INTRODUCTION

Many regions in the world take an ample supply of clean freshwater for granted,
where water has always been available on demand. In contrast, many regions of the
world lack the minimum requirements for clean water, and some 844 million people
worldwide are without an available drinking-water service (WHO 2018).
Unfortunately, the access to the fresh water situation will worsen. An increasing
population is stressing water sources, and climate change is altering the distribution of
the hydrologic cycle, the natural movement of water, to make some water sources
unreliable (Hagemann et al. 2013). Climate change will warm areas to generate more
evaporation, and it will reduce rainfall in some areas while increasing it in others
(Hagemann et al. 2013). In areas predicted to increase in rainfall, tapping into
freshwater resources is usually not the problem. In contrast, areas that are predicted to
decrease in rainfall face greater challenges in the global problem of water scarcity.
The World Health Organization (2018) predicts that by 2025, half of the people on
earth will reside in a water-stressed area. Water is a vital resource to facilitate life and
is used in excess to raise the standard of living. Without water, all life ceases to exist.
Thus, a reduction in water availability not only makes life more difficult, but it may
also create conflict to secure such a valuable resource. People need water, and a
speedy solution is paramount. A leading solution to providing freshwater is with
desalination technology, which is the process of removing salt from water. There are
various processes of desalination that extract drinking water from a saline source,
such as the sea. With a large amount of the population living near the sea, and such a
vast resource available, desalination of seawater is an obvious solution. Desalination
currently only produces about 1% of the freshwater used today, but production will
double by 2030, and production growth is expected indefinitely (Voutchkov 2016).
Currently, there are over 18,000 desalination plants in operation globally that utilize
two main processes, membranes which separate through pressure, and thermal
evaporation that uses heat (Voutchkov 2016). The energy required for desalination is
a limiting economic factor, but the technology has proven to be a reliable supply of
freshwater to areas in need. Ecological concerns are secondary to providing
economically viable water in an extremely competitive industry, and the best solution
would produce incalculable profits (Villiers 2000).

Reverse osmosis plant

Over the last two decades, there has been a 4-fold increase in the number
of reverse osmosis (RO) desalination plants, and a 10-fold increase in
capacity, with over 10,000 installations of various sizes currently online
around the world. The size of these RO plants has also increased
significantly, now exceeding 500,000 m3/d in many parts of the world.
Plant expansion is largely attributable to population growth, while
decreased process energy costs and improved membrane performance
remain critical contributing factors (Peñate and García-rodríguez, 2012;
Schrotter et al., 2010).
Notwithstanding the constantly growing need to secure water production,
the desalination industry still faces the challenge of improving its
environmental sustainability (Mezher et al., 2011; Roberts et al., 2010).
Although the large amount of energy needed to pressurize the feed water
during RO desalination is the primary environmental concern, the
disposal of old RO modules is emerging as a critical issue to be
addressed. So far, used RO modules are considered as waste and are
generally discarded to municipal landfills, with only limited disposal
alternatives proposed to RO users.

Given the range of pre-treated water qualities and their associated

operating conditions, it is estimated that an average of 100 of the 8”
modules are generally needed to produce each mega litre per day of
water. Based on an average of 13.5 kg per 8” module, the use of a basic
single pass system, and a mean membrane life of 6 years, the inventory of
the current plants worldwide allows the estimation of the total mass of
modules to be disposed annually (Figure 1-1). The steady increase in the
mass of disposed membranes, reaching 12,000 tonnes.yr-1 globally by
2015, clearly indicates the magnitude of this disposal problem.

Figure 1-1: Estimation of the annual mass of RO modules to be discarded worldwide

As the global population rises, and due to water scarcity issues like
drought, there has been a growing need for water sources independent of
rainfall. The most common process to fill this demand is seawater (SW)
desalination. Desalination, which can also be used to purify water for
industry applications, involves the removal of salts and other solutes from
the water, thus producing potable water.
Membrane Structure

RO membranes where originally developed in the 1960s and were

constructed of asymmetric cellulose acetate (CA). These membranes had
the drawback of slowly degrading in water due to hydrolysis, and
suffered from severe polymer compaction over time, reducing the
performance. These weaknesses lead to the development of thin-film-
composite (TFC) membranes using an active layer of dense non-porous
polymer (Cadotte, 1979).
 Figure 2-2: Cross section structure of a TFC RO membrane.

As seen in Figure 2-2, TFC membranes typically consists of a dense

polyamide (PA) active layer, a microporous polysulfone (PSf) supporting
layer, and a considerably thicker non-woven polyester (PET) base (Lee et
al., 2011). The membranes are generally manufactured by interfacial
polymerization which physically anchors the active and support layers
together through interlocking of the pore structures (Soice et al., 2004).
The most common active layer structure used today is constructed of
cross linked fully aromatic PA. This structure, which can be seen in
Figure 2-3, is commonly referred to as FT-30, and is based on the
reaction of m-phenylenediamine (MPD) and trimesoyl chloride (TMC)
(Lee et al., 2011). These membranes showed higher chemical stability
and resistances, and are not affected by compaction to the same degree as
CA membranes.

Figure 2-3: Cross linked fully aromatic PA active layer structure (Lee et al., 2011).

Membrane Desalination Processes

RO uses a semi-permeable membrane and a pressurised feed to extract

and purify water. The process is commonly used with SW (15,000 –
50,000 ppm total dissolved solids (TDS)) (Malaeb and Ayoub, 2011).
The basis of the technology revolves around the semi-permeable polymer
membranes, which allows the diffusion of water molecules, while
rejecting other solutes. An applied pressure greater than the osmotic
pressure of the feed solution is required to drive the process. A pressure
of 50-70 bar is required for SW, depending on the solute concentration.
Modern membranes can reject 98 – 99.5 % of monovalent salts,
determined by the product used and operating conditions.

The membrane is a critical component of the overall RO process, which

also involves water intake, pre-treatment, multiple membrane passes to
increase product quality, and various post treatment processes to bring the
water quality in-line with drinking water standards. The membranes used
for this process are of flat sheet construction and are in a spiral wound
configuration to maximise surface area and reduce the footprint of the
desalination plant. The structure of the membrane module, which can be
seen in Figure 2-1, involves two membrane sheets with the active side
facing out, sealed over a permeate spacer. The sheets are then wound up
around a central tube, with a feed spacer in between each sheet. The
water flows through the feed spacer channel and permeates through either
of the adjacent membrane sheets, spirals down the permeate spacer and is
collected in the central tube.
Figure 2-1: Structure of RO membrane module (US EPA, 2005).

Seawater Reverse Osmosis Plant

Desalination of seawater is becoming increasingly popular for production of drinking
water in the world, at present, most seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) desalination
plants have the following key components: intake to collect source seawater;
pretreatment system to remove solid particulates from the source water; reverse
osmosis system to separate the salts from the source seawater and to produce fresh
water (permeate); and post-treatment system to condition this fresh water for
conveyance and final use. The main by-product generated by the desalination plant’s
salt separation process is commonly referred to as concentrate or brine. In addition to
concentrate, desalination plant discharges may also include other treatment process
side-streams, such as spent pretreatment filter backwash water, SWRO membrane
rinsing water, and treated membrane cleaning water. Desalination concentrate consists
of dissolved compounds (minerals, organics, metals, etc.) rejected by the reverse
osmosis membranes. Backwash water is generated during the periodic cleaning of the
pretreatment filters and contains particulates and other compounds removed from
source water prior to desalination

Intake of SWRO
The main effects associated with source water (seawater) withdrawal are
entrainment and impingement of marine organisms. Entrainment is the
transport of small planktonic organisms with the flow of seawater into the
desalination plant. It is generally recognized that the entrained flora and
fauna that enters the desalination plant will perish during the different
stages of the desalination process, including biocide application.
Entrainment can be reduced by locating the intakes away from
biologically productive areas, such as in deeper water farther offshore, or
by using underground beach wells although the latter are difficult to
implement for large-scale desalination plants (NRC 2008, Elimelech and
Phillip 2011).
Ref  UNITED NATIONS

Pre-treatment
Pre-treatment can include chlorination, clarification, coagulation,
acidification, and degasification. Pre-treatment is applied to feedwater to
minimize algae growth, scaling, and corrosion of the plant generally. The
chemical agents used in the process are important and should be
monitored since some remain in the concentrate before disposal. Typical
pre-treatment chemicals used in desalination plants are:
 NaOCl or free chlorine—prevents biological growth
 FeCl3 or AlCl3-flocculation and removal of suspended matter
from water;
 H2SO4 or HCl—pH adjustment;
 NaHSO3—neutralizes chlorine remains in feedwater; and
 Various scale inhibitors—prevents scale formation on the pipes
and membranes.

If RO membrane becomes fouled or scaling occurs, the materials have to

be removed and this is done via chemical cleaning with the use of various
detergents. The type of chemicals used for cleaning depends on the type
of membrane and for RO systems, chemical cleaning agents fall into the
following categories:

 Enzymes to break down bacterial slimes;

 Detergents and surfactants to resuspend particulate material and
dissolve organic material;
 Biocides to kill bacteria;
 Chelators to remove scale;
 Acids to dissolve inorganics;
 Caustics to dissolve organic substances and silica.

Post-treatment stabilization
The product water from the membrane assembly usually requires pH
adjustment and degasification before being transferred to the distribution
system. In an aeration column, the pH of the product water is elevated
from a value of approximately 5 to a value close to 7. In many cases, this
water is discharged to storage for later use.
SEAWATER DESALINATION BRINE DISPOSAL
Concentrate typically constitutes 90% to 95% of the total desalination
plant discharge volume. This byproduct of the seawater separation
process contains the minerals and other constituents which are removed
from the pretreated source seawater as well. The percentage of the total
volume of seawater converted into fresh water is referred to desalination
plant recovery. SWRO desalination plants are typically designed to
recover 45% to 55% of the source water as fresh product water. In simple
terms, a desalination system operating at 50% recovery collects two
gallons of source seawater to generate one gallon of fresh water and one
gallon of concentrate. The fresh water produced during the desalination
process has a very low mineral content typically 100 mg/l to 500 mg/L of
salinity in the form of total dissolved solids (TDS) Containing over 99%
of all source seawater salts and dissolved constituents, concentrate
mineral content is approximately 1.5 to 2 times higher than that of the
source.

pH
pH is the potential of H+ atoms available, ranging on a scale of 0 (acidic) to 14
(alkaline). The pH of intake water is often manipulated to make the desalination
process more effective when certain particles or temperatures are encountered, such as
increasing the pH to 10-11 to make the rejection of boron easier when water
temperatures are high (Voutchkov 2014). Before the concentrate is released, the pH is
usually adjusted to match the water body (Voutchkov 2014), but it may not be in all
locations, nor exactly match the ambient when adjusted. Even a slight pH difference
will generate different chemical concentrations that species may be temporarily or
constantly subjected to in the outfall location. The ocean has a stable overall pH of 8.1
today, which is down from a historic level of 8.2 due to ocean acidification (NG
2017). Since pH is a log scale, the lowering of 0.1 pH is a 25% difference in H+ ions
(NG 2017). Even this pH change is well known to have detrimental effects on species
because required ions, such as calcium from CaCO3 for building shells, are not as
readily available (NG 2017). Therefore, the pH differences of concentrate versus the
sea represent a problem for species, both in available required chemical compounds,
but also in toxic compounds that may be present in much greater concentrations than
species have adapted to biologically process.

Heavy Metals
Heavy metals are a potent type of toxic pollutant that will not break down. Another
concern is that the heavy metals undergo speciation, that is, an element, such as
copper (Cu+2), will immediately react with H2O to create different hydrolysis
compounds, such as Cu(OH)2, CuOH+, Cu(OH)3-, Cu(OH)4 +2 , and Cu2(OH)2 -2
(Jensen 2003). The presence of CO2(g) products, such as carbonic acid (H2CO3(aq)),
also reacts with copper to form CuCO3, Cu(CO3)2-2, along with even more compound
products (Jensen 2003). For example, CuSO4 is commonly used in RO, and the
soluble CuSO4 compound undergoes hydrolysis reactions, resulting in the many
copper products mentioned above (Matavos-Aramyan et al. 2017). Copper has a low
toxicity to species, but it will accumulate, and the higher levels from bioaccumulation
will negatively affect species (Chadha 2015). Depending on the pH of the system, the
concentrations of each species product can be calculated. However, the copper
example provides an insight into the complexities of heavy metal pollution. Each
chemical product has varying degrees of tissue absorption and effects on a species.
In the Arabian Gulf, research by Alshahri (2017) studied the concentrations of heavy
metals near outtake areas from desalination plants. The data was compared to similar
areas in the Gulf, and to standard levels of shale, which is the common local
geographic substrate (Alshahri 2017). That research provides strong support for
pollution from an anthropogenic source. Heavy metals may be introduced from the
metallic parts in the process (Alshahri 2017). Heavy metals can be very toxic to fauna,
causing “reduced growth, development, cancer, organ damage, nervous system
damage, and, in extreme cases, death” (Ogoyi et al. 2011). In flora, heavy metals,
such as copper, have also shown reduced growth and lower survival rates (Hanley
2017). One effect that is predictable is the bioaccumulation of toxins through trophic
levels, where toxins in water transfer to lipid cells (Molles 2016). In a polluted
environment, the primary producers (plants) absorb some toxins into their tissue, and
then the primary consumers eat the toxic tissues, accumulating a greater concentration
within the consumer’s tissue (Molles 2016). At the next trophic level, the secondary
consumers feed upon the primary consumers, increasing the toxin concentration
(Molles 2016). Each trophic level increases the concentration of toxins within the
species, leading to acute or chronic toxicity effects (Cooley et al. 2013). An example
of this is the commonly known problem of mercury in seafood. The toxic heavy metal
mercury bioaccumulates through each trophic level, increasing in concentrations that
.becomes harmful for top consumers to eat

Microbes
The diversity of species is less in extreme environments, as these conditions are often
for species that are fit for specialized niches. Microbes have been found in the
harshest of environments. Microbes are the quickest to respond to unfavorable
conditions, and a study by Van der Merwe et al. (2014) examined the differences in
microbial diversity between RO outfall locations and ambient locations. The outfall
point displayed the least number of microbes, and the trend showed an increase in
microbe quantity with greater distance from the outfall (Van der Merwe et al. 2014).
While the researchers conclude the differences not to be drastic, they recognize the
limit of their study and recommend pyrosequencing as being necessary to determine
species richness and evenness of microbes (Van der Merwe et al. 2014). The study is
also limited in determining the type of microbes, as various microbes have a range of
ecological benefits. The SWRO desalination plant used a common chlorination of
NaCl weekly (10 mg/L for 2-3 hr), and then NaHSO4 to de-chlorinate (0.3-0.5 mg/L),
along with consistent use of phosphonate as an antiscalant (3-5 mg/L) (Van der -
Merwe et al. 2014). The RO process and chemicals killed all phytoplankton and
almost all the bacteria, but 2 events/μL of bacteria were detected in the oncentrate
compared to 473 events/μL in the feed water (Van der Merwe et al. 2014). The small
number of bacteria that survive provide a constant propagule pressure of species,
considering that they have an advantage in the changed environment and may come
from an intake some distance away. The few microbes that survive may drastically
reduce the richness and evenness by dominating the new environment. The data does
support an effect of mortality on microbe quantity from the concentrate.
Marine Benthos
Marine benthos is those species inhabiting the seafloor. In a study comparing
concentrate effects in Bahrain by Naser (2015), there was a significant difference in
the microbenthic community between an MSF and RO plant of similar ecosystems. In
the MSF area, 371 individuals of 43 species were identified for a Shannon-Wiener
diversity score of 1.5±0.4, while in the RO area, 1403 individuals of 63 species were
identified for a Shannon-Wiener diversity score of 2.3±0.2 (Naser 2015). The
variance in the species community between the locations was also significant using a
non-metric multidimensional scaling analysis (ANISOM: R=0.541, P=0.001) (Naser
2015). A W statistic measuring disturbance displayed a trend of greater disturbance in
the MSF area (Naser 2015). Indicator species are useful for determining
environmental conditions. Polychaete species, an annelid worm, are often used as an
indicator (Giangrande et al. 2005), and presence of these species indicate organic-rich
conditions that stem from sewage or oil outfalls (Carregosa et al. 2014). In both RO
and MSF locations, polychaetes were the most abundant (Naser 2015), indicating
poor overall environmental conditions in both locations. There are a variety of marine
ecosystems, such as seagrass and coral reefs, that provide an important habitat for
marine species, renewable sustenance, and shelter for numerous species (Naser 2015).
The study by Peterson et al. (2016) found larger sand grain sizes due to the higher
flow from the outtake. A high rate of flow washes away the smaller grain sizes of
sand. Flora and fauna species rely on certain sediment conditions during their life
cycle. A slow rate of outflow could reduce washing away grain sizes. Maintaining
environmental habitats is crucial to maintaining species presence.

Energy consumption in RO
The major components of RO process that involve energy consumption
are shown in Fig. 3. These include:
(1) feed water intake;
(2) pretreatment;
(3) high pressure pumps (with and without energy recovery);
(4) post treatment; and
(5) product supply.
The feed water quality and the level of pretreatment play vital role in long
term performance of a membrane module. In some cases, where brackish
water or seawater has to be conveyed through a distance, the energy
consumption and costs associated with it can be significant.

Emissions from electricity generation vary by type of fuel/energy source

and by type and efficiency of electric power plants. The amount of CO 2
produced per kWh during any period of time will vary according to the
sources of electricity supplied to the electric power grid during that time.
Therefore, electricity-related CO2 emissions and CO2 emission factors
will vary hourly, daily, monthly, and annually.
SWRO CO2 Emissions
When assume the moderate daily capacity of seawater reverse osmosis
plant is about 50,000 m3 , for this plant consume about 150,000 kwh/d,
and the typical CO2 emissions per kwh equal (0.413 kg co2 / kwh),
therefore, the amount of CO2 indirect released by reverse osmosis plant
equal (22,612 tons of co2/year)

Energy consumption
Desalination plants require significant amounts of electricity and heat depending upon
the process, temperature and source water quality. For example, it has been estimated
that one plant producing about seven million gallons per day could require about 50
million kWh/yr., which would be similar to the energy demands of an oil refinery or a
small steel mill. For this reason, co-generation facilities provide significant
opportunities for efficiencies.

Disinfection Byproducts
Since desalinated waters are lower in Total Organic Carbon than most natural waters
it would be expected that the disinfectant demand and also disinfectant byproduct
formation would be relatively low, and this has been indicated in some studies of
trihalomethane production that have been reported. However, this could be
significantly affected by the type of blending water that is used post treatment to
stabilize the water. One of the factors to consider would be the amounts of brominated
organic byproducts that could be formed from predisinfection of salt waters
containing bromide, and from disinfection of blending waters, if bromide is
reintroduced to the finished waters. This is a concern since data is accumulating that
some brominated disinfection byproducts have greater carcinogenic potential than
many chlorinated byproducts such as chloroform. Indeed chloroform may not be
carcinogenic at all at levels typically found in drinking water. Since the TOC found in
seawater could be different than TOC in fresh waters, it is also possible that there
could be some differences in the chemistry of the byproduct formation reactions that
could lead to some different byproducts or different distribution of byproducts.

REF  nutdesalination

Environmental Impacts
Installation and operation of a desalination facility will have the potential for adverse
impacts on air, water/sea, and ground water and possibly other aspects. These should
be considered in environmental impact assessments, and their acceptability and
mitigation requirements would usually be matters of national and local regulation and
policies. Studies to examine these effects would usually be conducted at each
candidate site, and post installation monitoring programs should be instituted. A brief
partial listing of issues follows:
• Construction: Coastal zone and sea floor ecology, birds and mammals habitat;
erosion, non point source pollution.

• Energy: Fuel source and fuel transportation, cooling water discharges, air emissions
from electrical power generation and fuel combustion.

• Marine Environment: Constituents in waste discharges, thermal effects, feed water

intake process, effects of biocides in discharge water, and toxic metals, oxygen levels,
turbidity, salinity, mixing zones, commercial fishing impacts, recreation, and many
others.

Noise Impacts
Noise associated with the high-pressure pump in the desalination plant will be a
nuisance to nearby hospital and residences if noise is not contained within the plant.
Noise reduction or acoustic packages are recommended and should be installed to
reduce noise emitted from the plant. The noise limits at the boundary have been
specified as follows. A noise limit of 55 dBA measured as the equivalent continuous
sound pressure for one hour for the hours of 7:00 am to 10:00 pm (same noise level as
a refrigerator) and 45 dBA for the balance (same noise as a background suburban
area) as measured at the desal site boundary has been specified. Workers will be
required to wear proper hearing protection.

Risks of Brine Disposal to the Marine Ecosystem

Brine effluent is known to have adverse effects on benthic ecosystem. Due to
higher concentration of salt levels the effluent is denser and tends to sink to the
bottom when discharged, directly impacting the benthic organisms around the
discharged location. Brine discharge, associated with SWRO plants, has been
found to alter the benthic community and reduce the diversity of organisms.
High salinity, if allowed to persist within the water column, can also influence
water turbidity, disrupting primary production through the extinction of plankton
species39. The results of experimental exposure of corals to high salinity varies
widely depending on the species, the ambient salinity in experimental settings
from which they were collected and the exposure period. Available information
suggests that salinity tolerances in coral species depend on several factors
including the speed, magnitude and duration of salinity increase, ambient
salinities before the change, individual species tolerance levels, acclimatization
abilities and whether salinity changes are occurring simultaneously to other
stressors such as temperature and turbidity fluctuations.40
Beyond the demersal environment (i.e. close to the sea floor), concentrations of
nutrients and particulate organic matter progressively decrease although the
brine effluent with sewage plume provides a localized zone where salinity is
higher and concentrations of nutrient from plume are higher than in surrounding
waters. Fish are known to have acute chemical sensing capabilities and are
therefore likely to perceive concentrations of soluble nutrients and higher salinity
water. While it is not possible to predict what behavioral responses to these will
be, fish can avoid the plume and saline water if it is perceived as harmful. At the
depth of the outfall opening (30 m) coral cover was found to be less than 5%,
and most of the surface is comprised of sand and rock outcrops. No seagrass
habitat is present.46