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THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 3

THERMOD YNAMIC S

So
Somme B
Baasic T
Teerms

(a) Thermodynamics : The branch of science which deals with transformation of heat energy
into other forms of energy or vice-versa.
(b) Thermal equilibrium : If two systems are at same temperature, they are said to be in
thermal equilibrium.
(c) Thermodynamical equilibrium : A system is said to be in thermodynamical equilibrium
when it is in a state of thermal, mechanical and chemical equilibrium.
(d) Thermodynamical variables : These are macroscopic physical quantities like pressure (P),
volume (V) and temperature (T), etc., which are used to describe the state of the system. The
relation between these variables is called equation of state.
(e) Thermodynamical process : If the state of a system changes in such a way that any of
P, V, T, etc. changes, the process is called thermodynamical process.
(f) Cyclic process : If a system after undergoing through a series of changes comes back to
its initial state, the process is called cyclic.
(g) Reversible process : A reversible process is one which can be reversed in such a way that
all changes taking place in the direct process are exactly replaced in the inverse order and
opposite sense and no changes are left behind.

W W

Q1 Q2 Q1 Q2

(A) (B)
Reversibility in physics is an ideal concept that cannot be realised in practice.

I. Zeroth Law

According to it, „If systems A and B are each in thermal equilibrium with a third system C, then
A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other‰.
Regarding zeroth law it is worth noting that :
It defines temperature as the property of the system which equals that of another system when
the two systems are in thermal equilibrium, e.g., if two gases in different containers at different
pressures, temperature and volumes are put in thermal contact for sufficient time to reach thermal
equilibrium, their pressures will in general not be equal, nor will their volumes; their temperatures,
however, will always be equal in thermal equilibrium.

THERMODYNAMICS
 4 MARKS
II. First Law of Thermodynamics
First law is a relation among heat, work and internal energy; so before dealing with the law here
we review these physical quantities.

(a)  Q)
Heat (
It is the energy that is transferred between a system and its environment because of
temperature difference between them.
In case of solids and liquids,
Q = mL if there is change of state
Q = mCT if there is change in temperature
In case of gases,
Q = nCT
in differential form dQ = nCd T
where C is the molar heat capacity of the gas and n is the number of moles of the gas.
and always take, T = Tf ă T i
where T f is the final temperature and Ti is the initial temperature of gas. Also, the molar
heat capacity of an ideal gas

R R R
C   CV 
 1 1 x 1x

R
C  CV  in isochoric process and
 1

C = CP = C V + R in isobaric process.
Note :
(1) SI unit of heat is Joule and CGS is calorie [1 cal = 4.2 J]
(2) It is path dependent, e.g., heat required to change the temperature of same gas
through same amount at constant volume.

(b)  W)
Work (
Work can be defined as the energy that is transferred from one body to other owing to a
force that acts between them. The amount of work done by a system as it expands or
contracts is given by

vf
W 
 dW =
vi
Pd V

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 5

De ri v ati on

Figure shows a gas confined to a cylinder that has a movable piston at one end. If the gas
expands against the piston, it exerts a force through a distance and does work on the piston. If
the piston compression the gas as it is moved inward, work is also doneăin this case on the gas.
The work associated with such volume changes can be determined as follows.

F = PA

dx

Let the gas pressure on the piston face be P. Then the force on the piston due to gas is PA, where
A is the area of the face.

When the piston is pushed outward an infinitesimal distance dx, the word done by the gas is

dW = F . dx = PA dx

which, since the change in volume of the gas is dV = Adx, becomes

d W = Pd V

For a finite change in volume from Vi to Vf , this equation is then integrated between Vi to V f to
find the net work

Vf
W
 dW 

Vi
P dV

Note :
(1) Like heat, work is also path dependent, scalar physical quantity.
(2) In a cyclic process work done is equal to the area under the cycle and is positive if the cycle
is clockwise and negative if anticlockwise.

(c) U) :
Internal Energy (
Internal energy of a system is the energy possessed by the system due to molecular motion and
molecular configuration.
U = n CVdT

THERMODYNAMICS
 6 MARKS
This equation can be applied in any process, whether it is isobaric, isothermal, adiabatic or
else.
Note :
(1) Change in internal energy is path independent and depends only on the initial and final
states of the system.
(2) Change in internal energy in a cyclic process is always zero U = UF ă UC = 0

The La
Laww

We now come to the first law.

Let a system changes from an initial equilibrium state i to a final
f
equilibrium state f in a definite way, the heat absorbed by the system 1
being Q and the word done by the system being W. Then we compute
2
the Q ă W. While Q and W both depend on the thermodynamic path
taken between two equilibrium states, their difference Q ă W does not. 3
We do this over and over again, using different paths each time. We i
find that in every case the quantity Q ă W is the same. In
thermodynamics there is a function of the thermodynamic coordinates (P, V and T) whose final
value minus its initial value equals the change Q ă W in the process. We call this function the
internal energy function. We have,

U = Uf ă Ui = Q ă W ...(i)

This equation is known as the first law of thermodynamics.

We describe the energy relations in any thermodynamics process in terms of the quantity of heat
Q added to the system and the work W done by the system. Both Q and W may be positive,
negative or zero. A positive value of Q represents heat flow heat flow into the system, negative
Q represents heat flow out of the system. A positive value of W represents work done by the
system against its surroundings, such as work done by an expanding gas. Negative W represents
work done on the system by its surroundings such as work done during compression of a gas.

Thermodynamic sign conventions for heat and work

Process Conventions

Head added to the system Q > 0

Heat removed from the system Q< 0

Work done by the system W > 0

Work done on the system W < 0

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 7

Equation (i) can be written as

Q – W1 = Q 2 ă W2 = ...
or U1 = U2 = ...
that is the change in the internal energy of the system between two points is path independent.
It depends on thermodynamic coordinates of the two points. For example, in case of an ideal gas
it depends only on the initial and final temperatures.
Often the first law must be used in its differential form, which is
dU = d Q ă dW ...(ii)
This can also be written as
dQ = d U + d W ...(iii)
or Q = U + W ...(iv)
Note :
(1) For solids/liquids pressure is assumed to be constant through the process, W = Patm V
(2) For gases, we will be frequently using the following results for calculations.


W  Pdv

PV = nRT
Process equation

Exa mp
mplle 1

A solid cylinder of mass 1 kg is initially kept at 20ĈC under atmospheric pressure, Patm =
105 N/m2. Now, a heat of 20000 J is given to the cylinder, then find :
(a) increase in temp. of cylinder
(b) work done by cylinder
(c) increase in its internal energy
S = 400 J/g/K,  = 9 ï 10ă5 ĈCă1, d = 9000/g / m3
Solution :
(a) Q = ms

Q 20000
     50C
ms 1  400

 final temp. of cylinder = 20ĈC + 50Ĉ C = 70ĈC

THERMODYNAMICS
 8 MARKS
(b) V = V

 
5  1 
= 9  10  9000   50
 

= (5 ï 10ă7 )
 Work done = Patm V
= (105 ï 5 ï 10ă7) = (5 ï 10 ă2)J

(c) increase in internal energy

Q = U + W
U = Q ă W = (20000 ă 0.05)
U = 19999.95 J

Ex
Exaa mp
mplle 2
1 kg of water initially at 10ĈC is given heat and then converted into steam, then find the
increase in the internal energy.
LV = 2.5 ï 106 J/kg
steam = 0.5 kg/m3
Solution :
Q = ms  + mLV
= 1 ï 4200 ï 90 + 1 ï 2.5 ï 106 J
V = vol. of steam ă vol. of water

1 1
=   2m 3
0.5 10 3

W = Patm V = (10 5 ï 2)J

U = (2.878 ï 106 ă 2 ï 10 5 ) = (26.78) ï 105 J

For g
gaaseous syst
steem
Work done by a gas
(dx)
dW = F . dx
dW = PA dx
P
vf

W 
 Pd V
vi A

W = area under the P-V curve.

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 9

P V P

Vf

Vi

V P V
O Vi Vf O O
clockwise arrow
given +ve work

Work done in each case

= area under the P-V curve

Di ff
ffee rent Ther mo
mody
dy
dynnami
micc Process

(1) Isochoric Process : The process during which the volume of the gaseous system remains
constant, throughout entire process, is called isochoric process.

V = const

(i) W =  Pd V  0
(ii)  Q = U

P T P

f f f

i i i

V V T
O O O
In the P-T graph [ PV = nRT]

1
 slope  , slope  n P
V
a
 n R V2
Slope =   [ PV = nRT] V1 b
 V 

slope of a > slope of b

 (V2 < V1)
T
O

THERMODYNAMICS
 10 MARKS
Exa mp
mplle 3

2 mol of an ideal gas is taken through a process PT2 = K. Find the work done by the gas
from v0 to 2v0 volume expansion, if initial pressure = P0.
Solution :
PT2 = K PV = nRT

2
 PV 
P  K
 nR 

P3 V2 = n2 R2K

1/3
 n2 R2 K 
P   2 

 V 

2V0

 W 
 pdv
V0

2V0

 n R K
2 2 1/3 2 / 3
V dV
=
V0

2V0

 
1/3
= nR K 2 2
V
V0
2 / 3
dV

2V0
 3K  2V0    V0  
= 3K V1 / 3 1/3 1/3
V0  

= 3K V0  2  1 
1/3

(2) Isobaric Process : The process during which the pressure of the gaseous system remains constant
throughout the entire process.

P = const.

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 11

 Pd V  Vd P  n Rd T 
(i) W 
 
Pd V  P d V  PV = (nRT) 
 d W  Pd V  nRd T

 W  PV  nRT 
(W = PV) = nRT)

(ii) P P

i f i f

V T
O O

f  nR 
slope   
 P 

n
 slope   
i P 
T
O

V V
n1 = n2 P1 = P2
P1 n1
1 1
P2 n2
2 2
T T
O O
(P1 < P2) (n1 > n2)

(3
(3)) Isot
othe
he
herrmal Pr
Proc
oc
oceess :

The process during which the temp. of the gaseous system remains constant during the entire
process.

T = const

THERMODYNAMICS
12 MARKS
(i) Process equation = (PV = K)

(ii) Work done is an isothermal process

K
 
V
W  P dV  dV  K  l n V  Vf
V i

 Vf 
 W = nRT log e  
 Vi 

P 
W  n RT l n  i  { Pi V i = Pf Vf = K }
 Pf
 

P 
W  Pi Vi l n  i 
 Pf
 

(iii) U = 0 [ T = const]

Q = W

PV = K

P  K  dP 
 V    1  KV  O
2
i P   
 V d 

 d2 P  
  2
  2 KV 3  O
f  dV 

V
O

P V

f f

i i

T T
O O

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 13

Com
ompa
pa
pari
ri
risson b
beetween two P-V plot ffo
or an isothermal process
P T2 P2 > P 1 for V
T1
(n1 = n2)  T2 > T1

n2
n1
V
O V

Cyclic Process

The process during which the initial and the final states of the gaseous system are same, is called
cyclic process.
 Cyclic process is represented as a closed loop on the P-V diagram.
(Ti = Tf)
P
(u i = uf)
B C U = (u f ă ui ) = 0

Q cyclic = W cyclic
A D

V
O

Work done in a cyclic process

= area of the loop in the P-V diagram

W > 0, if PV loop is clockwise

W < 0, if PV loop is counter clockwise

Note : In the V-P diagram, signs of work is reversed.

V

CW  W < 0

CCW  W > 0

P
O

THERMODYNAMICS
 14 MARKS
Exa mp
mplle 4

Find the work done by an ideal gas during cyclic process (1432) as shown :
P3 = 4 ï 10 5 Pa P2
3 4 (V 4 ă V 3) = 5 l
P0 = 3 ï 10 5 Pa P3
P1 = 105 Pa
P0 

1 2
P1
(V2 ă V1) = 10l
Solution : V
V1 V2

1 1
Area of  (102) =  b  h   2  10 5  10  10  3 CW 
2 2

= (+ 103 J)

1
Area of  (304) = ï bï h
2

1
= ï (5 ï 10ă3) ï 105 [Obtain, base length from similar triangle concept]
2

= ă 2.5 ï 102  ă (250 J) CCW

= (ă 250 J)
 Work done during the entire 1432 prove
= + 1000 + (ă 250) J = 750 J.

Reve rsi
sibb le Process P
f
A process is said to be reversible, if, it is :
(i) quasi-static
(ii) Non-dissipative
(i) Quasi static : If unique value of P, V and T can be specified
i
to a gaseous system at certain moment, then system is said
V
to be in thermodynamic equilibrium. O
But, in practical, no system can exactly achieve thermodynamic equilibrium because the
parts of the system do not at once achieve, the same value of P, V, T.
 If the process is carried out very slowly then system will be in almost thermodynamic
equilibrium and this process is called quasi-static process.
(ii) Non-dissipative
If no heat dissipation takes during the process then it is called non-dissipative.

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 15

Relation be
bett we
weeen C P a
and
nd C V

d Q d Q
CP  P, CV  V
nd T nd T

(dQ) P = nCPdT; (dQ)V = nCV dT

From Ist law of Thermodynamics
(dQ) V = (dU) + dW
nC Vdt = dU + 0

 du  nC V d T

At const. pressure
(dQ) P = dU + dW
 nC P dT = nCV dT + PdV
 nC PdT = nCV dT + nRd T
 CP = C V + R

 CP 
 (C P ă CV ) = R   
 CV 

R R
 CV  CP 
 1 1

Note : CP ă CV = R/J when C P and CV are is cal and J is mechanical heat equivalent
J = 4.18 J/cal

Remember :
dU = nC VdT (Applicable for all process)

Ex
Exaa mp
mplle 5

In all the 1, 2, 3 process compare C1, C 2 and C 3.

P
1 f

2 3

V
O

THERMODYNAMICS
 16 MARKS
Solution :
From the diagram its, obvious that
W1 > W2 > W 3
U1 = U2 = U3 (final, initial state)
 Q1 > Q 2 > Q 3

 C1 > C 2 > C 3

Adi abatic Proc

oceess

The process during which is no heat exchange between the system and the surrounding for the
entire process is called adiabatic process.
dQ = 0
[do not write it as Q = 0, This is because in a process, the net heat change may be zero but in
an adiabatic process, there is no heat change any step of the process]

De
Derrivation of P ro
roccess equation

dQ = 0
dQ = d U + d W
0 = nCVdT + PdW

 R  nRT
n  dT  dV  0
   1  V

dV dT
  1
 V  T
lnT = ă ( ă 1) ln V + ln K
ln T + lnV( ă 1) = ln K
TV(ă1) = K
(Use gas equation)
PV = K

Pr oce ss e qu
quaati on

PV  = K ...(1)
ă1
TV = K ...(2)
P 1ă T  = K ...(3)

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 17

Plot
otss iin
n c
caase of A
Addiabatic Pr
Proc
oc
oceess
P PV = K
i
dP
  KV 1  0
dV

d 2P
f
2
     1 KV2  0
dV
V
O

T TVă1 = K
i
dT
     1  KV   0
dV

f d2 T
2
    1 KV 1  0
dV
V
O

P P1ă T = K
i
 1
 1
P = K T

dP     1
  KT 0
dT    1 
f
T
O
d2 P    1 
   KT  0
dT 2
   1    1 

Ex
Exaa mp
mplle 6

If CP   a  KT  a = 27.68 J/mol/K

CV = (b + KT) b = 19.37 J/mol/K

Derive the process eqn. for adiabatic process.
Solution :
dQ = d U + d W
0 = n CV dT + Pd V

THERMODYNAMICS
 18 MARKS

n RT RT dV
nC VdT + dV  0 n b  KT d T   n
V V

T2 V2
 b  KT  dV
 
T1
T
dT   R

V1
V

Poly tropi c Pr oce ss

Any process is a polytropic process, if it can be expressed as

PVx = const. where x = polytropic constant.

(i) x =  for adiabatic process

x = 1 for isothermal
x = 0 for isobaric
x =  for isochoric

Work don
onee i n a po
pollytropic pr
proc
oc
oceess

V2 V2

 Pd V  K  V

W  dV
V1 V1

P2 V2
W  for (x  1)
1x

Mol
olaar H
Heeat Capa
paccit y iin
n a Pol
olyytr op
opiic Process

dQ = d U + d W
nCdT = nCVdT + PdV

nRT
nCdT = nC VdT + dV
V

RT d V
C = CV +
V dT

PdV
C  CV  ...(1)
nd T

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 19

This eqn. to be used when we have to obtain following : (in any general process)
molar heat capacity  process eqn. process eqn.  molar heat capacity
Now, PVx = K
Vx dP + (xVxă1 dV) P = 0
VdP + (xdV) P = 0
VdP = ă x PdV
we have from gas eqn.
(PdV + VdP = nRd T)
PdV (1 ă x) = nRdT

P dV  R 
  
nd T  1  x 

Substitute in (1)

R
C  CV 
1 x

 In any polytropic process, molar heat capacity

R
C  CV 
1 x

Ex
Exaa mp
mplle 7
Find the values of polytropic const. x for which specific heat of the gas for the process is
negative.
Solution :

 R 
C  CV   
 1  x

R R
= 
   1    x
1

+ ă +
R 1  x  R   1 
=
   1  1  x 1 y

R   x
= C is ăve when x  (1, )
 1  x  1 
[1 > x < ]

THERMODYNAMICS
20 MARKS
Exa mp
mplle 8

If C = (CV + 3a t 2) then find the equation of process in terms of T and P.

Solution :

 P dV 
Use C  CV   
 ndT 

Pd V
Cv  3a T2  Cv 
ndT

Pd V
3a T 2 
nd T

 RT  d V
3a T 2   
 V  dT

3a  dV

 R  Td T 
  V
 3a  2
 ln V   T
 2R 

 3 a / 2R T 2
Ve

 3 a / 2R T 2
Ve  K

(ii) C = CV + V

P dV
Again, CV + V = CV 
ndT

 RT dV 
V   
 V dT 

 dT dV

R  T  V 2

  1
 R l nT    V    l n K 
   

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 21

Exa mp
mplle 9

Two moles of helium gas undergo a cyclic process as shown. Assuming the gas to be ideal
calculate the following quantities in the process : (a) the net work done (b) the net change
in internal energy (c) the net change in heat energy. (R = 8.32 J/mol K)
Solution :
A
2 atm B
(a) As work done W  P dV 
P
So at constant pressure, 1 atm C
D
W = P[V F ă VI] = nR[TF ă TI]
...[as for ideal gas PV = nRT; PV F = nRTF and PVI 300 K T 400 K

= nRTI ]

VF PI
W = nRT log e = nRT loge
VI PF

[as for constt. temperature, PV = constt., i.e., PFVF = P1V I, i.e., (V F /VI) = (P I/PF)
So work done for path AB, BC, CD and DA respectively will be
WAB = nR[TF ă T I]
= 2 ï R[400 ă 300] = 200 R
WBC = nRT loge (PI/PF )
= 2 ï R ï 400 loge 2 = 800 R log e 2
W CD = nR[TF/T I]
= 2 ï R [300 ă 400] = ă 200R
W DA = nRT loge (PI/PF )
= 2 ï R ï 300 loge (1/2)
= ă 600R loge 2
and hence, the work done in the complete cycle,
W = WAB + WBC + WCD + WDA
= 200R loge 2 = 200 ï 8.32 ï 0.693
= 1153 J

(b) As this is a cyclic process,

U F = UI
so U = U F ă UI = 0

THERMODYNAMICS
22 MARKS
(c) Now according to first law of thermodynamics
Q = U + W
So substituting the values W and U from parts (a) and (b) in the above,
Q = 0 + 1153 J = 1153 J Ans.

Exa mp
mplle 10
Three moles of an ideal gas [CP = (7/2)R] at pressure P and temperature T is isothermally
expanded to twice its initial volume. It is then compressed at constant pressure to its
original volume. Finally the gas is compressed at constant volume to its original pressure
(P). (a) Sketch P-V and P-T diagram for the process. (b) Calculate the work done by the gas
and heat supplied to the gas during the complete cycle.
Solution :
(a) Initially the state A of the gas is described by (P, V, T). As for isothermal change T = constt.
with PV = constt., so the state B will be [(P/2), 2V, T]. Now as for isobaric change P = constt.
and V  T, so the state C will be [(P/2), V, (T/2)]. So the P-V and P-T curves will be as shown
in Fig. (A) and (B) respectively.

(b) For isothermal change,

VF
W iso = nRT loge = 3RTloge 2 = 2.08RT
VI

For isobaric change,

W B = P(V2 ă V 1) = nR(TF ă T I)

T 
= 3R   T   1.5 RT
 2 

For isochoric change

WC = 0
So WT = (2.08 ă 1.5)RT = 0.58 RT Ans.

A(P, V) A (P, T)
P P
P P
(P/2) C B C B
(P/2, V) (P/2, 2V) (P/2, T/2) (P/2, T)

V 2V V (T/2) T T
(A) (B)

Now as for cyclic process UF = UI, U = 0

 Q = U + W = W = W T = 0.58 RT Ans.
THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 23

Exa mp
mplle 11

An ideal monatomic gas is confined in a cylinder by a spring loaded piston of cross-section

8 × 10ă3 m2 . Initially the gas is at 300 K and occupies a volume of 2.4 ï 10ă3 m3 and the spring
is in its relaxed position. The gas is heated by a small electric heater until the piston moves
out slowly by 0.1 m. Calculate (a) the final temperature of the gas and (b) the heat supplied
(in J) by the heater. The force constant of the spring is 8000 N/m and atmospheric pressure
1 ï 105 N/m 2.
Solution :
As here initially,
PI = P0 = 1 ï 105 N/m 2, V I = V0 = 2.4 ï 10ă3 m 3,
TI = T0 = 300 K

Kx 5 8000  0.1
And finally, PF = P0 + A  1  10  3
8  10

= 2 ï 105 N/m2
VF = V 0 + Ax = 2.4 ï 10 ă3 + 0.1 ï 8 ï 10ă3
= 3.2 ï 10ă3 m3
So from gas equation PV = nRT, i.e., Open

P1 VI PF VF

TI TF Atmosphere

PF VF
we have TF =   TI
PI VI

2  10 5 3.2  10 3
=   300
1  10 5 2.4  10 3

= 800 K Ans.

(b) As W =  P dV, here P = P0 + (kx/A)

0.1 kx 0.1

So W = 0
 P0  A  Adx 
  0
 P0 A  kx dx

1 2
i.e., W = P0Ax + kx
2

THERMODYNAMICS
24 MARKS

1
= [105 ï 8 ï 10ă3 ï 0.1 + ï 8000 ï (0.1) 2 ]
2

i.e., W = 80 + 40 = 120 J

Note : 80 J of work is done against atmosphere and 40 J against spring.

n R T  PF VF  PI VI 
and as U  nC VT  
   1    1

[(2  105 )  (3.2  10 3 )  (1  105 )  (2.4  10 3 )]

U 
[(5 / 3)  1]

3
U   102 [6.4  2.4]  600 J
2

Hence, total heat supplied,

Q = U + W = 600 + 120 = 720 J Ans.

Ex
Exaa mp
mplle 12

One mole of a monatomic ideal gas is taken through the cycle shown in Fig.
A  B adiabatic expansion
B  C cooling at constt. volume
C  D adiabatic compression
D  A heating at constt. volume
A
The pressure and temperature at A, B, etc., are denoted by
B
PA, TA ; PB, T B, etc. respectively. Given T A = 1000K, PB = (2/
3)PA and P C = (1/3)P A. Calculate (a) the work done by the gas P D
in the process A  B, (b) the heat lost by the gas in the C
process B  C and (c) temperature TD. Given (2/3)2/5 = 0.85
V
and R = 8.31 J/mol K.
Solution :
(a) As for adiabatic change PV = constt.,
r
 nRT 
i.e., P   constt. [as PV = nRT]
 P 

T
i.e.  constt.
P  1

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 25

1
 TB   PB  5
So     with  
 TA   PA  3

1
1 2/5
2   2 
i.e., TB = TA    1000    850 K ...(1)
3  3 

n R[TI  TF ] 1  8.31[1000  850]

So WA = 
[ - 1 [ 5 / 3  1]

i.e., W A = (3/2) ï 8.31 ï 150 = 1869.75 J Ans.

(b) For B  C, V = constt. so W = 0

So from first law of thermodynamics,
Q = U + W = nC VT + 0

3   3 
or Q = 1   2 R  (TC  850)  as C V  2 R
   

Now as along path BC, V = constt. P  T,

PC TC
i.e., PB = TB ,

1/3 PA TB 850
i.e. TC =  TB    425 K ...(2)
 2 / 3 PA 2 2

3
So Q = 1   8.31  425  850    5297.625 J
2

Negative heat means heat is lost by the system. Ans.

(c) As A and D are on the same isochor.

PD T TD
 D, i.e. PD  PA
PA TA TA

But C And D are on the same adiabatic,

  1  1
 TD   PD  P T 
      A D
 TC   PC   PC TA 

THERMODYNAMICS
26 MARKS

1
1
1 /  P  
or  TD   TC  A 
 PC TA 

2/5
3/5 T  PA 
i.e., TD  B   1 / 3 P  1000 
 2     A 

1  2  2 / 5   3  2/5
i.e. TD3/5      1000   
 2  3    1000 

i.e. TD = 500 K Ans.

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 27

TEM PE
PERRATU
ATURRE SCALE S
TC = T ă 273.15
Equation shows the relation between the temperatures in celsius scales and kelvin scale. Because
the size of a degree is the same on the two scales, a temperature difference of 10ĈC is equal to
a temperature difference of 10 K. The two scales differ only in the choice of the zero point. The
ice point temperature on the kelvin scale, 273.15K, corresponds to 0.00ĈC and the Kelvin steam
point 373.15 K, is equivalent to 100.00ĈC.
A common temperature scale in everyday use in US is the Fahrenheit scale. The ice point in this
scale is 32ĈF and the steam point is 212ĈF. These two are divided in 180 equal parts. The relation
between Celsius scale and Fahrenheit scale is derived below.

0ĈC 100Ĉ C
(100 equal parts)

(180 equal parts)

32Ĉ F 212Ĉ F

100 parts of Celsius scale = 180 parts of Fahrenheit scale

9
1 part of Celsius scale = parts of Fahrenheit scale
5

9
Hence TF = 32 + T ...(ii)
5 C

5
Further T C = T = TF ...(iii)
9

K C


373 100Ĉ 212Ĉ

100K 100ĈC 180ĈF

273 0Ĉ C 32Ĉ C

Relation among Kelvin, Celsius and Fahrenheit temperature scales

THERMODYNAMICS
 28 MARKS
(I) Th er ma
mall Ex
Expa
pa
pans
ns
nsii on :

With the increase in temp., due to increase in amplitude of vibrations of atoms (on molecules) the
body expands on heating.
(1) ) :
Coefficient of linear expansion (
The fractional charge is length for 1ĈC (or 1 K) change in temperature is called coefficient
of linear expansion ().

 l 
  (Average value)
 l 

l = l0 
 l ă l0 = l0

l = l0 (1 + )

unit of  : Că1 or K ă1

Absolute Value :

 l 
  lim  
0  l  

 dl   1 
     
 l   d 

l 
dl

l0
l

 d 
0

l  
 ln   
 l0   0
d   a (if  is constt.)

 1  l 
 ln    
 l0 

 l  x 2 x3 x 4
     (approx.    l n  1  x  x     ... )
 l0  2 3 4

 l 
    [Avg. value]
 l 0  
THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 29

Remember

(1) , ,  are defined only for solids.

(2) For fluids, only  is defined.

(2) ) :
Coefficient of Superficial Expansion (
The fractional change in area for 1ĈC (or 1 K) change in temperature is called coefficient
of superficial expansion ().

A
 (avg. value)
A 

A = A0 (1 + )

Absolute value :

 A  dA  1 
  lim 
0 A  A  
 d  

A 
dA

A0
A

 d 
0

(3) Coefficient of Volume Expansion ( ) :

V
 (avg. value)
V

The fractional change in volume for 1ĈC (or 1 K) change in temperature is called coefficient
of volume expansion.
V = V0 (1 + )

Absolute value :

 V   dV  1 
  lim     
0  V    V  d  

V 
dV
 
V0
V

  d
0

THERMODYNAMICS
 30 MARKS
Relation between ,  and  :

 :  :  = 1 : 2 : 3

De
Derrivation :

In a solid object having length, breadth and height l0, b0 and h0 , is being heated upto .
l = l0(1 + ); b = b0 (1 + ); h = h 0 (1 + )
 A = lb = l0 b0 (1 + ) 2 = l0 b0 (1 + 2) = l0 b0 (1 + )
[using binomial]
  = 2
V = lbh = l0b0l 2 (1 + )3 = l 0b0h0 (1 + 3) = l 0b0 h0 (1 + )
 = 3
  :  :  = 1 : 2: 3

Ef
Efff ec
ectt of Temperature Cha
hannge

(1) Bending of Bimetallic Strip

l0

1 d

2 d

Let us consider a bimetallic strip of length l0 and both metals having breadth d joint together.
The 2 metals have coefficient of thermal expansion 1 and 2 respectively (1 >  2)
Now, when the temperature of this strip is increased, then this strip has the characteristic property
of bending due to unequal linear expansion of the two metals.

R
R+d Răd
2  2

Bending will take place in such a manner that the one with higher coefficient () will be on
convex side.

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 31

l1 = l 0 (1 +  1)
l2 = l 0 (1 +  2)
Since both subtend same angle at the centre,

l1 l2

 d  d l1
R  2  R  2 
   

l2
1  1  R  d / 2

 1  2  R  d / 2
neglected 
2   1   2   2R 
 
 1   2   d 

2 2R
= 
( 1  2 )  d

d
R
 1 2 
 

(2) Measurement from a heated scale (metallic)

If a scale gives correct reading at temperature , at temperature ´ (> ) due to linear expansion
of scale, the scale will expand and scale reading will be lesser than true value. Similarly, when
temperature is reduced, true value will be lesser than scale reading.

True value = (scale reading) (1 + )

ă When the temperature is increased, reading of the scale decreases.

ă When the temp. is decreased, reading from the scale is increased.
ă When the object to be measured also expands on heating then use apparent .

Apparent  = ( scale ă  body)

TV = SR (1 + Apparent )

THERMODYNAMICS
32 MARKS
(3) Time gain/l
/los
os
osss :

If a pendulum clock keeps proper time at temperature , at temperature ´ (> ) due to linear
expansion, length of pendulum and hence time period will increase. Due to this increase in time
period, in a given time interval (say t), the pendulum will exclude (t/T) oscillations instead of (t/
T´) and so will lose [(t/T) ă (t/T´)] oscillations. Now, as measurement of time is through the
counting of oscillations, so in time t, a clock with time T´ will lose time by

t t  T´ 
t = T´     t   1
 T T´   T 

l0 l 0 1   
also T = 2 , T´ = 2 
g g

T1
  1  
T

  t = t  1    1
Using Binomial expansion

 1  1
t = t  1    1  =  t 
 2  2

t 1
  
t 2

1
or fractional loss/gain in time = 
2

Ex
Exaa mp
mplle 13

Find the time loss in 1 year if temp of a pendulum clock is increased by 100ĈC ?
 = 10ă5 ĈCă1 )
(
Solution :

1 
Fractional time loss =   
2 

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 33

1 
 time lost in 1 year, t =    ï 365 days
2 

1 5 
=   10  100  365  days.
2 

(4) Thermal Stress :

F , A, l F

Ć Due increase in temp., the rod tries to expand against the wall, but is prevented and the
compressive stress hence developed is called thermal stress.
Ć Similarly, due to decrease in temperature, tensile thermal stress develop which prevent the
rod to contract.

 YA 
derr s : Stiffness corresponding to a rigid body K =  l 
Reminde
 

 YA 
 F   l Hence, you can treat it as spring with K.
 l 

Expansion in length due to heating = (l)

 Fl 
Due to stress developed contraction produced l   
 YA 
But the net expansion is zero. Hence,

 Fl 
 ( l  ) +   YA   0
 

Fl
  l
YA
 F = AY

 F
 Thermal Stress =     Y 
A

THERMODYNAMICS
34 MARKS
Exa mp
mplle 14

Three rods are joined together and kept fixed A1,Y1, 1 A 2,Y 2, 2 A 3,Y 3, 3
between two rigid supports. If the temp. of the F F
system is increased by  then find, l1 l3
l2
(i) force developed at junctions
(ii) length of each rod finally
(iii) displacement of joints.
Solution :
Everywhere, throughout at all functions, same force is developed.

L = 0

 l1 + l 2 + l 3 = 0

 F l1   F l2   F l3 
  l1 1      2l2      3l 3  0
 A1 Y1   A2 Y2   A3 Y3 

 l1 l2 l3 
  l1 1  l2 2  l3 3   F    
 A1 Y1 A2 Y2 A3 Y3 

( 1l1  2l 2  3l 3) 

(i) F
 l1 l l3 
  2  
 AY1 AY 2 A 3Y3 

(ii) To find the length of each rod finally, use,

 F l1 
 l1 f   l11   
 A1 Y1  [F obtained from (i)]

and hence similarly for l2, l 3

(iii) displacement of each junction

(x)A = 0
B C
(x)B = l 1 A l
D
(x)C = l 1 + l2
(x)D = l1 + l2  + l 3 = 0 l1 ( l1 +  l2)

l 1 + l 2 + l 3 = 0

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 35

Exa mp
mplle 15

Two steel rods and one aluminium rod of equal length and cross-sectional area, l 0 and A0 ,
are riveted together at their ends.
Assume all the rods are in the state of zero tension at 0ĈC. Find the length of each rod after
the temp. is increased by  .

l0, A 0
steel F (steel) F
Al 2F Al 2F
steel F (steel) F

Solution :

Now, equate final length of each of the rods.

lAl = lsteel
 l0 + lAl = l 0 + lsteel
 (lAl = lsteel)

 2F l0   F l0 
  A l l0       steel l0     
 AYAl   AYsteel 

 2F  F
  A l       steel   
 AYAl  AYsteel

A  Al steel  
 F
 2 1 
  
Y
 Al Ysteel 

Now put the value of F in

2F l0
l Al = Al l 0 ă AY
Al

F l0
and lsteel  steel l0  
AYsteel

THERMODYNAMICS
 36 MARKS
(5) Thermal expansion of an isotropic body is imagined as a photographic enlargement.
i.e., if there is a hollow cavity (in case of solids) or hole (in case of lamina), then volume of the
cavity (or hole) will increase, just like if it were supposed to be filled with the same material.

V0 , V, A
A0

V = V 0 (1 + )  in case of cavity

A = A 0 (1 + )  in case of hole

(6) Relative charge in the volume of the liquid :

VL = V0 (1 + L )
VS = V0 (1 +  S )
Change in volume, V = VL ă VS
= (L ă  S) V0 
V = ( apparent) V0 

 apparent = L ă  S

(1) If L > s

 V > 0 (liquid level will rise)

(2) If L < s

 V < 0 (liquid level will fall)

(3) If L = s

V = 0 [No change in liquid level]

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 37

(7) Effect on density

m m m
0  , 
V0 V V0  1   

 1
 
0 1  

0
 
1  

Further,
 = 0 (1 + ) ă1 = 0 (1 ă )
 = 0 (1 ă ) [This is an approx result]

Note : Also, sometimes in some questions, you do not get correct answer by just applying the
above eqn. for a given temp. range.
In that case, start for initial condition at T = 0ĈC

eg. Correlate  20 and 70

70 = 20 (1 ă 50)  This may not yield correct
In that case use,
20 = 0´ (1 + 20)
70 = 0 (1 +  70)

 70 1  70 
 
 20 1  20 

(8) Effect on Apparent Weight :

W´ = W ă B Apparent Wt.

B0 = 0V0g
B = Vg

B V 0 1   L   V0 1  s 
   
B0 0 V0 0 V0
B (Buoyant force)

B
  1  L   1   s
B0

THERMODYNAMICS
38 MARKS

B
 1   L   s    L  s 2 
B0  

B = B0 [1 ă ( 2 ă  s)                  {L  s () 2 can be neglected}

L > s generally
 B < B0
 with the increase in temp., buoyant force decreases and hence the apparent weight increases.

Ex
Exaa mp
mplle 16

A cubical block is floating in a bath with length x, immersed in liquid. When temp. is
increased by  , the block keeps floating with same length immersed in liquid. Find the
relations between  and  .


x
  = coefficient of Linear exxpansion of cube 
 
  = coefficient of volume of Liquid 


Solution :
B0 = Initial buoyant force

= (0 A0 x g) = mg

B = ( A x g) = mg

 B = B0

  A xg = 0A0 x g

 0 (1 ă ) A0 (1 + 2 ) = 0A0

1 + (2 ă )  = 1

2 = 

 = 2 Ans.

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 39

Exa mp
mplle 17

In the apparatus shown, find the  of the liquid.

P Q
A
h2 = 51 cm
h 1 = 52.8 cm h = 49 cm
C D
B

95Ĉ C 5ĈC 95Ĉ C 5ĈC

Solution :
Equate pressure in a horizontal level in stationary liquid.
PP = P Q
 Patm + h195Ĉ g ă h 5Ĉ g = P atm + h 2 5Ĉ g ă h95Ĉ g
95Ĉ [h 1 + h] = 5Ĉ (h + h2)

 5  h  h 2
   5
 1  90   h  h 1

51  49 100
 (1 ă 90) = 
52.8  49 101.8

 100  1.8
 90 =  1   
 101.8  101.8

1.8
 
90  101.8

An
Anaamol
oloo us behaviour o f wate r
vol 
mass

< 0
 <0 >0

OĈ C 4Ĉ C T OĈ C 4Ĉ C T

Minimum volume at 4ĈC Maximum density at 4ĈC

THERMODYNAMICS
 40 MARKS
Cal or im etr y

(1) Heat Capacity (Thermal capacity) C´ :

The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a substance of 1ĈC (or 1 K)

Q
C´     Q = C´T (Avg. value)
T

But, strictly C´ is not constant for a temperature change.

Unit : J/ĈC or J/K

 dQ 
Absolute Value :  C´  
 dT

 dQ = C´dT

T2
 Q 
T1
 C´ dT Take the limits in given range with proper scale (0ĈC or K)

(2) Molar Heat Capacity (C) :

The amount of heat required to increase the temp. of 1 mol of a substance of 1ĈC or 1 K.

Q
C  Q  nC  T  Avg. value
n T

T2
Absolute value Q 
 nC dT
T1
units : J/mol/K

(3) Specific Heat Capacity (S) :

The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a substance by 1ĈC
(or 1 K).

Q
S  Q = msT (Avg. value)
m T

T2

Q 
 msd T
T1
(Absolute value) unit : J/kg/K

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 41

Relation between C, C´ and S :

C´ = mS = nC
(i) Thermal capacity = (mass) ï (specific heat capacity)
= (moles) ï (molar heat capacity)
(ii) C = MS
Molar heat capacity = (molecular mass) ï (specific heat capacity)

(4) Water Equivalent (W) :

It is the mass of water to which if same amount of heat is given, cause the same temp. change
as that of the body.
C´ = m ï S
= (mass) ï (specific heat of water)
(Replace the body by same amount of water)

(5) Latent Heat : (Heat of Transformation) (L) :

The amount of heat required to change the state of unit mass of a substance at constant temperature
is called latent heat.

Q
L  unit : (J/Kg)
m

 Q = mL

(1) Latent Heat of Fusion (LF ) :

The amount of heat required to change the state of unit mass of substance from solid to
liquid form at its melting point is called latent heat of fusion.
(2) Latent Heat of Vaporisation :
The amount of heat required to change the state of a unit mass of substance from liquid to
vapour form at its boiling point is called latent heat of vaporisation.
Principle of Calorimetry :
Total heat lost by system = Total heat gained by system [for an isolated system]

Ex
Exaa mp
mpll e 18

An iron cube is initially heated to a high temperature and placed on a large ice cube at 0ĈC.
The block melts the ice below it, displaces water and sinks. In the final equilibrium, the
upper surface of iron cube just goes inside the ice. Then find the initial temperature of the
block.
iron = 8000 kg/m3

THERMODYNAMICS
 42 MARKS
Siron = 470 J/kg/K
ice = 900 Kg/m3
LF = 3.36 ï 10 5 J/kg.
Solution :
V

Let the initial temperature of the iron cube be .

Heat lost by cube = m
= (iron) V ï S iron
Heat gained by ice = mL
= (ice) ï V ï Lice
 iron ï V ï Siron ï  =  ice ï V ï Lice

 L 900  3.36  10 5
ice ice
  =  
iron  Siron 8000  470

 = ~ 80ĈC

Ex
Exaa mp
mpll e 19

1 kg of ice at 0ĈC is mixed with 1 kg of steam at 100ĈC. Then find the composition of mixture
in equilibrium
LF = 3.36 ï 10 5 J/kg
LV = 2.26 ï 106 J/kg
SW = 4200 J/kg/K
Solution :
In such question, we have to consider three cases :
Case (i) : The final temp. is 0ĈC
The entire steam condenses to water at 0ĈC.
Case (ii) : The entire ice converts to water at 100ĈC.
Finally temp. : 100ĈC.
Case (iii) : Final temp is  where 0 <  < 100ĈC
In this case, it can be easily decided that final temp. of the mixture is 100ĈC.
THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 43

Now, heat gained by ice is converting from ice to water at 0ĈC and then water at 100ĈC.
= mL + mS
= 1 ï 3.36 ï 105 + 1 ï 4200 ï 100
= 7.50 ï 105 J
Total heat that can be lost by steam = mLv = 1 ï 2.26 ï 106 J
 Total heat that can be lost by steam to convert to water at 0ĈC > heat required

 7.56  105 
mass of steam condensed =  6
  0.335 kg
 2.26  10 

 the final comp. of mixture = 1.335 kg of water at 100ĈC + 0.665 kg of steam

Ex
Exaa mp
mpll e 20

An ice cube of mass 0.1 kg at 0ĈC is placed in a thermally insulated container at 227ĈC.
Given that the specific heat of container varies as S = A + BT, where A, B are constants,
then find the mass of the container if final temperature is 27ĈC.
Lf = 8 ï 104 cal/kg, S = 1000 cal/kg/K,
A = 100 cal/kg/K
B = 2 ï 10ă2 cal/kg/K2
Solution :
Heat gained by ice in converting to water at 0ĈC and then to water at 27ĈC.
Q1 = mLf + mS
= 0.1 ï 8 ï 104 + 0.1 ï 1000 ï 27
Heat lost by container

T2
=ă T1
m S dt

300 300
=ă 500
m  A  BT  d T  m

500
A  BT  d T

 
300
 m

500
A  BT  dT  0.1  8  104  0.1  1000  27

m = 0.495 kg.

THERMODYNAMICS
44 MARKS
Exa mp
mplle 21

A thermally isolated container contains 100 gm of water at 0ĈC. When the air above the
water surface is pumped out, some of the water evaporates and remaining freezes. Then
find percentage of vapour evaporated.
Solution :

OĈ C

Ice
Concept : Water evaporates due to decreases in pressure above the water surface.
Since B.P. is the temperature at which vapor pressure = Patm
 due to decrease in VP, water evaporates
Heat gained by water in evaporation
= Heat lost by water which converts it to ice
 Let x be the amount of water evaporated
 x ï LV = (100 ă x) ï Lf
 540 x = 80 (100 ă x) [x is cal]
 620x = 80 ï 100

80  100
x
620

 400 
x  
 31 

 x ~ 13 gm

x
 Fraction =  0.13
100
mLv = (M ă m)L f

m Lf

M Lv  Lf

evaporated  L f  condensed  Lv 
   ,  
condensed  Lv  L f 
 evaporated  L f  Lv 
THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 45

Exa mp
mplle 22

A loaded glass bulb weighs 156.25 g in air. When the bulb is immersed in a liquid at
temperature 15ĈC, it weighs 57.5 g. On heating the liquid, the apparent weight of the bulb
becomes 58.57 g. Find the coefficient of real expansion of the liquid. (Given, coefficient of
linear expansion of glass = 9 ï 10ă6 /ĈC).
Solution :
When the bulb is immersed in liquid, the loss in its weight is due to upthrust of liquid and is equal
to weight of liquid displaced.
Let m1 and m 2 represents the loss in weight of bulb at lower and higher temperatures t 1 and t2
respectively; v1 and v2 the volumes of bulb and 1,  2 the densities of the liquid at these
temperatures respectively. Then,
m1 = 1 v1 and m2 = 2v 2

1 m1 v2
  . ...(1)
 2 m2 v1

If g, is coefficient of volume expansion of bulb,

v 2 = v1 [1 + g (t2 ă t1) ...(2)

1
and  [1   R  t2  t1 ] ...(3)
2

v2 1
Substituting for v and  from eqns. (2) and (3) in (1),
1 2

m1
[1  R  t2  t1   1   g  t2  t1  
m2 
...(4)

Here  g = 3g = 27 ï 10ă6/Ĉ C

m1 = 156.25 ă 57.5 = 98.75 g
m2 = 156.25 ă 58.57 = 97.68 g
t1 = 15ĈC, t2 = 52ĈC
Substituting in (4),

98.75
[1 + R(52 ă 15) = [1 + 27 ï 10 ă6 ï (52 ă 15)]
97.68

Solving  R = 32.4 ï 10ă5 /Ĉ C Ans.

THERMODYNAMICS
46 MARKS
KI NE
NETTIC EQUAT
ATIO
IO
IONN AND E
EQQUIPARTI TI
TION
ON O F ENER
ERGY
GY

Consider Na molecules, each of mass m enclosed in a spherical volume as shown.

Now the molecules moving with a velocity v as shown collide with the walls of container. Hence
their change in momentum is given by
p = (2mv cos )

 2R cos 
the time between 2 collisions with the wall of the container can be given by  t   
 v 

 p  2mv cos   mv2 

 F1    v  
 t  2R cos  R 

Total force exerted =

m 2
R

v1  v22  v23  ... vn2 
m N 2
=
R
vrms  
m N
 Pressure exerted = v2rms v
 4 R 2
 .R R R

 v
 m N v2rms
P =
 4 R  3

 mN  2 1 m N  2
P  vrms vrms
2  V 
4  = (Kinetic equation of gas)
3   R3 
3 

1  mN  2 1 2 1  M´  2
P  V  vrms  3  vrms  3 V  vrms
3    

m = mass of each molecule M´ = mass of gas

N = no. of molecules V = volume of gas

 3P  3RT 3 KT
 vrms     
   M in kg  m

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 47

 R 
where K     Boltzmann constant = (1.38 ï 10
ă23
J/K)
 NA 

 v  v2  ... v n  8RT 8P 8KT

vavg   1   
 N  M  m

2RT 2P  2KT 
vmp     
M   m 

vrms > vavg > vmp

Avg. translational KE of each molecule

1
= 2

m v12  v22  ... v2n 
N

1 2 1  3KT   3 
m v rms  m  KT 
2  m   2
=
2 

3 
 Avg. translational KE of each molecule =  KT 
2 

Now,
3
2
1
2
2
KT  m vrms  

=
2 2 2 2
2 2

1 [( v1 x  v2 x  v3 x  ... vx)  v1 y  ....  vny ]
m
2 N

Now, due to random motion

 v2x    v2y    vz2  

 

3 1 1 1
 KT = m  v0x   m  v2y   m  vz2 
2 2 2 2

1 1 1 1 
 m  v 2x   m  v 2y   v z2    KT 
2 2 2 2 

THERMODYNAMICS
48 MARKS
Law of Equ
quiipartition of Ene
nerrgy

1 
On average,  KT  energy can be associated with each degree of freedom.
2 

De
Degr
gr
greee of Fr
Freeedo
domm :

The number of independent modes of motion of a physical system is called degree of freedom.
Y
(1) For monoatomic gas :
f = total degree of freedom
f = 3 translational
X
 f = 3

Z
(2) For diatomic gas (also for linear polyatomic)
f = 3 trans + 2 rotational
Y
(rotation along the bond axis) is neglected
 f = 5  at ordinary temp.

But at high temp., f = 7 X

Reason : 2 degree of freedom are also contributed by vibrational
motion.
For high temperature, vibrational motion cannot be neglected, hence Z
it must also be counted.
At high temp.
f = 3 trans. + 2 rotat + 2 vibrat. = 7

(3) For polyatomic gas (Non-Linear)

f = 3 trans + 3 rotations Y
= 6

f = 6 At low temp.
X
At high temp. f = 3 trans + 3 rotat + 2 vib. O

f = 8
Z

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 49

Relation between CP, C V and 

1 
U  f  KT   for 1 molecule
2 

for n moles of a gas U  n N A 1   fR 

f  2 KT   n  2 T 
   

dU nfR / 2  fR 
CV   dT =  
ndT n dT  2 

 fR 
CV   
 2 

 fR  f 
CP    R   2  1 R
 2   

CP  f  2 R 2   2 
    1  
CV 2 fR  f

2
  1 
f

for monoatomic gas

3R 5R  5
CV = , CP = ,   
2 2  3

for diatomic gas (also CO2) :

5R 7R
CV  , CP  ,    7 / 5
2 2

CP , CV and  for a mixture of gases

Let n1 mol of monoatomic, n2 mol of diatomic, n3 mol of gas mixture be present whose temperature
is increased by dT at constant volume.
(n1 C V dT + n2 C V dT + n 3 CV dT) = (n1 + n2 + n3) CVmix
1 2 3

 n1 CV1  n 2 CV2  n3 CV3 

  CV mix 
 
 n1  n 2  n 3 

THERMODYNAMICS
50 MARKS
Similarly, if you increase temperature by dT at constant pressure you get

 n1 CP1  n2 CP2  n3 CP3 

 CP mix 
 
 n1  n2  n3 

for (mixture),

CP  mix 
 mixture  
CV  mix 

n1 R n2  R  n3 Rd T R dT
dT + dT +  n1  n2  n3 
or,
 
1 1  
2 1  3 1  mix1

n1  n2  n3 n1 n2 n3
  

 mix 1        
11 2 1 3 1

Ex
Exaa mp
mplle 23

A mixture contains 28 gm of N2 and 32 gm of O2 gas. It is observed that 50% of O 2 gas

dissociates into gaseous atoms. Find  of the mixture.
Solution :
O2(g)    2O(g) n2 = 1 + 0.5 = 1.5
(0.5 mol) (0.5 mol) ï 2
= 1 mol

 3R   5R 
n1 CV1  n2 CV 2  1  2    1.5  2 
 CV (mix) =    
n1  n 2   
2.5

= (2.1 R)
CP (mix) = C V (mix) + R = 3.1 R

 3.1 
   1.4
 2.1 

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 51

Importa nt C on
oncce pt
ptss

(I) From the given graph, decide whether the volume increases or decreases
P
 P   nR 
tan       
 T  V 
T) B
( P,

 1  A
 slope  V 
 

As slope decreases from A to B, T
O
 the volume of the gaseous system undergoing the process increases.

P
e.g. Note the from B to C first the volume increase
A B and then decrease (check the slope)
2P0

P0
C
T
O T0 2T 0

(II) If the PV diagram is a straight line with negative slope then T, V graph is a parabola.
Write the equation of the straight line

 P0 P
P ă 2P 0 =  V  V0 
V0
2P0 A

 P0 V P
P  3P0
V0
P0 B

nRT  P0 V
  3P0 O V0 2V0
V V0
T
  P0 2 
nRT   V  3P0 V 
 V0  T0

A B
 P0 V2 3P0 V
 T 
nRV0 nR

O V0 3V 2V0
2

THERMODYNAMICS
 52 MARKS
I l l ustr at i o n

What does this process indicate ?

P
Solution :
  
P = K

RT
K = slope of the gas = constant
M

O
Hence, T is also constant. Thus it is isothermal process.

(III) Efficiency in a cyclic process :

 work done in cycle 

 =   100  %
 net heat absorbed 

 Wcycle 
=   100  %

 Q supplied 

  CWcycle 
=  Q  100  %

 supplied 

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 25 P
2 mol. of an ideal monoatomic gas is taken through a cyclic
process, ABC as shown on PT diagram during process AB 2P1 B C
(PT = const.). Find :
(a) Show the cycle on PV, and VT diagram
P1 A
(b) Work done by the gas during process AB
(c) Heat absorbed or released during each process. Also
find the efficiency of the cycle. O T1= 300K 2T2 = 600K
Solution :
For AB : PT = K P
(isobaric)
B C
P2 V 2P1
K
nR (isothermal)
PVó = K (polytropic process) P1
A
1
x= V
2 O
THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 53

V A
dP  1
 KV 3 / 2  0
dV 2

 d2 P 
 2
 0 {To check the slope }
 dV  B

Now, similarly we can solve for VT curve. T

O (300K) (600K)

(b) Work done by gas during AB

(PT = K)

V2

 W
 PdV
V1

 AB is a polytropic process

 Use, W   P1 V1  P2 V2    P2 V2  P1 V
 x  1 1  ó 
 W = 2nR (T2 ă T1 ) = 2 ï 2 ï R ï 300 K

25
= 2 2  300  104 J
3

(c) Heat evolved or absorbed during process AB,

3R R 3R  7R 
C    2R =  
2 1  ó  2  2 

 QAB = 2  7R    300   2100 R

2

5  25 
Now Q BC = 2   R  T R  J/mol/K 
2  3 
= 5 ï R ï 300 = 1500 R

P1
Q CA = nRT ln = 840 R
P2

240 R
 efficiency (  ) =  100
2340 R

THERMODYNAMICS
54 MARKS
Exa mpl
plee 26 V
VD D C
2 mol of an ideal monoatomic gas is taken through a cyclic
process ABCD as shown on V-T diagram.
(a) Show the cycle on P-V and P-T diagram VB B
(b) Heat evolved (or absorbed) during each process
(c)  of the process VA
A
 VD   VB 
Given that :  V   4,  V   2 O 300K 600K T
 A   A 

Solution :
AB is isoboric (V = KT)
BC : isothermal
CD : isochoric
DA : isothermal

P P
A B A B

C
C
D
D
V V
O VA VB VD O (300K) 600K

5  25R
(b) QAB = n R   T   300 
 2  2

 QAB = 1500 R J

 VD 
QBC = nRT ln   = 2 ï R ï 600 ï ln2
 VB 

= 1200Rln2 J

3
QCD = nC VT = 2  R    300   900
2

 VA  1
QDA = n RT ln    2  R  300 l n  
 VD  4

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 55

 Qcycle = QAB + QBC + QCD + Q DA

= 1500 R + 1200 R ln 2 ă 900 R ă 600 R ln 4
= 1500 R ă 900 R
 Qcycle = 5000 J

5000
(c) 
25 25
1500   1200   0.7
3 3

5000
=
19500

 ~ 25 %

Tip : When relation between Q, U or W is given then relate Q and U using first law of
thermodynamics and use
Q = nCT
 U = nCV T

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 27 P
3P0 A
2 mol of an ideal monoatomic gas taken through a cyclic
process AB where AB is isothermal and in the process CA,
 QCA + WCA = 0 B
P0
(a) Then show the cycle on P-T, V-T diagram
P 0/2 C
(b) Heat absorbed or released during each process
V
(c) Also find the efficiency O V0 3V0
Solution :
For the process CA, use
QCA = ă WCA
QCA = ă (QCA ă UCA) [from first law of thermodynamics]
2QCA = u CA
2nCT = n C V T

 C   3R 
C V   
 2   4 

 3R 
 C  
 4 

THERMODYNAMICS
56 MARKS
 CA is a polytropic process

R
C  CV 
1  x 

3R 3R  R  4  7 
    x    1  
4 2  1 x 3  5 

V V

3P0 A
3V0 C B

P0 B V0
A
C

T T
O T0 /2 T0 O T0/2 T0

(b) Heat evolved (or absorbed) during each process

 3V0 
QAB = nRT ln   = 3P 0V0 ln3
 V0 

QBC = U = nCV T

3 3  9P V 
=  nRT   VP   0 0 
2 2  4 

 9P0 V0 
    QBC =   
 4 

QCA = nCT

3 3  3P0 V0 
= 4  nR T   4 3P0 V0  2 


3  3P0 V0   9P0 V0 

4  2   8 
=

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 57

(c)  of the cycle

 9V 0P 0 9V 0P 0   9
 3P0 V0 ln 3  
8   3 ln 3  8 
=  4
 100 =    100
 9V0 P0   9
 3P0 V0l n 3   3 ln 3  
 8   8

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 28

Air initially at 260ĈC (533 K), P0 = 700 Pa and V0 = 0.028 m 3 is expanded isobarically upto
3V0 = 0.084 m3. Then a polytropic process is followed with n = 1.5 and an isothermal process
is carried out to complete the cycle.
(a) Show the cycle on PV, PT, VT diagram
(b) Heat evolved (or absorbed) during each process
(c) Efficiency of the cycle
Solution :
Remember : Air is diatomic
27V 0
P P V C

P0 A B A B B
P0 3P0

P0 C P0 V0
27 A
27 C
T T
3V0 O T0 3T0 O T0 3T0
V0 V

(b) Heat evolved (or released) during each process

QAB = n CP T

 7R  7 7
= n   T = P V  P0  2V0   7P0 V0
 2  2 2

QBC = n CT

 
C  C V 
 1
R
 x 

5R
2

R
3
1  /2

5R
2
 2R =  / 
R
2
 

R P0 V0  3P0 V0
QBC = n   T =    P0 V0 
2 2

THERMODYNAMICS
58 MARKS
QCA = W CA
= nRT ln (27)ă1 = nRT ln (1/27)
= ă P0V 0 ln 27
= (ă 3P0V0 ln3)

6P0 V0  3P0 V0 ln 3  6  3 ln3 

(c)   100     100
7P0V0  7 

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 29

1 mol of an ideal gas is taken through a cycle process as shown in diagram.

(a) Work done by gas per cycle
(b) Heat absorbed (or evolved) during each process
(c) The maximum temperature attained during cycle
P
Solution :

1 B
(a) W cycle =  V 0  2P0  P0V 0  3P0
2

WAB = 0
WCA = ă (P 0V0) P0 C
A
 WBC = 2P 0 V0
V
O V0 2V0
(b) Heat (absorbed) released during each cycle
QAB = nC VT

3 3
=  nR T    2P0 V0   3P0 V0 
2 2

QCA = nC PT

5 5
= P0   V0   P0V0
2 2

 QAB + Q BC + QCA = W cycle

 5 
 Q BC = P0 V0 ă  3P0 V0  P0 V0 
 2 

 P0 V0  P0 V0 
= P0 V0   
 2  2

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 59

(c) Note that during the process BC, the temp. initially increases and then decreases

 2P0
P  3P0   V  V 0 
V0

 2P0 V
P  3P0   2P0
V0

 2P0 V
 P   5P0
V0

 n RT 
Replace P   
 V 

n RT  2P0 V
   5P0
V V0

  2V0 P0 5P0 V 
 T  
 nRV0 nR 

To find the maximum temperature differentiate the above,

dT   4P0V 5P0 
    0
d V  n RV0 nR 

 5V 
 V  0
 4 

2P0  25V 02  5P0  5V 0 

 Maximum temp. T      
nRV0  16  nR  4 

P 0V 0   25 25  25P0 V0
=    =
nR  8 4 8nR

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 30
An ideal gas is taken through a process in which U varies as U = a V where a and  are
constants. Given, the adiabatic contant of the gas is  , find
(i) molar heat capacity of the process
(ii) heat required to increase the internal energy of given by V
(iii) Work done during part (ii)

THERMODYNAMICS
60 MARKS
Solution :
(i) U = aV
nCV T = aV

n RT PV
 V    V
  1     1

 P V1ă =  (ă1) = const

 the process is a polytropic with x = (1 ă )

R R R  R      1
 C    1  1  1       1      R     1 
            

(ii) U = n CV T

nR
U   T     nRT = (U) (ă1)
 1 


Q = nCT

 1 1 1 1 
=    nR T =    U    1
    1       1

 1 
= U   1
  

(iii) W = Q ă U

  -1     1
W  U   1  U=U  
     

Ex
Exaa mpl
ple
e 31
1 mol of an ideal gas is taken through a process T = T0 + V
(i) Find the molar heat capacity of the process
(ii) Heat required to increase the volume of gas from V1 to V 2
Given that, specific heat of gas at const. process = CP
Solution :
T = (T0 + V)

Use P dV
C  CV 
ndT

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 61

 dT   d V
d    d    1 / 
 V  T

 P  nRT
C = CV +    CV 
 n  nV 

nR  T0   V
C = CV +
n V

RT0  RT0 
 R = C P 
 V 
C = CV +
V 

(ii) Heat required to increase the volume from V1 to V 2

 Q = nC dT
= nC dV dT = dV

V2
 RT0 
=   C
V1
P 
 V 
n  dV

 RT0 V 
Q  n   CP  V2  V1   l n 2 
   V1 

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 32

An ideal gas with adiabatic const.  is enclosed in an adiabatic container fitted with an
adiabatic piston of mass m which can smoothly move inside the cylinder. The pressure and
volume of the gas in equilibrium are P0 and V 0. If the piston is slightly displaced, then find
the time period of the SHM exclude by the piston.

K1
K2

P0, V0

THERMODYNAMICS
62 MARKS
Solution :
y1 + y 2 = 2y

y1
y1
2y

P, V

 dP   P0 
Note : For any polytropic process, we have  V    x  V 
d   

Restoring force exerted by the gas :

dP  P
 x 
dV V 

P 
 d P   x   [ Ady] { dV = ă Ady }
V 

P 2
(dPA) = + x   A y
V 

  P0  2 
 force exerted by gas = x  V  A y  (toward equilibrium position)
  0  

Now, due to the pulley combination

y1 + y2 = 2y ...(1)

Net torque on pulley P1 = 0 [Reason : (I is zero)]

 (K1 y1 = K 2y 2) ...(2)
Increase in tension T = (K 1y 1 + K2y2 )
= (2 K1y1)

 K 2  K1 
from (1) and (2)  y1  K2 
  2y


 K  K1
 y1  2   2y
 K2 

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 63

K1 K 2 
 DT = 4y
 K1  K 2 
 Net restoring force

 x P0 A 2   4 y K1 K 2   d2 y 
 y    ma  m  2 
=  V   K 1  K 2 
 0   dt 

 d2 y  1  xP0 A 2 4K 1 K 2 
  2      y

m  V0 K1  K2 
 dt  

m
 T = 2 A
 xP0 A 2  4K1 K2  
  
 V0  K 1  K 2  

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 33

A horizontal cylinder of length 2 l in initially divided by a thin insulating piston into 2

equal parts, each of which contain n mol of an ideal gas (monoatomic) at equal temp.
l 
T. Now a heat Q is supplied to the right chamber and piston displaces by a distance  
2
towards left. Then find the heat dissipated by left chamber gas during the process if temp.
of left chamber remains const. and there is no heat exchange through right chamber.

l l l/2 (3l/2)
Q
K P1 P2
(2K) (2K)
n, T
2K (T + T)
K (n, T)

Solution :
Let the heat dissipated through left chamber be Q. Now the left chamber is undergoing isothermal
compression
 Q´ = W

Concept : Work done by the right chamber gas is used in increasing the potential energy of the
spring and on work done on the left chamber

THERMODYNAMICS
64 MARKS
Q = u + W

 1 kl 2  
Q = nCV T +    2  Q´ 
 2 4  

 kl2 
 
Q´ =  Q  nC  T  
4 
V


At equilibrium position, P2 A = P1 A kl    P2  P1  A  Kl

Note :
(1) Whenever a piston is moving slowly or is given as light then net force on piston = 0 and
(2) work done by all the forces on piston = 0
(3)

P1 P2

If in an adiabatic compression, the piston moves inside the container, then work done by the
gas may or may not be zero.
dW = (P 2 ă P1 ) Adx, dW = ă dU

 nR  T   T  n RT 
    A  Kl
 V2 V1 

 nR  T   T  n RT 
    A  Kl
 A 3l  / 2 A  l / 2 

nR  2T 2 T 
   2T   Kl
l  3 3 

2
Kl  4T 
 T  
nR  3 

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 65

 3  K l2  4T   K l2 
 Q´ = Q ă n  R      
 2  nR  3   4 

7K l2
Q´ = Q ă   2n RT
4

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 34

Find the work done by the gas is moving the piston slowly in K
the given arrangement by height h. P0
h

P, A
Solution :
Since, the piston is moved slowly, net force piston = 0
Consider a moment when the piston has displaced up by y
mgh + ky + P0A = PA Alternative method :
h
Work done by all forces on piston = K = 0
 
W  PA . dy
1
0 ă W + mgh + P0A h + kh 2 = 0
2
h

=   mg  ky  P A  dy
0
0  W = mgh + P 0Ah ă
1
2
kh2

1
W = mgh + kh 2 + P 0Ah
2

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 35

A thin piston can freely move inside a horizontal container at both ends, initially divided
into two equal parts each of them contains ideal gas at equal pressure, volume and moles.
Find the work required to increase the volume of larger section by  times than that of the
smaller section, by slowly moving the piston isothermally.
Solution :
Fext

V2
=
V2 V1 V1
P0, V0 , n P0, V0 , n
P2 P1

THERMODYNAMICS
66 MARKS

Net force on piston = 0

Fext = (P2 ă P1)A

 Wext =   P  P  A dx
2 1

Now, volume total V1 + V 2 = 2V 0 ...(1)

and V1 + V 1 = 2V 0
V1 (1 + ) = 2V 0

 2V0   2 V0 
 V1         V 2    ...(2)
 1     1  

Differentiate eqn. (1)

 dV = (ă Adx) 
(dV 1 ) + (dV2) = 0 
 1

(d V 1 = – dV 2)  dV = (Adx)
 2 
 

W
 P1  P2  Adx

=   P dV   P dV
1 1 2 2

V1 V2
 dV1 dV2
=  nRT 

V0
V1
  nRT 

V0
V2

 V1 V 
= ă n RT  ln  ln 2 
 V0 V0 

 V1V2 
= ă n RT  ln 
 V02 

 2   1     1    
= P0 V0 ln V0  = P0 V0    
 V1V2   2   2  

 1   2 
= P0V0 ln  
 4 
 

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 67

Exa mpl
plee 36

A thermally insulated horizontal cylinder is initially divided into two equal parts by a thin
conducting piston which can freely move inside the cylinder. Each part contains, an ideal
gas at temp. T0 . Find the work required to increase the volume of larger section  times the
volume of the smaller section by slowly moving the piston.
Solution :

P0, V0 P0, V0 V2 V1
T0 T0 V2

V1

Temperature of both the chambers will be equal but changing

For the entire system, dQ = 0
dQ = dU + dW
dU + dW = 0
ă dW = dU
dWex + dW = 0    Work done by all force on piston will be zero
dWex = ă dW = dU
Now, (nCVdT) ï 2 = (P1 ă P2)A dx
  dV1 dV2 
= nRT  V  V 
 1 2 

 nR   dV1 dV2 
2   dT   nRT   
 1  V1 V2 

V2 V2
  2  dT d V1 dV
  
   1  T


V1
V1

V
V0
2

1

 2  T   V 02  1   2 2
 l
 n   l n    l n  
  1   T0     4 
 V1 V2   

1
T   1   1   1
        T  T0
 4n  2
1/
 T0 1
4  2
Work done by the system = 2nC VdT

THERMODYNAMICS
68 MARKS

Exa mpl
plee 37

2 mol of an ideal monoatomic gas is enclosed in a vertical adiabatic cylinder fitted with an
adiabatic piston of mass m, which can freely move inside the cylinder. Now a heater supplies
a heat at rate of q J/s. Find the velocity of the piston under isobaric condition.
Solution :

 dq   dT   5R   d T 
 dt   n C P  dt   2   2   dt 
       V

 dT 
q  5R  
 dt 

dq = dU + dW
q
dq = nC VdT + (PAdx)

dT PAdx
n  CP  CV  
dt dt

dT
 2 ï R   PA  v
dt

 2q   2q 
 5   PAv  v   5PA 
   

 Velocity is constant,  net force on the piston is zero

PA = (P0A + mg)

2q
 v
5 P 0A  mg 

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 69

HEAT TRANSF ER
Heat can be transferred from one place to the other by any of three possible ways.
(1) Conduction : usually in solids
(2) Convection in fluids
(3) Radiation : Vaccum, EM waves
In the first two processes a medium is necessary for heat transfer. Radiation does not require
any medium and is the fastest mode of transfer.

CONDUCTION :
Ć Heat is transferred in conduction by collision with neighbouring particles within the body.
Ć When one end is placed at a higher temperature, atoms or molecules get heat energy and
start oscillating with greater amplitude and it collides with neighbouring molecules and
shares its KE. And in the process heat is transferred from one end to the other end.
Ć Average position of atoms/molecules do not change. (No actual transfers of mass is involved).
Ć In steady state, the heat crossing per unit time through any cross-section is constant. Which
is given by,

Q KA T2  T1 

t l

K, A, l

T1 T 2 (> T1)

where K = thermal conductivity or conduction coefficient

Note :
(1) Area of cross-section should be taken perpendicular to direction of the heat flow.
(2) Length l should be measured along the direction of heat flow.
(3) In the steady state, the temperature of each cross section remains constant, (though it is not
equal to all cross-section)

THERMODYNAMICS
 70 MARKS

 Q KA  T1  T2 
Limitations of  formula
t l

(i) To be used in the steady state only

(ii) Not applicable when area is not constant
(iii) Not applicable when K  constant

However, in case of variable conditions, (eg. when K is a function of x) we may use :

T1 T2
dQ dT
 KA
dT dx

dx
For example :

 Q  K  bh  T1  T2 
  
 T 1 l
(1)
h
 Q  K  lb T
 T   b
 2 h
T1 T2
l
(2)

The
herrmal Con
ondduc
ucttivity :

The ability of a material to conduct heat is measured in terms of thermal conductivity/conduction

coefficient.
Greater the thermal conductivity, greater the tendency of the material to conduct heat
unit : W/m-K

Compa
parr ison wi th E lec tric al Q uantiti es

 V  V2 
i  1 
 R 

 Q   T1  T2 
In heat conduction we have  t   i  d / KA
   
Potential difference  Temp. difference

 d 
Resistance  Thermal resistance =  KA 
 

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 71

Se r ie s an
andd P ar all el Co mb
mbiinat ions

(A) Series Combination :

(i) Thermal Resistance
l 1, K 1, A l 2, K2, A
(Req) = R 1 + R2
(T)
Derivation :
T1(>T2) T2
(T1 ă T) = iR1
(T ă T 2) = iR2

T1  T 2   i R 1  R 2   i(R eq)

 l1  l 
 Req = (R1 + R2 ) R1  , R2  2  
 K1 A  K2 A  

(ii) Equivalent Thermal Conductivity in series combination

leq = l1 + l 2

 l1  l 2

l1 l
 2

KA K 1A K 2A

n l

l1  l2
 l  dx
i 1
i
0
 K  K eq  n

l
 l1 l 
 k  dxK
 2  li

 K1 K 2
i1 i 0

(B) Parallel Combination :

(i) Thermal resistance

l l
R1  , R2 
K 1A 1 K 2A 2 l , K 2, A 1
i1
 i = (i1 + i2 )  Net heat flow / (time)
T1 T2
 T1  T2   T1  T2   T1  T2  i2
  
R eq R1 R2 l, K 2, A 2

1 1 1
    ...
R eq R 1 R 2

THERMODYNAMICS
72 MARKS
(ii) Equivalent Thermal Conductivity

KA K A K A
 2 1  2 2
l l l

 K A  K2 A2 
Keq   1 1 
 K A   Kd A
i i

 A1  A 2 
 A  dA i

Tempe
perratur
uree of Ju
Junnction

To find the temp. of junction, first find the current i, and then use the resistance of the part upto
which temperature is to be calculated.
e.g. T1 ă T´ = i R1
K 1, A1, l1 K2 , A2 , l2
T´ = T1 ă i R 1 T1 T2

T´
= T1  T2  T1 R 1
 l1 l 
  2 
 K1 A K2 A 

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 38

Find the equivalent thermal conductivity of the given arrangement (of two concentric
rods).
Solution :

l
R1 
 
2K  a2 2K a
3K

l 2a
R2 
  
9K a 2

Since the two rods are in parallel combinations

T1 T2
l l l
 R eq     
 
11K  a2 
K´ 4 a 2   
11K a 2

 11K 
 K´   
 4 

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 73

Alte rnative ((u

use ffor
or
ormmula)

KA K1 A 1 K 2 A 2
 
l1 l1 l2

K  2K
 a   3K 3 a    11K 
2 2

 4 
4  a2  

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 39

Find the equivalent thermal conductivity when K varies as K  K0  1  r  for the given rod.
 a

Solution :

 r
K  K0  1  
 a

Since all the small elements of thickness (dr) are is parallel combination
(dA) = (2r)dr

a a
 r
K dA K
0 0
0 1

  2 rdr
a (dr)
Keq  a
 a

 dA0
  2r dr
0

r
a

 a2 a 2 
  
 2
 3   5 K0 
= K0  2
 a2   6 
 
 2 

 5 K0 
K eq   
 3 

THERMODYNAMICS
74 MARKS
Whe atston
onee Bri dge

Consider the 5 rods AM, MB, AN, NB and MN connected as shown.

For balanced networks

T m = Tn M

 TA ă TM = iR1 TM ă TB = i, R 3
i1 i1
TA ă TN = i2R 2 TM ă TB = i2R4
 i1 R1 = i2R 2 i1 R3 = i2R4 A B

 R1 R  R1 R i2 i2
   2  3
 R3 R4  R2 R4
N

Junction law end loop are also applicable in thermal currents

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 40

Two identical rods, each of R = 5 k/W, AB and CD are connected as shown.

Given TA = 100ĈC, T B = 0ĈC and TD = 25ĈC. Find TC. A i C (i ă i 1) B
Solution : .
(TA ă TC) = i(R AC) (100Ĉ C) OĈ C
(TC ă TB) = (i – i 1) R CB i1
(TC ă T0) = i 1 R CD
 (100 ă T) = i(2.5)
(T ă 0) = (i ă i1) (2.5)
(T ă 25) = i1 (5)        T C = 45ĈC D
(25Ĉ C)

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 41

3 identical rods made of same material form an equilateral triangle. Temperature of end A
and Bare maintained at 2T and T respectively. Find the Temperature of the end C.
Solution :
AC and CB are in series and parallel on whole to AB C ( )

i  R R
iAC   AB  (2T ă T) = iR
 2 
i/2

i   2T  T   3T 
(2T ă ) =   R    2       =  
2   2T     2  (2T) (T)
A i B

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 75

Exa mpl
plee 42

Find the heat conducted per unit time along the length of the rod.

Solution :
Consider an infinitesimal element dx thickness at a distance x from one end

 Q  dT 
Use :    i   KA  
 t   dx 

A = y 2
T
 y  a   b  a y
and,  
 x  l
dx
x
 l 
   y  a   x (T1)
b  a 
(T1 >T2 ) (dx)
( T2 )
 l  Q dx
dx    dy
b a
 t 
  y2 
  K  dT

 b  T2
Q  l  dy 
 t  b  a   y2 
  K
 dT
 a  T1

 Q   l   1 1 
        K  T1  T2 
 t   b  a   b a

 Q   l   b  a 
  t   b  a   ab   K  T1  T 2 
   

 Q  K  T1  T2  ab
  t  
  l

 l 
Thermal resistance R   K  
 ab 

THERMODYNAMICS
76 MARKS
Alternative Method :
(Using thermal resistance)

Note : This alternative method cannot be used when the thermal conductivity K becomes
function of temperature

R l
dx
 
0
d R
 K y
0
2

[All the thermal resistance are in series combination]

b
l dy   L  
 R
 b  a Ky
a
2 x  

  y  a 
b  a 

l  b  a l
=  
 b  a  
K ab  K ab

Q T1  T2  Kab T1  T2 

  
t  l/ K ab l

l
Learn : Thermal resistance of a frustum with radius of circular ends a and b =
K ab

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 43

A uniform rod MN of length l and cross-sectional area A with thermal conductivity given

K0
by K  has its two ends at temperature 2T0 and T 0. Find
1  2T  x
(a) Heat conducted per unit time through the rod.
(b) The temperature of the rod as a function of distance x.
2T0 l T0

M x N

dx
THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 77

Solution :

 dT 
(a) Heat current i   KA  dx 
 

 Q   K0 A  d T 
 t    
    2T  x  dx 
1

l T0
 Q  dT
  t 
   x dx   K A 
0
0
2T0
 1 + 2T

 Q   l   K 0 A  1  4 T0 
2
      ln
 1 + 2T  
 t   2  2  0 

 Q  2 K 0A  1  4 T0 
 t   l n
 1 + 2 T  
  2l 2  0 

(b) Temperature of a rod as a function of x can be calculated using.

x T
 Q  KA dT
 t  
  
0
xdx  

2T0
1 + 2T 

 Q   x 
2
 1  4 T0 
     K 0A l n 
 

 t  2   1  2T 

 2K0 A  1  4T0   x2  1  4 T0 
 2 ln    K 0A l n  
 l  1  2T0   2  1  2T 

 x2   1  4T0   1  4 T0 
  l2  ln    ln  
   1  2 T0   1  2T 

 1  4T0 
ln  
2 2  1  2T 
x l
 1  4T0 
ln 
 1  2T0 

THERMODYNAMICS
78 MARKS
Exa mpl
plee 44

Find the heat conducted per unit time when

K a
(a) K = const

(b) K = ( / )
r
(r  distance from centre) b

Solution :
(a) Heat conduction through a spherical shell

 Q   dT 
 T    KA  
   dr 


 Q 
 T    K 4r
 
2 dT
dr
  T2

b T2 T1
 Q  dr
  T 
   4r
a
2
K
 dT
T1

(T1>T2)
Q b  a 1
   K T2  T1 
 T ab 4

Q 4 Kab
   T1  T 2 
 T b  a 

Alternative Method

b
dr
R
 K 4 r 
a
2

1 b a
R
4 K  ab 

Q T1  T2  T1  T2  4 Kab

  
t R  b  a
b a
Learn : Thermal resistance of the spherical shell =
4 K ab

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 79


(b) When K varies as K =


dr
R
 KA
b
dr 1 b 
=      4 r   4r 
 ln  
a 
a 
 r

Series Combination of Spherical Shell

b  a 
R1 
4 Kab
K2
K1  c  b
R0
C a 4 K bc 
b  R eq = R 1 + R2

 Q  T1  T2 
 t   i
  Req  

He
Heaat Condu
ducc tion thr oug
ughh cyl ind
ndrr ical she ll

T2

T1 a

THERMODYNAMICS
80 MARKS

 Q  dT
(a)   t    K  2r L  dr
 

T2
dr
b
 Q  dr
 2rL   K  d T
r
 
 t  a
a T1
T1 T2

 Q  K  T1  T2  2 L
 t  
  ln b / a  
Alternative Method :

b
dr Q  T1  T2 
R
 K 2 rL 
a
  
 t  Re q 

=
ln /
b
a

 2K L

(b) When K = (/r )

b
dr b  a 
R
 a  2r L 
a
2  L
r

 Q   2 L 
    T1  T2 
 t   b  a

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 45

A cylinder of length 0.4 m and area A = 0.04 m2 is placed on a thin TA = 400K

circular disc of same cross-sectional area.
TA = 400 K and T0 = 200 K
TA is maintained constant
0.4 m
K = 10 W/M, Sd = 600 J/g/K, m disc = 0.4 kg
Find the time when the temperature of disc becomes (T = 350 K)
T0

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 81

Solution :
At any time instant let, temperature of the disc be T. We have

 d Q  KA  TA  T 
 
 dt  l

dT KA  TA  T
 mS 
dt l

350 t
dT KA
 
300

 TA  T  mS l  dt
0

350  KA 
  ln  TA  T  t
300
 m Sl 

 mS l 
 t  l n 100 / 50 
 KA 

0.4  600  0.4

t   l n2 
10  0.04

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 46 50Ĉ C

An ice ball of mass m and radius a is placed inside a spherical b

conducting shell of radius (a and b) at ă 10Ĉ C. The thermal
a
 
conductivity varies as K    of the spherical shell. Find the time ă10Ĉ C
r
required to increase the temperature of ice ă 10ĈC to + 10ĈC.
Solution :
First, find the thermal resistance of the spherical shell.

b b
dr dr
R
 K 4r      4r 
2

2 =
1
 ln b/ a
a r a 4
 

  Q  T1  T2 
   t   R
eq  

THERMODYNAMICS
82 MARKS
Now divide the time into three intervals

(i) t1 : time taken to increase temperature from ă 10ĈC to 0ĈC

 d   50   
m  Sice    
 dt  R

0 C ti
d dt

 10 C
50   

  mS R 
0
i

 50  t
 ln   
 60  mS i R 

 mSi ln  b / a  
 t1    ln 6 / 5 
 4 

(ii) t2 : time required to melt the ice from 0ĈC to 0Ĉ C water

 mL f   50  0
 
 dt  R

t2 
 mL f   m  L f  ln  b / a

50  4a  50

(iii) t3 : time required to increase the temperature from 0ĈC to 10ĈC water

 d  50  
mSW   R
 dt 

10 t3
d dt
 
0
  
50

 ms
0
WR

 t3   msWR  ln  5 / 4 

 total time = (t1 + t2 + t3) (required)

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 83

Exa mpl
plee 47

A cubical box is filled with water. Now a hot sphere of radius r1 kept at const. temp. of
1000ĈC has a jacket around it of radius (r 2 = er 1) to jacket consist of this concentric spherical
 C a
layers of K    . Find the time required to increase the
r
temperature from 20ĈC to 30ĈC. 20Ĉ C
Given that :
r2
 98   3 4 3 
ln   a  r2   W S W  400 C
 97   3 

Solution :
Thermal resistance of the jacket :

r2 r2
dr dr 1 lne
R
 K  4 r    C  4r
2

r1 
2

4
l n  r2 / r1  
4 C
r1 
r

 1 
 R 
 4C 

Now, consider the heat current flowing from the sphere to water in the box

 d   1000   
msW  
 dt  R

30 C t 
d 1
   dt 
 1000     ms WK 
20 C 0 

 97   1 
 ln     t
 98   ms WR  

 98   3 4 3
  ln   W  a  3 r2  SW   4 C t
 97   

 400C = 4Ct

 t = 100 s

THERMODYNAMICS
84 MARKS
Exa mpl
plee 48

A body of heat capacity C is connected with two rods whose free ends are kept at constant
t em p of T 1 and T 2. Let the initial temp. of the body be T 0 where (T1 > T 0 > T2 ). Find the
temperature of the body as a function of time t.
Solution : C1 T

i1 i2
T1 T2
K 1, A 1, l1 K2 , A2, l 2
Let the temp. at any instant be T.

Concept : Heat trap by the body = (i 1 ă i 2)

(which increases the temp. of the body)

i = (i1 ă i 2)

 d T  K1 A1  T1  T0  K 2 A 2  T0  T2 
ms   
 dt  l1 l2

dT  K1 A1 T1 K 2 A 2 T2   K1 A1 K 2 A 2 
ms        T0
dt  l1 l2   l1 l2 

 1  CdT  K 1A 1 T1 K A T  1 K A K A 1
     2 2 2   1 1  2 2 T
 C  dt  l1 l2  C  l1 l2  C

dT
  a  bT 
dt

T t
 dT 

T0
 
 a  bT  dt
0

a  b T 
ln   bt
 a  bT0 
(a ă bT) = (a ă b T0) eăbt

a  a  b T0  e0 bt
 T
b

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 85

CO NV EC TI O N

Takes place in fluids

Convection is of following 2 types :
(a) Natural Convections :
In convections, heat transfers takes place due to motion of heated material and in natural
convection this transfer is due to difference in density.
(b) Forced Convection :
If the heated material is forced to move by any external source such as pump, fan etc., then
such a convection is called forced convection.

T0

Heat transfer through convection per unit time

T
 dQ
   hA  T  T0 
 dt 

where
A  surface area of the body is contact with the fluids.
h  convection co-efficient which depend on the nature of the fluids in contact with the surface.

RADI
DIAATIO N

ă Radiation involves heat transfer through EM waves

ă Medium is not required
ă At all temp., all bodies continuously emit heat energy through radiations.
(1) Emissive power (E) : The radiant energy emitted per unit time per unit surface area of
the body is called emissive power and is denoted by E.

U
E
A  t

units : W/m 2
ă The radiant energy is emitted in all wave length range from 0 to , however, only a small
range corresponds to larger part of the radiant energy.

(2) Spectral Emissive Power (E) : The radiant energy emitted per unit time, per unit area
per unit wavelength is called spectral emissive power.

THERMODYNAMICS
86 MARKS
ă In the other words, the emissive power for a particular wavelength is called spectral emissive
power (E).

 dE 
E   
 d 


or E 
 E
0
 d  total emissive power

(3) Absorptive power (a) :

The fraction of incident radiant energy absorbed by the surface of the body is called absorptive
power.

absorbed incident radiant energy

a
total incident radiant energy

for a perfect black body, a = 1

for a perfect white body, a = 0

for a grey body, 0 < a < 1

Note : The incident radiant energy on the surface of the body is divided into 3 parts :
(i) Absorbed part, (ii) Transmitted part (iii) Reflected
Also,  +  +  = 1 for any body having incident radiant energy where   absorptivity, 
 transmitivity,   reflectivity

(4) Spectral Absorptive Power (a  )

The absorptive power for a particular wavelength is called spectral absorptive power.

 da 
a   
 d 

 a
a
0
 d  total absorptive power

a  area under the a ă  curve

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 87

(5) KirchoffÊs Law : It states that

(i) At a given temperature, the ratio of emissive power to the absorptive power is same
for all bodies.
(ii) and is equal to the emissive power of the black body at that temperature.

 Eb   Eb 
    E bb  or    ab
 ab   E bb 

Eb 
Also,   Ebb  
 ab 

In conclusion : „A good emitter is a good absorber and vice-versa‰.

Proof :
Consider two bodies, one grey and the other a perfect black (u)
body, enclosed in an isolated container, which have identical
dimension and are in thermal equilibrium
In thermal equilibrium,
Amount of radiant energy falling on black body is b bb
completely reflected black (   its temperature is constant)

U a bU
 Ebb  , E b  A  t [Energy emitted by body its temperature is constant]
A(t)

 E b  abEbb

 Eb 
   E bb
 ab 

(6) On the base of quantum theory of radiation, plank has shown that the energy distribution

2hc2  1 
in the spectrum of black body radiation is given by : R    
 5  ech / KT  1 

where R  spectral radiancy or spectral intensity for a given wavelength.

(Radiancy is the intensity due to radiation)
T  absolute temp; h  planckÊs constant
K  Boltzmann const = 1.38 ï 10 23 J/k
C  speed of light

THERMODYNAMICS
88 MARKS
R
T3
T2 T3 > T2 > T 1

T1 and m3 < m 2 < m1

m2
O  m3 
 m1

(i) The area under the graph curve, gives the total intensity of radiation, (radiancy) at
a particular temperature.


R
 R d
0


And, this area increases with the increase in temperature.

(ii) Radiancy is found to be proportional to the fourth power of absolute temperature of the
surface of the body. (StefanÊs law)
R  T4
R =  T4
U = ( A T 4)

(7) WeinÊs Law : The wavelength for maximum intensity of radiation is inversely proportional
to the temp. of the surface

1
m 
T

  mT = b (WeinÊs constant)
b = 2.88 ï 10 ă3 măK
WeinÊs law can be used to determine the temperature of any surface emitting the radiation.

(8) StefanÊs Law : The radiant energy emitted per unit time by the surface of the body is given
by
u = e  AT4
A  total surface area of the body exposed to the surrounding
T  absolute temp. of the surface of the body

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 89

e  emissitivity of the surface

 = StefanÊs constant
= 5.67 ï 10ă8 W/m 2 ă K 4
Note :
(1) Emissivity of a black body = 1
Also, emissivity of any body = absorptive power of the body

Eb
 ab 
E bb



E AT 4  a  E = (ab)
4 b
( AT )

(2) The heat energy lost per unit time by a body t0 is given by :

           u = eA (T4 ă T 04)

where T  temp. of the body

T0  temp. of the surrounding
A  Area of the body exposed to the surrounding
(T > T 0)
Similarly heat gained per unit time from the surrounding will be given by = eA (T4 ă T0 4)

Ne wton’s Cooli ng Law

T = (T ă T0)
T << T0 (in K)
T0
Heat const. per unit time due to convection,
u1 = hA (T ă T 0)
T
Heat lost per unit time due to radiation
u2 = eA (T4 ă T 04)

 
4 
= eA
4
T0  1  T   1
 T0  
 

 T << T0

THERMODYNAMICS
90 MARKS

 4 T 
= eA T04 1   1
 T0 


= 4eAT0
3
 T 
Total heat loss per unit time
u = u1 + u 2
= (h + 4eAT0 3)A (T ă T 0)

 dT 
 ms 
 dt 

  h  4eAT0 A T  T0 
3


 dT   h  4 e AT30 
 ă     A  T  T0 
 dt   ms 
 

 dT 
ă    K T  T0  (in Kelvin)
 dt 

K  cooling constant

 h  4 e T03 
=  A
 ms 
 

 d 
   K    0  in celsius
 dt 

 t
 d

i
  0 
 K dt
0

ln     0 
  Kt
 i   0 

   0    i   0  eKt

THERMODYNAMICS
 MARKS 91

Cooling curve
i
 d 
    tan 
 dt 

= ă K ( ă 0) 
0
 tan  = K ( ă 0 )
t
tan 
 K
   0 
 to calculate the value of K, use the tangent of the slope at point and the temp. at that
instant.

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 49

A body initially at temp. 1 is kept in a surrounding of temp. 0 then find :

(i) the maximum heat that can be lost by the body
(ii) the time in which 90% of the heat will be lost by body. (m = mass, S1  specific heat)
Solution :
(i) Qmax = ms (1 ă  0)
(ii) Q = ms (1 ă 2)
Q = 0.9 Qmax
ms (1 ă  2 ) = (0.9) ms (1 ă  0)
1 ă  2 = 0.9 2 ă 0.9 0
(0.1 1 + 0.9 0 ) = 2

 d
  K    0 
dt

2 t
 d

1
   0  
 K dt
0

 2  0 
ln   Kt
 1  0 
ln (0.1) = ă Kt
Kt = ln 10

 2.303
t
K

THERMODYNAMICS
92 MARKS
General concept involved in questions based on conduction and radiation.
In most of the questions it is to be used that the heat conductive per unit time due to conduction
is equal to loss through radiation.

Ts
eg.
T
l

T0

In steady state,

KA  T0  T 
l

 Ae T 4  Ts4 

THERMODYNAMICS
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