Module 5

Digestive and
Urinary System
2007NSC Human Anatomy

Caitlin Healy
Weeks 9 and 10
Module 5 2007NSC
The Digestive and Urinary System Human Anatomy

Lecture 1a: Digestive System

Learning Outcomes
- Describe the overall function of the digestive system, and differentiate the gastrointestinal
tract from the accessory digestive organs
- Draw the major subdivisions of the anterior abdominal wall, and identify the organs located
in each region
- Explain the location and function of the peritoneum and peritoneal cavity. Define mesentary
- Differentiate between intraperitoneal and secondarily retroperitoneal digestive organs.
Name the mesentaries associated with the intraperitoneal digestive organs

Organs of the Digestive System

Activities of the Gastrointestinal Tract

- Ingestion
- Mechanical breakdown
- Mixing and propulsion
- Digestion (chemical)
- Absorption
- Elimination

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The Digestive and Urinary System Human Anatomy

The Peritoneum

The Mesentaries

- Hold organs in place, store fat, and provide a

route for blood vessels and nerves to reach
visceral organs
- Ventral mesentaries: faliciform ligament
and lesser omentum.
- Dorsal mesentaries: greater omentum,
mesentary, transverse mesocolon, and
sigmoid mesocolon

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The Digestive and Urinary System Human Anatomy

Intraperitoneal and Retroperitoneal Organs

Retroperitoneal Organs

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Module 5 2007NSC
The Digestive and Urinary System Human Anatomy

Lecture 1b: Histology of The Gastrointestinal Tract

Learning Objectives
- Describe the structure of smooth muscle fibers, and describe the appearance of smooth
muscle tissue
- Describe the four layers of the wall of the gastrointestinal tract

Smooth muscle fibres (smooth muscle cells)

Histology of the Gastrointestinal Tract

- The walls of the gastrointestinal tract have the same
four tissue layers
o Mucosa
o Submucosa
o Muscularis externa
o Serosa

Mucosa
- The mucosa, or inner lining is a mucous
membrane composed of:
o Epithelium
o Lamina propria
o Muscularis mucosae

Submucosa
- A thin meshwork of collagenous fibers, nerves,
and blood vessels
- Contains the submucosal plexus regulates
movements of the mucosa, vasoconstriction of
blood vessels, and innervates secretory cells of
mucosal glands

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Module 5 2007NSC
The Digestive and Urinary System Human Anatomy

Muscularis externa
- A double layer of smooth muscle: an inner
sheet of circular fibers, and an outer sheet of
longitudinal fibers
- Contains the myenteric plexus. This plexus
mostly controls gastrointestinal tract motility

Serosa
- A serous membrane composed of connective
tissue and simple squamous epithelium
- Superficial layer of portions of the
gastrointestinal tract that are suspended in
the abdominopelvic cavity
- Secretes a serous fluid

Histological Changes reflect functions of

various regions

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Module 5 2007NSC
The Digestive and Urinary System Human Anatomy

Lecture 1c: The Gastrointestinal Tract: Mouth and Pharynx

Learning Objectives
- Describe the gross anatomy and basic functions of the mouth, teeth, salivary glands, and
pharynx

Mouth
- Also called oral cavity or buccal cavity
- Lined with mucosa
- Formed by lips, cheeks, hard and soft palates, and
tongue
- Buccinator muscles and connective tissue lie
between the skin and mucous membranes of the
cheeks

Tongue
- Occupies the floor of the mouth
- Primarily skeletal muscle
- During chewing, the tongue constantly
manipulates food, mixes it with saliva, and
repositions it between the teeth.
- Only the vallate and fungiform papilla
contain the tastebuds
- Terminal sulcus marks the border to the
pharynx

Teeth
- Lie in sockets within the gum-covered margins of the
mandible and maxilla bones
- Mastication or chewing is performed by raising and lowering
the mandible
- Teeth tear and grind food, breaking it into smaller fragments
- Humans have two sets of teeth, or dentitions. There are 32
permanent teeth in a full set
- Classified according to their shape and function as incisors,
canines, premolars, or molars

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Module 5 2007NSC
The Digestive and Urinary System Human Anatomy

Salivary Glands

Pharynx
- From the mouth, swallowed food passes
posteriorly into the oropharynx and the
laryngopharynx
- Both of these are passages for food, fluids, and
inhaled air

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Module 5 2007NSC
The Digestive and Urinary System Human Anatomy

Lecture 1d: The Gastrointestinal Tract: Oesophagus and Stomach

Learning Objectives
- Describe the gross and microscopic anatomy and basic functions of the oesophagus and
stomach
- Relate the individual histological modifications in the wall of the stomach to the digestive
activities of those regions

Oesophagus
- Muscular tube that propels swallowed food to the
stomach
- Its lumen is collapsed when it is empty
- Begins as a continuation of the pharynx, and descends
through the thorax and passes through the diaphragm to
enter the abdomen
- Joins to the stomach at the cardiac orifice were a
sphincter acts to close off the lumen and prevent
regurgitation

Peristalsis

Stomach

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Module 5 2007NSC
The Digestive and Urinary System Human Anatomy

Rugae of mucosa

Histology of Stomach

Gastric pits

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Module 5 2007NSC
The Digestive and Urinary System Human Anatomy

Lecture 1e: The Gastrointestinal Tract: Small and Large Intestine

Learning Objectives
- Describe the gross and microscopic anatomy and basic function of the small and large
intestines
- Relate the individual histological modifications in the wall of the intestines to the digestive
activities of those regions

Regions of the small intestine

Wall of small intestine

Villi and microvilli

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Module 5 2007NSC
The Digestive and Urinary System Human Anatomy

Peristalsis and Segmentation

Duodenum

Histology of the Duodenum

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Module 5 2007NSC
The Digestive and Urinary System Human Anatomy

Histology of the Ileum

Regions of the Large intestine

Wall of the large intestine

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Module 5 2007NSC
The Digestive and Urinary System Human Anatomy

Histology of the large intestine

Rectum and Anal Canal

Defecation reflex

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Module 5 2007NSC
The Digestive and Urinary System Human Anatomy

Blood supply of the intestines

- Superior mesenteric
o Supplies lower duodenum, all of the
small intestines, and up to 2/3
transverse colon, and pancreas
- Inferior mesenteric
o Supplies rest of colon up to rectum
- Marginal artery of Drummond
o Connects (anastomosis) Superior
mesenteric with Inferior mesenteric

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Module 5 2007NSC
The Digestive and Urinary System Human Anatomy

Lecture 1f: The Accessory Organs: Liver, Gallbladder and Pancreas

Learning Objectives
- Describe the gross and microscopic anatomy of the liver
- Describe the hepatic portal system and its pathway through the liver
- Describe the gross anatomy of the gall bladder and pancreas
- Describe how the structural interactions between the accessory digestive organs facilitate
their collective functions

Anatomy of the Liver

Hepatic Portal Vein

Hepatic Portal System

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The Digestive and Urinary System Human Anatomy

Hepatic Portal Circulation

Histology of the Liver

Anatomy of the Gallbladder

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Module 5 2007NSC
The Digestive and Urinary System Human Anatomy

Anatomy of the Pancreas

Ducts of the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas

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Module 5 2007NSC
The Digestive and Urinary System Human Anatomy

Lecture 2a: Urinary System

Learning Objectives
- Describe the location and basic functions of the organs of the urinary system

Structures of the Urinary System

Functions of the Urinary System

- Principal functions:
o Excretion of wastes and foreign substances,
AND
o Regulation of blood ionic composition
o Regulation of blood pH
o Regulation of blood volume
o Enzymatic regulation of blood pressure
o Maintenance of blood osmolarity
o Production of hormones
o Regulation of blood glucose level

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Module 5 2007NSC
The Digestive and Urinary System Human Anatomy

Lecture 2b: The Kidneys

Learning Objectives
- Describe the location, coverings, and external gross anatomy of the kidney
- Describe the internal gross anatomy of the kidney
- Describe the path of blood through the kidney
- Identify the portions and cell types of the nephron, and explain the role of each in the
formation of urine

External anatomy of the kidneys

- Red-brown bean-shaped organs
- Lie retroperitoneal, from T11-T12 to L3
- Lateral surface is convex
- Medial surface is concave and has a
vertical cleft called the renal hilum
- Protective tissue layers: (deep to
superficial)
o Fibrous capsule
o Perirenal fat capsule
o Renal fascia with pararenal fat

Internal anatomy of the kidneys

- Two distinct regions:
o Renal cortex
o Renal medulla
- Renal medulla consists of several renal
pyramids
o Renal papilla
- Portions of the renal cortex that extend
between renal pyramids are the renal columns
- Renal sinus contains the renal vessels, nerves,
some fat, and urine-carrying renal pelvis and
calices

Blood supply of the kidneys

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Module 5 2007NSC
The Digestive and Urinary System Human Anatomy

The Nephron
- A nephron consists of two parts:
o Renal corpuscle
o Renal tubule
- The two components of a renal corpuscle:
o Glomerulus (capillary network)
o Glomerular capsule
- The fluid (filtrate) passes through the renal tubule,
which consists of:
o Proximal convoluted tubule
o Nephron loop (loop of Henle)
o Distal convoluted tubule

Basic functions of the nephron

Renal corpuscle
- Glomerulus
o Tuft of capillaries
o Supplied by an afferent arteriole and is drained
by an efferent arteriole
o Large quantities of fluid can pass from the
capillary blood to the hollow interior of the
capsular space
- Glomerular capsule
o Two layers; structural parietal layer and
visceral layer made up of branching cells called podocytes

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The Digestive and Urinary System Human Anatomy

o Filtrate passes into the

capsular space through
thin clefts between the
foot processes, called
filtration slits

Glomerular Filtration
- Filtered substances move from the
bloodstream through three
barriers:
o Fenestrations (pores)
o Basal lamina
o Pedicels (filtration slits)

Renal tubule
- Epithelial cells all along the renal tubule and
collecting duct carry out reabsorption and secretion,
but proximal convoluted tubule cells make the
largest contribution
- Distal convoluted tubule cells are specialised for
selective secretion and resorption of ions

Juxtaglomerular complex
- Structure that functions in the regulation of blood pressure
- Specialised area of contact between the terminal end of the thick ascending loop of the
nephron loop, and the afferent arteriole
- Granular cells act as mechanoreceptors
- Macula densa cells act as
chemoreceptors
- Extraglomerular mesangial cells
regulate glomerular blood flow

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Module 5 2007NSC
The Digestive and Urinary System Human Anatomy

Lecture 2c: Ureters, Bladder, and Urethra

Learning Objectives
- Describe the structure and function of the ureters and urinary bladder
- Describe the structure and function of the urethra in both sexes

Ureters
- Slender tubes, about 25 cm long
- Begin as a continuation of the renal pelvis,
and enter the posterolateral corner of the
bladder and running medially within the
bladder wall
o This oblique entry into the bladder
prevents backflow of urine
- Three basic wall layers
- Active transport of urine using peristaltic
waves
o Distension of the wall by urine
stimulates the muscularis to
contract

Urinary bladder
- Collapsible, muscular sac
- A full bladder is roughly spherical
- An empty bladder has the shape of an upside-
down pyramid
- Great distensibility makes it uniquely suited to
storing urine
o Empty: walls are thick and mucosa form rugae
o Full: Rugae flatten, and wall of bladder thins as it stretches
- Openings for both ureters and the urethra define a triangular region
called the trigone
o Clinical importance as infections tend to persist in this area
- Wall of the urinary bladder:
o Mucosa
 Transitional epithelium
 Lamina propria
o Muscularis (detrusor muscle)
 Inner longitudinal

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The Digestive and Urinary System Human Anatomy

 Middle cirucular
 Outer longitudinal
o Serosa

Urethra
- Tube leading from the bladder to the exterior of the body
- Five times longer in males than in females
- Divided into three segments in males, however, is only one short tube in females
- Urethra is a common duct for the urinary and reproductive systems in males, completely
separate in females

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Module 5 2007NSC
The Digestive and Urinary System Human Anatomy

Lecture 3a: The Endocrine System

Learning Objectives
- List the major endocrine organs, and describe their locations
- Describe how hormones are classified chemically
- Describe the basic interaction between hormones and their target cells
- Describe three mechanisms that control hormone secretion

Structures of the Endocrine System

Functions of the Endocrine System

- Principal function is internal regulation
- System of ductless glands that secrete messenger
molecules called hormones
- Two broad molecular categories:
o Amino acid-based hormones (amines,
peptides, or proteins)
o Lipid-based steroid hormones
- A given hormone influences only its specific target
cells

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Module 5 2007NSC
The Digestive and Urinary System Human Anatomy

Control of Hormone secretion

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Module 5 2007NSC
The Digestive and Urinary System Human Anatomy

Lecture 3b: Primary Endocrine Glands

Learning Objectives
- Name the basic divisions of the pituitary gland
- Explain how the hypothalamus controls secretion of anterior lobe hormones.
- Describe the structure of the posterior lobe and the functions of the hormones it releases
- Describe the anatomy of the thyroid gland. Define and describe the two hormones secreted
by the thyroid gland.
- Describe the anatomy of the parathyroid gland and the function of the parathyroid hormone
- Name the two divisions of the adrenal gland, and compare and contrast their structure and
the hormones they secrete
- Describe the endocrine functions of the pancreas

Pituitary gland

- The anterior lobe contains the hypothalamic-

pituitary portal system
o Secrete trophic hormones, which are
hormones that regulate the secretion
of other hormones
o The portal system enables the
hypothalamic hormones to be directly
delivered to their target cells in the
anterior pituitary
- The posterior lobe contains neural tissue
o Secrete two peptide hormones: antidiuretic hormone, and oxytocin
o Technically these are neurohormones

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Module 5 2007NSC
The Digestive and Urinary System Human Anatomy

Anterior Pituitary

Trophic hormones

- PRH = Prolactin releasing hormone

- PIH = Prolactin inhibiting hormone
o Prolactin
- TRH = Thyrotropin releasing hormone
o TSH = Thyroid stimulating hormone
 TH= Thyroid hormones
- CRH = Corticotropin releasing hormone
o ACTH = Adrenocorticotrophic hormone Cortisol
- GHRH = Growth hormone releasing hormone
- GHIH = Growth hormone inhibiting hormone
o GH = Growth hormone
- GnRH = Gonadotropin releasing hormone
o FSH = Follicle stimulating hormone
o LH = Luteinizing hormone
 Sex hormones

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The Digestive and Urinary System Human Anatomy

Feedback Loops
- Short loop negative feedback
o The trophic hormones released
from the anterior pituitary may
act through negative feedback
on the hypothalamus to
decrease its own release
o Prevents excess anterior
pituitary trophic hormone
- Long loop negative feedback
o The hormones released by
trophic hormone stimulation
generally feedback to the
hypothalamus (and often the anterior pituitary as well) to inhibit secretion of the
trophic hormone, thereby limiting its own secretion
o Provide negative feedback only to their own trophic hormones
Posterior Pituitary

Histology of the Pituitary

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The Digestive and Urinary System Human Anatomy

Thyroid Gland
- Largest purely endocrine gland of the body
- Two lateral lobes connected by the median
isthmus
- Copious blood supply from the superior and
inferior thyroid arteries
- Secrete two hormones; thyroid hormone and
calcitonin

Histology of the Thyroid Gland

- Composed of hollow, approximately spherical follicles
separated by connective tissue rich in capillaries
- The walls of each follicle are formed by a layer of
cuboidal epithelial cells called follicular cells
- The central lumen is filled with a jellylike substance
called colloid, where thyroid hormone is stored
extracellularly and in large quantities
- Lying within the follicular epithelium are
parafollicular cells
Parathyroid glands
- Small, yellow-brown glands that lie on the posterior surface
of the thyroid gland
- Distinct organs surrounded
by their own connective
tissue capsules
- Most people have two pairs
- Secretes parathyroid
hormone, which increases
the blood concentration of
calcium
Histology of the Parathyroid glands
- Composed of thick, branching cords composed of two
types of endocrine cells
o Small, abundant parathyroid cells
o Rare, larger oxyphil cells
- Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is essential to life, as low
calcium levels lead to lethal neuromuscular disorders

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The Digestive and Urinary System Human Anatomy

Adrenal gland
- Paired, pyramidal-shaped organs
perched on top of the kidneys
- Each adrenal gland is supplied by up
to 60 suprarenal arteries
- Essentially two endocrine glands in
one: adrenal cortex, and adrenal
medulla
- Responds to both short-term and
long-term stress

Stress

Pancreas
- Contains both exocrine and endocrine cells
- Endocrine cells are contained in spherical clusters called pancreatic islets
- Secrete two major hormones; insulin and glycagon
- Regulation of energy metabolism and blood glucose levels

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