts and
ing through destruction of the infrastructure, famine, numerous organic and inorganic particles in suspension.
disease, and social and economic upheaval. But, the pow- Its main characteristics are salinity and chlorinity and,
erful floods that ripped roads and bridges are the most from the corrosion point of view, dissolved oxygen (DO)
devastating events wreaking havoc across vast regions content, which ranges from 4 to 8 mg/l, depending on
with great loss of life and property. temperature and depth. Its minor components include
This growing concern has been expressed by IMar- dissolved gases – CO2 , NH3 and H2 S – found in sea-
EST, the Institute of Marine Engineering, Science and water contaminated by urban sewage. The oceans house
126 B. VALDEZ ET AL.

algae, bacteria and phytoplankton generate about half of The mobile structures include all types of ships large
the oxygen in the atmosphere (Melcher 2005). and small: civil, commercial and military. These include
Ocean surface salinity is determined by the balance general bulk cargo vessels, for cereals, chemicals, miner-
between water lost by evaporation and water gained by als, cryogenic vessels for LNG, cruise tourist and recre-
precipitation. The salt concentration, particularly NaCl, ational yachts, fishing vessels, container ships, oil tankers,
varies from 3.5% to 2.0%, according to the sea loca- military ships including cruisers, aircraft-carriers, patrol
tion and the massive addition of fresh river water. For boats, light, nuclear and conventional submarines. The
instance, in the Red Sea (an enclosed basin), salinity at International Maritime Organization (IMO), a United
high summer temperatures is 4.1%, but in the Baltic Sea Nations Agency, estimates that at any time about 100,000
it is about 2.0% since many rivers feed into it. ships and vessels roam through the oceans and seas of
The expansion of industry, transportation and the the world!
energy sector increases the CO2 air content. This CO2 The infrastructure elements are located along the
dissolves in the seas, decreasing their pH from 8.11 to coastline. Many infrastructure assets (roads, railways,
8.06, acidifying with carbonic acid (H2 CO3 ), particularly bridges) were not planned or constructed to handle the
near the coast where the fossil-fuel power stations are actual traffic loads and need repair and rehabilitation
located. Acidic water affects the life of marine calcifying work. There are 70,000 structurally deficient U.S. bridges,
organisms such as coral, molluscs and plankton (Bonilla and more than 15% are at risk of catastrophic, corrosion-
et al. 2011; Anonimous 2013). related failures (Hummel 2014).
Table 1 presents a summary of the elements of infras-
tructure, existing on the seacoast and the adjoining main-
land. They are made of a great variety of materials of
Marine infrastructure
construction: steels, SS, reinforced concrete, plastics and
The infrastructure of a nation constitutes the physical composites, elastomers for lining of storage tanks and
base of its economic activity; its quality represents a cru- pipelines. The correct selection of construction materials
cial index of the industrial and social vitality of a country. will assure the infrastructure resiliency in case of weather
During processes of growth and development, national extremes.
governments emphasise the maintenance and moderni-
sation of the infrastructure to assure the long life of
Ports, shipyards and ships
these assets. Budgets and huge efforts are spent to oper-
ate, maintain and upgrade the coastal seas infrastructure, Ports for maritime commerce, and shipyards for the
which are composed of two types of structures: fixed and construction of wooden, seagoing sailing vessels, were
mobile. Fixed structures are on the gulfs and bays com- established in ancient times, along the coasts of the
mercial and industrial ports, shipyards, rail yards, fuel Mediterranean Sea, by the Phoenicians, the Greeks and
terminal, naval bases, platforms for oil drilling, produc- the Romans.
tion, processing and storage; submarine pipelines and Today, a marine port situated near a large city belongs
communication cables and electricity grid lines along the to a coastal ecosystem that comprises industrial parks,
coasts (Valdez et al. 2015). agricultural fields and a hydrologic basin with streams
Table 1. Sea coasts infrastructure.
Infrastructure Assets Corrosion problems, protection and maintenance
Energy generation Thermoelectric, nucleoelectric, eolic and hydroelectric Hot corrosion by fossil-fuel combustion gases control of fuel sulphur and
plants, dams, electricity grids: cables and towers vanadium contamination. Erosion-corrosion and stress corrosion cracking in
turbines. Feed water treatment
Waterworks Water supply: pipelines and pump stations, sewage Control of corrosion, scaling and fouling by correct design. Selection of
systems water and wastewater treatment plants, materials and coatings. Cathodic protection for steel pipelines. Coatings for
pluvial drainage concrete and steel pipelines
Petroleum industry Offshore platforms, production wells, marine oil Corrosion by sour and sweet gas and crude. Corrosion control with inhibitors.
terminals, submarine and land oil and gas pipelines, Cathodic protection for steel platforms and pipelines. Control of corrosive
refineries. LNG regasification plants emissions
Transportation Harbours, shipyards, airports, river, railway and Asphalt pavement deterioration. Repair and restoration of steel reinforced
seawater bridges, railways, highways and roads, concrete structures. Use of coatings and cathodic protection. De-icing of
waterways, public transportation roads and bridges deck
Communication Underground cables: telephone, TV, electricity. Protection of buildings from atmospheric marine corrosion with water
Communication towers and antennae repellent plastics and paints. Restoration of facades with polymeric concrete
Construction Housing, public buildings: hospitals, hotels, stadia, Building protection from weather by paints and coatings. Restoration of
urban recreation areas, parking sites facades with polymeric concrete
Fishing Harbours, marine vessels, freezing and packaging Marine corrosion and fouling. Anti-corrosive and antifouling paints and
plants cathodic protection
 JOURNAL OF MARINE ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY 127

that flow into the sea, in the vicinity of the port. Mod- to avoid the attachment of fouling organisms. Applying
ern ports are the central link between maritime and land modern marine paints constitute the primary method of
transportation, responsible for the exports and imports corrosion control, with cathodic protection, by impressed
that ensure the prosperity of a nation. The ports access, current or sacrificial anodes, as a supplementary method.
with its dredged channels to maintain a sufficient depth, The hull plates of a ship are pre-treated with a phosphate
allows the manoeuvring of ships. This active traffic coating, before ship assembly at the shipyard, so as to
depends on the port installations and equipment, their protect them against corrosion (Valdez 2016).
quays, wharves and docks, tugs, internal trains and ware- Ancient and modern ship wrecks are investigated by
houses. Breakwaters, which protect the port from pow- scientists and divers, trained in coastal and underwa-
erful waves, are built entirely of large stones or rocks, or ter archeology, to discover the corrosion mechanism of
seawater resistant concrete boulders or tetrapods. With metallic artefacts buried in the seafloor for centuries.
the growth of trade, commerce and tourism and the Artefacts recovered include military suppliers (produced
increase in the size of oil tankers, passenger and cargo from wrought- and cast-iron), religious jewellery (made
ships, many ports are being enlarged, their dock accom- of gold, silver, copper and bronze) and ship hardware.
modations extended and their entry channels deepened. These activities constitute the base for the study of mar-
This modernisation of port facilities and equipment is a itime civilisation.
national priority, and is being actively implemented. Nowadays, Europe, Japan, South Korea and Singapore
The shipyards operate two types of docks: a floating yards are building large oil barges, oil rigs and drill-ships
one and a dry one. The first serves for inspection, mainte- designed for work at the deepest water, such in the GOM.
nance and repairs of ships; it incurs in high maintenance These are a new generation of fuel-efficient, cheap to run
costs because the steel structure requires regular removal ‘ecoships’. These platforms, and the metallic underwater
of corrosion products, sea fouling and scale and periodi- pipelines used to transfer oil and gas from the borehole
cal painting, to prevent or minimise corrosion. A floating to the surface, are fitted with sacrificial anodes for cor-
dock consists of a structure with a U-shaped profile, built rosion control by cathodic protection. They are towed
of steel, with a double wall deck and a high lateral series out to sea and installed at various depths around the
of ballast chambers, which, upon filling with seawater, world.
causes the dock to become submerged. In this way, the
entry of the ship to be repaired is facilitated and upon
Ballast water technology (BWT)
emptying the chambers by pumps, the dock emerges
from the water with the ship resting on its dry deck. Float- Huge petroleum-tankers haul crude and derivatives from
ing docks incur high maintenance costs because the steel the coast sea terminals to the refineries and consuming
structure, being continuously afloat, requires the regular markets. They suffer from corrosion in the steel holds;
removal of sea fouling and scale and occasional painting, when they cross back to the terminals, the holds are full
as the hull of a ship does, to prevent or minimise corro- of ballast seawater, protected with corrosion inhibitors
sion. When the water in a port is contaminated and the (CIs) (4th Ballast Water Technology Conference 2015).
sea soil beneath the floating dock contains corrosive sed- They are added to the ballast seawater as a fine powder,
iments, accelerated corrosion results in a large number which converts the seawater into a colloidal suspension
of cavities and perforations in the floating dock floor and with particles dispersed in the water that are adsorbed on
the seawater chambers (Schorr and Valdez 2005). the steel surface, forming a thin, protective film.
A dry dock is a narrow basin made of concrete, closed A study has been carried out by analysing the water
by steel gates, used for the building of ships. After the ship corrosivity, composition, hardness conductivity and pH.
is completed the dock is flooded, and it slides slowly into The mechanism of the formation of a gelatinous white
the sea coast, ready to cross the oceans. The dock is also precipitate is based on the combination of the water Ca2+
employed for repair and maintenance of all kind of water- and Mg2+ ions with the CI chemical structure (Cheng
crafts. Modern merchant and military ships built mainly et al. 2016).
from steel are sailing the seas and oceans or moored About 4400 petroleum transportation tankers from
at piers ports; therefore they are affected by corrosion oil-producing countries cross the oceans and seas of the
and fouling. world to energy-consuming countries. If, on average,
In biblical times, Noah coated his ark ‘within and with- each tanker has 10 cargo holds, it means 44,000 holds
out with pitch’ (Genesis 6 : 14); the Phoenicians, Greeks require a CI for their ballast seawater.
and Romans protected their wooden vessels with nat- Petroleum steel tankers (Figure 1) are cheaper and
ural materials: pitch, tar, wax, sulphur, asphalt, resins more efficient than submarine pipelines installed on the
and tallow. The Royal British Navy applied copper sheets seabed for oil transportation. For their trip back, the
128 B. VALDEZ ET AL.

Figure 1. Petroleum transportation tanker showing holds.

Figure 2. Diagram of ballast water intake and cargo discharge and loading.

Figure 3. Ship opening, fitted with screens, for ballast water intake and discharge.
 JOURNAL OF MARINE ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY 129

tanker holds are filled with seawater to provide adequate tends to reduce corrosion attack by restricting access to
stability (Figures 2 and 3) and safety. DO but corrosion takes place under the fouling by acidic
Recently, the 5th IMarEST Ballast Water Technology excreta. Polluted seawater greatly accelerates the attack
Conference was held in London to deal with the chal- on steel. Naval aluminium vessels are built of the 5XXX
lenges facing the shipping industry. The two main con- alloys series in which magnesium (Mg) is the principal
cerns are the avoidance of the ship holds corrosion and alloying element. UNS A95052 is the main alloy used
the pollution of the ports and the adjacent sea regions, by for marine environments. In steel-hulled ships the upper
discharging non-native aquatic species. Two central mar- structures are constructed with Al-Mg alloys (Eliezer
itime entities – IMO and the US Coast Guard (USCG) – et al. 2010). Modern navies and coast guards of many
are involved with the regulations managing these key nations use vessels built with A95052, which provide
issues (18th ICMCF 2016). long-life service. The underwater hull is the most vul-
nerable part but corrosion also appears in the propeller
shaft and blades, pumps, engines and fittings. When a
Marine corrosion
badly corroded propeller breaks down, the boat is soon
In recent decades the concept of corrosion has been adrift.
expanded to cover the deterioration in seawater of struc- A ship navigating in coastal shallow water and the
tures and equipment manufactured from nonmetallic open sea is exposed to three diverse environments and
materials, for example, polymers and composites, used corrosive conditions: (a) the underwater hull, submerged
for the fabrication of recreation boats, naval vessels and in seawater, covered with marine fouling and supplied
coastguard ships. However, the aqueous corrosion of with plentiful oxygen; (b) the deck area exposed to
metallic structures in marine environments is an elec- sweeping waves, salt spray and heated by solar radiation
trochemical process that occurs on the metal surface and (c) the upper structure exposed to marine atmo-
by interaction between it and the constituents of saline spheric corrosion. A similar situation occurs with three
water. The dominant factors are salinity and the con- levels of corrosion at sea-installed petroleum platforms.
centration of DO. Salinity influences the conductivity Stainless steels (SS) are an important class of alloys
of the water and the chloride (Cl− ) ions also affect the extensively used in marine environments, in particular
oxide layer formed on the metal surface. When Cl− pen- in the oil and gas industry, because they combine high
etrates the passive film, it can initiate pitting and crevice mechanical properties and satisfactory corrosion resis-
corrosion at localised sites, with breakdown of passivity. tance. They are utilised in the offshore petroleum as
During the corrosion process, marine structures lose platforms, serving in areas as such drilling, subsea pip-
wall thickness at a rate which varies with depth. Nor- ing, pumps valves, flanges and fittings. Austenitic and
mal corrosion rates (CRs) for steel in seawater lie in the duplex SS are required for high-temperature tubulars and
range 0.1–0.3 mm y−1 but can increase to 2–4 mm y−1 in raiser pipes.
seawater contaminated with corrosive effluents. Typical An International Congress on Marine Corrosion and
cases of severe corrosion are found in the steel retaining Fouling has been held recently in France, with IMarEST
walls that separate the land and water in ports. The walls as one of the sponsors. It provided an interdisciplinary
are formed from steel sheet piling about 26 m in length, programme that highlights research efforts understand-
3–5 m wide and 10–12 mm in thickness, driven into the ing biofouling and corrosion of materials and structures
marine soil. The sheets interlock together with grooves or immersed in the marine environment. The congress dealt
guides along each edge, producing a unit of great strength with the basic sciences of sea chemistry, biology, micro-
and stiffness. The walls lose thickness by corrosion until biology, paints coatings but also with real problems of
perforation of the plate eventually occurs. The corrosion marine structures such as biofouling, adhesive strength,
is accelerated by the impact of waves, which break the biocides, inhibitors and protection.
fragile rust layer that is removed and falls on the sea bed
near the wall. With time, the corroded plates must be
Marine biofouling
repaired or replaced to protect the port.
Steel and aluminium alloys are the main metallic The corrosion of metallic surfaces such as the ship hull
materials utilised for the manufacture of civil, industrial in permanent contact with seawater is caused by the
and military ships. Their limited corrosion resistance accumulation of macro and micro-organisms: algae, mol-
means that they need to be protected by paints and coat- luscs, barnacles, zebra mussels, bacteria, etc. Their adhe-
ing and by cathodic protection. The corrosion extent is sion is mediated by the secretion of glue-like substances
increased in turbulent flow conditions since it destroys of extracellular polymers. Corrosion occurs by anodic
the rust or scale barrier and provides more DO. Fouling and cathodic electrochemical reactions promoted by the
130 B. VALDEZ ET AL.

Figure 4. Biofouling cover, (a) ship hall, (b) steel pile for mooring boats.

corrosive metabolites produced by the biofouling fauna arrive with the industrial, agricultural and municipal
and flora (Railkin 2004). wastes generated in the region. The industrial plants
Biofouling on marine vessels can raise the hydrody- located around the river, produce agrochemicals, petro-
namic volume of the vessel, augment the frictional effects chemicals, industrial acids (sulphuric, nitric, phosphoric,
loading to an increased drag, reduce the ship speed and etc.), plastics, food and beverages, electronic equipment,
rise its fuel consumption. petroleum distillates and lubricants. They supply solu-
Many fluvial and marine structures are affected: ports, ble pollutants such as acids and salts, insoluble inor-
steel retention wall, shipyards, buoys, oil and gas plat- ganic minerals and heavy metal compounds. During
forms, coaling water towers of power plants. The physic- periods of intense irrigation or copious rain, fields slop-
ochemical properties of the marine structure’s surfaces ing towards the river that are used for agricultural
such as roughness, texture, construction material, wetta- purposes contribute pollutants containing biodegradable
bility, interfacial alkalinity affect the settlement of marine organic matter and nutrients (phosphorous, nitrogen and
organisms during biofouling community development potash) from the synthetic and organic fertilisers dis-
(Schultz et al. 2011; Huang et al. 2016) (Figure 4). persed thereon. In addition, numerous meat and seafood
The control of marine biofouling is realised, essen- packaging and cold storage plants; dairy, poultry and pig
tially, by application of paints and coatings containing farms, sometimes pour waste loaded with organic com-
special biocides that are liberated when they come into pounds into the river. Biological and chemical processes
contact with seawater, preventing the attachment of the convert this matter into toxic and corrosive substances.
marine, fouling organisms. Non-toxic, antifouling coat- For example, hydrogen sulphide (H2 S), with an unpleas-
ings, which contain polymers with antimicrobial activ- ant smell of rotten eggs, is biologically oxidised and con-
ity, have been developed and applied (Hellio and Yebra verted into sulphuric acid, which is extremely corrosive
2009). towards steel and reinforced concrete (Schorr et al. 2006):
The economic importance of the anti-biofouling activ-
ities, in particular in the shipping industry, is demon- H2 S + 2O2 → H2 SO4
strated by the involvement of national and international Power plants, producing electricity by the combus-
organisations which regulate the industry such as Inter- tion of fossil fuels, cool their condensers with seawater
national Maritime Organizations (IMO), Integrated Pol- or river water. The hot cooling water is then discharged
lution and Control (European Commission); Interna- into the river, accelerating the chemical and biological
tional Antifouling System (IAFS); International Chamber processes of decomposition and putrefaction, produc-
of Shipping; International Convention for the Control ing methane (CH4 ) and ammonia (NH3 ) gases. Efflu-
and Management of Ships Ballast Water and Sediments; ents with suspended solid particles that float towards the
International Council for the Exploration of the Sea port and the coast are slowly deposited on the sea bed,
and more. forming a thick mud composed of silt, clay, sand, alu-
mina, silicates, organic matter (carbohydrates, proteins
and fats) and mineral components: oxides, hydroxides
Influence of pollutants
and compounds of heavy metals. These settled pollutants
The quality of the river water that flows into a sea port may persist for many years; so they have to be removed
and its surroundings depends on its physical, chemi- periodically by dredging, and the soil is remediated and
cal, biological and thermal characteristics. The pollutants restored. They contain toxic and corrosive components
 JOURNAL OF MARINE ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY 131

Table 2. Concentration of pollutants for typical river water • G1, preparing, cleaning and evaluating corrosion test
and seacoast. specimens.
Pollutant Range(mg/l) • G3, electrochemical measurements in corrosion testing.
Total solids dissolved and suspended 350–1200 • G4, conducting corrosion test in field applications.
BOD (biological oxygen demand) 100–500 • G5, potentiostatic and potentiodynamic anodic polar-
COD (chemical oxygen demand) 200–1000
TOC (total organic carbon) 100–400 isation measurements.
Nitrogen (N, total) 50–100 • G31, laboratory immersion corrosion testing of
Ammonia (NH3 ) 20–100
Phosphor (P, total) 100–1000 metals.
Organic sulphide (S) 50–100 • G59, conducting potentiodynamic polarisation resis-
Fat and oil 50–100 tance measurements.
Heavy metals 100–1000
• D1441, preparation of substitute ocean water.
• NACE TM 0169-2000, laboratory corrosion testing of
metals.
that annihilate the aquatic, vegetal and animal life, thus
enlarging the quantity of organic matter and increas-
ing its biological decomposition, with the production of
Metals and specimens
H2 S, a corrosive agent. The smell of the decomposition
products constitutes an early environmental alert of the The diversity of the materials used for shipbuilding is
probable risks and damage to the port infrastructure. The conditioned by the requirements of the ship’s struc-
range of pollutants in typical sea coast or river water tural components, their function and the ship operating
receiving industrial, agricultural and municipal wastes characteristics. The chemical composition of the alloys
is presented in Table 2. The concentration varies with selected for corrosion testing is listed in Table 3.
the season, type of industry, agricultural activity and the For the sake of brevity, they are classified into three
effluents discharged. groups:

• Steels, including carbon steels (called hull steels), low-

Results alloyed steel and SS.
The corrosive substances that affect the fluvial and • Copper-based alloys, such as bronzes and brasses, that
marine coastal infrastructure assets originate directly serve in the ship for water supply and sanitary systems,
from the natural environment, from the industrial efflu- air-conditioning, heat-exchangers, propellers, piping
ents formed in situ by biological and chemical conversion and fitting, etc.
of the organic matter supplied by the agricultural and • Aluminium-based alloys, pertaining to the series
municipal wastes (Table 2). 5XXX, for example, UNS A95052 for the manufacture
of navy, fast vessels and recreation boats.

Corrosion testing
Corrosion measurements
Laboratory and field corrosion test in seawater and/or
artificial seawater were carried out applying gravimet- The corrosion measurements were performed in several
ric, electrochemical and surface examination methods, marine locations:
based on ASTM, NACE appropriate standards (ASTM
1963; NACE 2000). The practices recommended in the • In the GOM coast, at the State of Veracruz, near the
following standards were followed: mouth of rivers, Mexico.

Table 3. Chemical composition of alloys tested.

Chemical composition

Materials UNS Fe C Mn S P Si Cr Mo Ni N Cu Sn Pb Al Zn Mg V Ti
Carbon steel G10450 Bal. 0.43–0.50 0.60–0.90 0.05 0.04 – – – – – – – – – – – –
Stainless steel S31600 Bal. 0.08 2.0 0.03 0.045 0.75 16.0–18.0 2.00–3.00 10.0–14.0 0.10 – – – – – – –
Copper C12200 – – – – 0.02 – – – – – 99.90 – – – – – –
Bronze C52100 0.10 – – – 0.30 – – – – – Bal. 8.00 0.05 0.20 – – –
Brass C26000 0.05 – – – – – – – – – 70 – 0.07 Bal. – – –
Aluminium A91050 0.4 – – – – 0.25 – – – – 0.05 – – Bal. 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.03
Aluminium A95052 – – – – – – 0.25 – – – – – – 97.2 – 2.5 – –
132 B. VALDEZ ET AL.

Figure 5. The marina at Ensenada port, México.

• In the Lerma naval base, a part of the Sound of Table 4. Corrosion rates of alloys tested in GOM seawater.
Campeche, in the state of Campeche, Mexico. Seawater
• The Ensenada port, on the Pacific Ocean, in the state
Material UNS type Location CR(mm/y)a
of Baja California (Figure 5). Ensenada port seawa-
Carbon steel G10450 Natural Campeche 0.22
ter was brought to the Institute of Engineering, at Stainless steel S31600 Natural Campeche 0.0033
Mexicali, for additional corrosion tests. Copper C12200 Synthetic UV 0.059
Bronze C52100 Natural UV 0.10
• At the Ashdod port on the Mediterranean Sea, done by Brass C26000 Synthetic UV 0.20
the Corrosion Research Centre of the Sami Shamoon Aluminium A91050 Natural UV 0.018
College of Engineering, Israel. a CR:
Corrosion rate, Sound of Campeche, UV: Universidad Veracruzana,
Anticorrosion Unity.

Corrosion tests were performed by two techniques: Table 5. Corrosion rates of steel and aluminium in sea and river
waters.
• Electrochemical tests based on ASTM standards, G3
Corrosion ratea
and G5, to determine the electrode potential and the
corrosion current density, which is expressed as CR in Alloy Water pH mm/y Mpyb

mm/y. The arrangement comprises a polarisation cell Carbon steel Sea 7.5 0.28 11.2
Carbon steel River 2 to 3 0.82 32.3
containing a three-electrode system: a specimen of the A 95052 Sea 7.5 0.05 2.05
metal being tested (the working electrode), an aux- A 95052 River 2 to 3 1.2 42.5
a Laboratory test by weight loss simulating conditions in the Kishon port an
iliary electrode and a reference electrode, immersed
river.
in seawater. A potentiostat was used to obtain the b mpy = miliinch per year.
electrochemical parameters.
• A weight loss technique was applied, expressing the Laboratory tests in sea and acidified river water (to
loss of wall thickness, in mm/y. simulate the condition of water contaminated by acidic
waste effluent) show higher CRs than those of passive
The results presented in Tables 45–6 are representative alloy A95052 (Table 5).
of the tests done in several marine locations, as described Alloy A95052 exposed in two seas: the Pacific Ocean
above. and the Mediterranean Sea under diverse flow conditions
Table 4 indicates the CRs of the alloys tested shows a similar open circuit potential but different CRs.
in GOM water. The active alloys (e.g. carbon steel, The CR measures in the Ashdod port marina is greater
bronze and brass) show a similar CR in the range than that obtained under laboratory conditions, due to
0.10–0.22 mm/y. On the other side, passive alloys display the sea dynamic conditions and the plenty supply of DO
a reduced CR. (Table 6).
 JOURNAL OF MARINE ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY 133

Table 6. Electrochemical characteristics of UNS a95052 in Disclosure statement

seawater, at Ensenada, Mexico and ashdod, Israel seaports.
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the
Port Laboratorya Condition Potential(V) CRa (mm/y)
authors.
Ashdod Marina – Flow −0.9 to −1.0 1.25 to 1.75
Ensenada II Stagnant −0.8 to −1.2 0.58 to 0.68
Ensenada II Flow −0.8 to −1.2 0.11 to 0.53
Ashdod CRC Stagnant −0.8 to −1.0 0.60 to 0.70 Funding
Ashdod CRC Flow −0.9 to −1.0 0.24 to 0.020
a II: Institute of Engineering, University of Baja California, Mexico; CRC: Cor- This work was supported by CONACYT (Consejo Nacional de
rosion Research Center, Sami Shamoon College of Engineering, Israel; Ciencia y Tecnología), Mexico and the Sami Shamoon College
CR: Corrosion rate. of Engineering, Israel.

Conclusions
ORCID
• The ancient maritime civilisations gradually devel- Benjamín Valdez http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6788-7545
oped in the sea coasts. Their maritime technologies Jorge Ramirez http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5427-1752
were adapted and further improved by the modern
seafaring nations.
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