WEEK 1: What is a Disaster?

According to United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR), “a serious disruption of the
functioning of a community or a society causing widespread humans material, economic or environmental
losses and impacts which exceeds -the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own
resources,"
Another definition was given by the World Health Organization, "any occurrence that causes damage,
ecological disruption, loss of human life, deterioration of health and health services, on a scale sufficient to
warrant an extraordinary response from the outside the affected community or area."
Concept of Disaster
A disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread
human, material, economic or environmental losses and impacts, which exceeds the ability of the affected
community or society to cope up using its own resources.
In contemporary academia, disasters are seen as the consequence of inappropriately managed risk. These
risks are the product of a combination of both hazards and vulnerability. Hazards that strike in areas with
low vulnerability will never become disasters, as is the case in uninhabited regions. (Quarantelli, 1998)
Developing countries suffer the greatest costs when a disaster hits—more than 95 percent of all deaths
caused by hazards occur in developing countries, and losses due to natural hazards are 20 times greater (as
a percentage of GDP) in developing countries than in industrialized countries. (Ballesteros, 2008)
Risk Factors
Every year, millions of people are affected by both human-caused and natural disasters. Disasters may be
explosions, earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, tornados, or fire. In a disaster, you face the danger of death or
physical injury. You may also lose your home, possessions, and community. Such stressors place you at risk
for emotional and physical health problems.
Stress reactions after a disaster look very much like the common reactions seen after any type of trauma.
Disasters can cause a full range of mental and physical reactions. You may also react to problems that
occur after the event, as they trigger and remind you of the trauma.
Risk Factors Underlying Disasters
A number of factors make it more likely that someone will have more severe or longer-lasting stress
reactions after disasters:
Severity of Exposure – The amount of exposure to the disaster is highly related to risk of future mental
problems. The highest risks are those that have gone through the disaster themselves. Next are those in
close contact with victims. The lower risk with lasting impact are those who only had indirect exposure,
such as news of the severe damage. Injury and life threat are the factors that lead most often to mental
health problems. Studies have looked at severe natural disasters, such as: the Armenian earthquake,
mudslides in Mexico, and Hurricane Andrew in the US. The findings show that at least half of these
survivors suffer from distress or mental health problems that need clinical care.
Gender and Family – Almost always, women or girls suffer from more negative effects than men or boys.
Disaster recovery is more stressful when children are present in the home. Women with spouses also
experience more distress during recovery. Having a family member in the home, who is extremely
distressed, is related to more stress to everyone. Marital stress has been found to increase after disasters.
Also, conflicts between family members or lack of support in the home make it harder to recover from
disasters.
Age – Adults who are in the age which ranges from 40—60 are likely to be more distressed after disasters.
The thinking is that being in that age range, they have more demands from job and family. Research on
how children react to natural disasters is limited. In general, children show more severe distress after
disasters rather than adults. Higher stress in the parents is related to worse recovery of children.
Other Specific Factors of the Survivors
Several factors related to a survivors' background and resources are important for recovery from
disaster. Recovery is worse if you:
1. We’re not functioning well before the disaster
2. Have had no experience dealing with disasters.
3. Have to deal with other stressors after the disaster.
4. Have poor self-esteem.
5. Feeling of being uncared.
6. Have little control of the events.
7. Lack the capacity to manage stress.
Other factors have also been found to predict worse outcomes:
1. Bereavement (death of someone close)
2. Injury to self or another family member life threat
3. Panic, horror, or feelings during the disaster
4. Being separated from family (especially among youth)
5. Great loss of property
6. Displacement (being forced to leave home)
7. Developing Countries
These risk factors can be made worse if the disaster occurs in a developing country. Disasters in developing
countries have more severe mental health impact than disasters in developed countries. This is true even
with less serious disasters. For example, natural disasters are generally thought to be less serious than
human-caused. In developing countries, though, natural disasters have more severe effects than do
human-caused disasters in developed countries.
Low or Negative Social Support
The support of others can be both a risk and a resilient factor. Social support can weaken after disasters.
This may be due to stress and the need for members of the support network to get on with their own lives.
Sometimes the responses from others you rely on for support are negative. For example, someone may
play down your problems, needs, or pain, or expect you to recover more quickly. This is strongly linked to
long-term distress in trauma survivors.
After a mass trauma, social conflicts, even those that have been resolved, may again be seen. Racial,
religious, ethnic, social, and tribal divisions may recur as people try to gain access to much-needed
resources. In families, conflicts may arise if family members went through different things in the disaster.
This sets up different courses of recovery that often are not well understood among family members.
Family members may also serve as distressing reminders to each other of the disaster.
Keep in mind that while millions of people have been directly affected by disasters, most of them recover.
Human nature is resilient, and most people have the ability to recover from a disaster. Plus, people
sometimes report positive changes after disaster. They may re-think what is truly important and come to
appreciate what they value most in life.
Generalization: Disasters can cause both mental and physical reactions. Being closer to the disaster and
having weak social support can lead to worse recovery. On the other hand, being connected to others and
being confident that you can handle the results of the disaster make mental health problems lesser.
Overall, human beings are resilient, and most survivors will recover from the disaster. For those with
higher risk factors, self-care and seeking help are recommended and to learn more about coping after any
kind of trauma.

WEEK 2: Nature of Disasters

Being aware of the nature of hazards and what these can do to people and other elements at risk is the
first step in every effort to minimize the effects of disasters. Before discussing details of hazard, exposure,
and vulnerability, first, we must get down to the nitty gritty aspects that make disasters what they are in
the first place.
Characteristics of Disasters
Disasters are inherently unexpected or come quickly with little or no warning. As a result, disasters (both
man-made and those resulting from natural events) cause widespread death, injury, and property damage.
There is indeed truth to the saying that those which can hurt you are those which you do not see coming.
This underscores the need for timely warnings and quality hazard-related information issued by competent
monitoring and warning agencies.
Disasters cannot be managed through normal means. These requires immediate and effective intervention
of both national government agencies (NGAs) and non-government organizations (NGOs) to help meet the
needs of the victims. Disasters create demands beyond the capacity of a government. During a disaster,
the situation is usually beyond the capabilities of local government units (LGUs) or national government to
respond and handle. When the President declares a state of emergency, response and recovery programs
should be formulated and implemented both by the public and non-government entities.
The following also characterize disasters:

 Knows no political boundary.

 Requires restructured and new responding organizations.
 Creates new tasks and requires more people as disaster responders.
 Renders inutile routine emergency response equipment and facilities.
 Worsens confusion in understanding roles of peoples and organizations
 Exposes lack of disaster planning, response and coordination. Inexperienced disaster organizations
often fail to see what their proper roles are.
Impacts of Disasters
Disasters often result from the failure to anticipate the timing and enormity of natural hazards. Little lead
time is left to take preparedness actions such as evacuation and strengthening of structures. Disasters do
not only result in deaths and destruction or damage to homes and buildings but also in the destruction of
crops and decreased quality or quantity of water. Apart from these effects, let us take a look at the other
impacts of disasters.

 Medical effects. The medical effects of disasters include traumatic injuries, emotional stress, epidemic
diseases, and indigenous diseases.
 Damage to critical facilities. Widespread disasters can destroy or damage facilities that may be critical
not only in maintaining a safe environment and public order, but also in responding to the disaster.
 Among these are communication installations, electrical generating and transmission facilities,
hospitals, water facilities (storage, purifications, and pumping), and other public and private buildings.
 Disruption of transportation. During the initial stages of a disaster, almost all surface means of
transportation within a community are disrupted by broken bridges and roads and streets that are
rendered impassable by landslides or floods. The restricted mobility of vehicles makes rescue and
other emergency operations doubly difficult.
 Economic impact. As a result of the destruction and damage to critical facilities, especially to
transportation and communication facilities, disasters disrupt economies as normal business
operations and other economic activities are curtailed. People must also leave their jobs and devote
their time to disaster-related activities, such as search and rescue, or to caring for survivors.
 Global environmental change. There is increasing evidence of global climatic change brought about by
both human activity and disasters. Although the long-range consequences are hard to predict, more
severe cyclonic storms, an increase in both flooding and drought, and a trend towards desertification
cannot be ruled out. The changes could result in a wide range of more hazards such as wildfires and
mudslides, reduced productivity in the oceans, and weakened immune systems of people and animals.
 Social and political impact. As a large segment of the population in developing countries consists the
poor, who are the most vulnerable whenever a disaster strikes, these countries are the most affected.
The poor are the most prone to disasters like earthquakes and typhoons because of the structures
they live in which are unreinforced and poorly built. These are also often located in marginal lands.
When disasters happen, social and political inequities are usually exposed, which may lead to major
political and social changes. One example is the formation of the state of Bangladesh from Pakistan.
The breakaway was triggered by a disaster from a tropical cyclone and storm surge which exposed
inequities in the treatment of East Pakistan by the more affluent West Pakistan.
The Devastating Impact of Natural Disasters
A region's vulnerability to natural disasters depends on multiple factors. The United Nations University
calculates the World Risk Index using four factors: exposure, susceptibility, coping capacities, and adaptive
capacities. Exposure is the amount of natural hazards an area is exposed to. Susceptibility refers to the
levels of infrastructure, poverty, and nutrition. Coping capacity is the ability to resist the impact of natural
disasters through disaster preparedness. Adaptive capacity is the capacity to make structural changes to
reduce the impact of natural disasters in the future. When taking into account all these factors, only one is
completely out of our control: exposure. The other three factors are all exacerbated by poverty.
Generalization: Natural disasters impose a great threat to humanity, other living organisms as well as to
properties and infrastructures. The abovementioned characteristics may give us an idea on how we, and
the government, deal with frequent occurring disasters. If not, the consequences may greatly affect the
population economically, socially, medically and others. Effects may vary from bad to worst depending on
the severity of the disaster, the vulnerability of the target area and other important factors. The different
impacts indicated such as medical, structural, environmental, economic, social and political impacts may
intensify their threats to human life. Hence, it must be noted that planning for preventive measures,
simulating precautionary drills for upcoming disasters and being knowledgeable enough for the things we
need to do before, during and after a disaster may help improve our resiliency against such natural
phenomena. Taking also into account the adaptive capacities, vulnerability and coping mechanisms of the
population in the target area may help in mitigating and surviving frequent disasters experienced by the
area.

WEEK 3: EXPOSURE AND VULNERABILITY

What is Vulnerability?
Vulnerability can be defined as the diminished capacity of an individual or group to anticipate, cope up,
resist and recover from the impact of a natural or man-made hazard, according to the International
Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Society.
According to the UN Office for Disaster Risk (UNDRR), the characteristics and circumstances of a
community, system, or assets that make it susceptible to the damaging effects of hazard.
Aligned with our example above, during the earthquake what have you done to protect yourself? Our
primary response is to duck down to the floor, take cover under a sturdy table or desk, and hold on until
the shaking stops. If we failed one important step then we are prone or vulnerable to hazards.
To sum up these two terminologies, exposure is the involvement of living and non-living things in a certain
phenomenon in a period of time. Vulnerability on the other hand, talks about to what extent you are
exposed to these phenomena wherein you may not able to cope up which leads to damage or harm.
Now we already know the definitions of exposure and vulnerability, who are more prone to exposure and
vulnerability?
Physical, economic, social and political factors determine people’s level of vulnerability and the extent of
their capacity to resist, cope up and recover from hazards. Clearly, poverty is a major contributor to
vulnerability. Poor people are more likely to live and work in areas exposed to potential hazards, while they
are less likely to have the resources to cope when a disaster strike.
In richer countries, people usually have a greater capacity to resist the impact of a hazard. They tend to be
better protected from hazards and have preparedness systems in place. Secure livelihoods and higher
incomes increase resilience and enable people to recover more quickly from a hazard. Also, vulnerability is
situation specific and hazard specific.
Examples of potentially vulnerable groups include:
1. Displaced populations who leave their residences collectively usually due to a sudden impact disaster,
such as an earthquake or a flood, threat or conflict, as a coping mechanism and with the intent to
return.
2. Migrants who leave or flee their residences and go to new places usually abroad to seek better and
safer perspectives.
3. Returnees- former migrants or displaced people returning to their homes.
4. Specific groups within the local population such as marginalized, excluded or destitute people.
5. Young children, pregnant and nursing women, un-accompanied children, widows, elderly people
without family support, and disabled persons.
Going further, let us take a look on factors that might contribute to exposure and vulnerability.
Social, Environmental, and Economic Dimensions of Exposure and Vulnerability
When a disaster strikes, casualties (deaths, missing persons, and injured people) and property losses and
damages are the first to be reported in tri-media. Long after a disaster, the effects to the other elements
assume greater attention. These are the consequences that cannot be measured or quantified as easily as
property losses or damages. Tangible and intangible losses fall under social, environmental, and economic
categories.
Terminologies: Social- is a dimension of exposure and vulnerability that covers a wide range of concerns
(including migration, social groups, health and well-being, education, culture, institutions, and governance
aspects) but demography is the most aspect. Population density maps are excellent indicators of exposure
and vulnerability.
Environmental- it is the physical aspects of exposure and vulnerability which refers to location and built
structures.
Here is a detailed list of the physical elements exposed to various hazards:
1. Essential Facilities
• Educational facilities
• Medical and healthcare facilities (hospitals and clinics)
• Emergency response facilities (fire station, police station and shelters)
• Government offices
• Recreational or tourist facilities (hotels, resorts, parks, public gardens, camping grounds and sporting
areas)
• Places of worship (churches or mosques)
• Banks and financial centers
• Markets and shopping centers
• Cemeteries
2. Industrial and High Potential Loss Facilities and Facilities Containing Hazardous Materials
• Dams and ponds
• Fuel reservoirs, pipelines and pumps
• Power generating plants and lines
• Multi-purpose hydropower plants, water tanks and lines
• Food processing facilities
3. Transportation Lifelines
• Highways, bridges, railway tracks and tunnels
• Bus facilities
• Port and harbor facilities
• Airport facilities and runways
4. Utility Lifelines
• Potable water facilities, waste water facilities, pipelines and distribution lines
• Oil and natural gas system facilities, pipelines, and distribution lines
• Electric power facilities and distribution lines
• Communication facilities and distribution lines
Knowing the definitions of exposure and vulnerability and factors that enhance these two, in what way we
will know the damage it may bring for us to be prepared? You’re right! Vulnerability is quantifiable and this
will alert us on how to prepare a forecasted disaster.
Factors to Consider to Assess the Level of Vulnerability of an Area

 Proximity to a Hazard Event

 Population Density near Hazard Event
 Capacity and Efficiency to Reduce Disaster Risk
 Building Codes and Disaster Policies
Categories of Vulnerability
1. Physical/ Material Vulnerability – when people live in hazard prone areas in buildings that offer a little
protection
2. Social/ Organization Vulnerability – when a household or community is unable to support the
disadvantaged people within.
3. Attitudinal/ Motivational Vulnerability – no cooperation towards authority, independent approach
What is Exposure?
Exposure is defined as the degree to which the elements at risk are likely to experience hazard events of
different magnitudes. According to the Geoscience Australia of the Australian Government, it is the
element at risk from natural or man-made event.
Let us take for example, an earthquake had hit an area where you are there. Then being in that area or
experiencing the earthquake is as simple as you are exposed to a natural disaster.
Always remember that,
• The concept of exposure and vulnerability are distinct.
• A community can be exposed but is not necessarily vulnerable.
Now, how can we reduce exposure?
Economic exposure in high-hazard areas is trending upwards. If we do not reverse this trend, disaster risk is
set to increase. We need to act now to reduce exposure and build capacity and resilience in these areas of
growing exposure. When it is not possible to avoid exposure to events, land use planning and location
decisions must be accompanied by other structural or non-structural methods for preventing or mitigating
risk. In the case of the Boxing Day 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, for instance, the only possible strategy to
save lives would have been to reduce exposure through timely evacuation, which depends on the
existence of reliable early warning systems and effective preparedness planning, and then to compensate
for loss through insurance of other risk financing instruments.
How about lessening the vulnerability?
Since we cannot reduce the occurrence and severity of natural hazards, reducing vulnerability is one of the
main opportunities for reducing disaster risk. Vulnerability changes over time because many of the
processes that influence vulnerability are dynamic, including rapid urbanization, environmental
degradation, market conditions and demographic change. Many of these factors are rooted in changing
local conditions, but the picture is incomplete without acknowledging the national and global socio-
economic and political structures that constrain local development opportunities.
Approaches to vulnerability reduction includes:

 Implementing building codes

 Insurance and social protection (risk)
 Emphasizing economic diversity and resilient livelihoods
 Knowledge and awareness raising
 Preparedness measures
“It’s important to be prepared by knowing science-based facts and its application, for what holds
tomorrow lies on our hands”
-N. Cammayo (2021)
GENERALIZATION: Exposure is defined as “the people, property, systems, or other elements present in
hazard zones that are thereby subject to potential losses”. Thus, understanding vulnerability and exposure
are fundamental to our understanding of risk. Together, increases in vulnerability and exposure dominate
the overall increase in risk observed worldwide over the past several decades, and therefore require
particular attention in the formulation of policies and actions to reduce disaster risk. Implementing an all-
hazards approach that incorporates natural and mad-made hazards (including technological and biological
hazards that can have cascading effects that transcend country boundaries) and incorporating all elements
of risk will require an integrated and collaborative approach across disciplines, sectors and institutions as
well as cooperation among science and technology S&T networks.
The table below summarizes exposure, vulnerability and hazards.

WEEK 4: CAPACITY
Elements Exposed to Hazards
PHYSICAL ELEMENTS. These are the elements that are tangible or can be visually seen. The main factors
and conditions associated with physical hazards include: body stressing; confined spaces; electricity; heat;
heights; noise; vibration. Body stressing is a collective term covering a broad range of health problems
associated with repetitive and strenuous work.
One of the best application of this is the recent cause of COVID-19 pandemic in the whole world. Wherein,
Health workers are at the front line of any outbreak response and as such are exposed to hazards that put
them at risk of infection with an outbreak pathogen (in this case COVID-19). Hazards include pathogen
exposure, long working hours, psychological distress, fatigue, occupational burnout, stigma, and physical
and psychological violence.
Another good application of physical hazard is in construction industry. This table shows the common
health hazards in the construction industry.
SOCIO- ECONOMIC ELEMENTS. These compromises the institutional and government system that dictate
the kind of well -being and life style of communities.
One application of this is the COVID-19 pandemic which is considered as a hazard in the economy. As the
UN’s Framework for the Immediate Socio-Economic Response to the COVID 19 Crisis warns that “The
COVID-19 pandemic is far more than a health crisis: it is affecting societies and economies at their core.
While the impact of the pandemic will vary from country to country, it will most likely increase poverty and
inequalities at a global scale, making achievement of SDGs even more urgent.
Another application is the political hazard. Wherein, three years after President Rodrigo Duterte took office
in June 2016, his “war on drugs” has killed thousands of people largely from impoverished urban areas.
Extrajudicial killings by police and their agents have continued on a regular basis, spreading from the
capital region, Metro Manila, into other cities and provinces. The impact of the “drug war” includes not
only loss of life but damage to the livelihoods, education, and the mental health of surviving family
members.
ENVIRONMENTAL ELEMENTS. These include the ecosystem and natural processes that are exposed to
hazard event. 4 major pollution (air, water, noise and soil), global warning (ozone layer is damaged),
deforestation (cutting of trees), soil erosion (topsoil is eroded).
CAPACITY – It is a combination of all strengths and resources available within a community, society, or
organization that can reduce the level of risk or effects of a disaster. Capacity may include infrastructure
and physical means, institutions, societal coping abilities, as well as human knowledge, skills and collective
attributes such as social relationships leadership, and management. Capacity may also be described as
capability.
CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT – The process through which individuals, organizations, and societies obtain,
strengthen and maintain the capabilities to set and achieve their own development objectives overtime.
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) is the United Nations' global development network.
It promotes technical and investment cooperation among nations and advocates for change and connects
countries to knowledge, experience and resources to help people build a better life for themselves. The
UNDP provides expert advice, training and grants support to developing countries, with increasing
emphasis on assistance to the least developed countries.
COPING CAPACITY – Coping capacity refers to the ability of people, organizations, and system, using
available skill and resources, to face and manage the adverse conditions, emergencies or disaster.
The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) is a strategic framework,
adopted by United Nations Member States in 2000, aiming to guide and coordinate the efforts of a wide
range of partners to: Achieve substantive reduction in disaster losses; Build resilient nations and
communities as an essential condition for sustainable development.
LINKS BETWEEN HAZARD, VULNERABITY, AND CAPACITY
Involves a participatory analysis of past patterns of hazards and present threats at the community level
(hazard assessment), combined with an understanding of the underlying causes of why hazard become
disaster (vulnerability assessment) and of the available resources an affected community uses to cope
with the adverse effects (capacity assessment).
GOALS OF HAZARD, VULNERABILTY AND CAPACITY ASSESSMENT (HVCA)
These are the different goals of HVCA; first is to identify the element at risk in the community and to
prioritize those elements that need to be protected. Second is to identify appropriate disaster
preparedness and mitigation responses which the community will include in their counter- disaster plan.
Third, to raise the community’s awareness about potential disaster risk and what they can do it. Fourth, to
provide disaster- specific information, which can be integrated in baseline studies for disaster mitigation
and development programs. Fifth, result can be used during emergency relief needs and draft appeals. And
lastly, repeating the HVCA after some time provides indicators to measure changes in people’s
vulnerability.
HAZARD, VULNERABILTY AND CAPACITY ASSESSMENT (HVCA)
The purpose of a hazard assessment is to specify the nature and behavior of the potential hazards and
threats people in the community.
These are the features of Hazard that need to be considered for selecting preparedness measures:
1. Hazard Type
2. Warning Sign
3. Forewarning
4. Speed of Onset
5. Frequency
6. When
7. Duration
Note: At this point, how do hazard risk differs from disaster risk? Well, disaster risk is the chance or
likelihood of suffering harm and loss as a result of a hazardous event. The probability of harmful
consequences or expected losses resulting from interactions between natural and man-made hazard and
vulnerable condition.
GENERALIZATION: Hazard is a phenomenon or can be a human activity the leads to destruction of the
environment, loss of life and services. It has three elements; the physical elements, socio-economic
elements and environmental elements. To reduce the level of risk or effects of a disaster, there is capacity
it is a combination of all strengths and resources available within a community, society, or organization.
Meanwhile, there is a process through which individuals, organizations, and societies obtain, strengthen
and maintain the capabilities to set and achieve their own development objectives overtime, which is the
capacity development. And also, coping capacity is the ability of people, organizations, and system, using
available skill and resources, to face and manage the adverse conditions, emergencies or disaster.
Moreover, people identify resources they rely on in time of crisis to reduce the damaging effects of hazard
and to secure the sustainability of their livelihood which is called capacity assessment. The HVCA have
different goals, these are; to identify appropriate disaster preparedness and mitigation responses which
the community will include in their counter- disaster plan, to raise the community’s awareness about
potential disaster risk and what they can do it, to provide disaster- specific information, which can be
integrated in baseline studies for disaster mitigation and development programs, result can be used during
emergency relief needs and draft appeals, and repeating the HVCA after some time provides indicators to
measure changes in people’s vulnerability. Lastly, disaster risk is the chance or likelihood of suffering harm
and loss as a result of a hazardous event. The probability of harmful consequences or expected losses
resulting from interactions between natural and man-made hazard and vulnerable condition.

WEEK 5: CONCEPT OF HAZARD

We know that hazard is a dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or condition that may cause
loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social
economic disruption, or environmental damage. That’s why hazard is considered as one of the factors that
causes risk. Before we discuss about risk, we must learn first the concept of hazard.
"Hazard" is a broad term that refers to anything that is a source of danger or interruption. The two main
types of hazards are safety hazards, which are things that can cause physical harm, and moral hazards,
which are financial risks. You should know these definitions if you are pursuing studies in health and safety
or financial or business management.
Hazards are the potentials for damage to man and his environment that may result from the occurrence of
natural events such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, floods, and storm surges. An event per se does not
constitute a hazard. It is only when man and his environment are threatened that these events can be
considered hazards. Without a threat to a population, the eruption of an isolated volcano remains an event
but when volcanic activity occurs close to or right at the center of a populated area, a mere event becomes
a hazard. The probabilities of occurrence of hazard events may be estimated. Floods, for example, have
been monitored and recorded over many years and so the likelihood of occurrence of these is known.
A hazard is a situation that poses a level of threat to life, health, property, or environment. Most hazards
are dormant or potential, with only a theoretical risk of harm; however, once a hazard becomes "active", it
can create an emergency. A hazardous situation that has come to pass is called an incident. Hazard and
possibility interact together to create risk.
Hazard is a threat. A future source of danger. Hazards are events that causes harm in different aspects. It
has the potential to cause harm to:
1. People – death, injury, disease and stress. These hazards affect humans biologically, physiologically,
mentally and psychologically. They cause hindrance for us to function well.
2. Human activity – economic, educational etc. When we experience pressure at work and in academics,
for some instances, we function poorly. Economic and educational activities become a hazard to
human activity when they impose distress, anxiety, and pressure thus limit ourselves to become
productive and functional.
3. Property — property damage, economic loss. These hazards may destroy physical elements such as
infrastructures, agriculture and entities.
4. Environment — loss fauna and flora, pollution, loss of amenities. Hazards are threats to our
environments, especially when disrupting the balance of nature. Environmental hazards may be
natural or man-made. Yet, whatever its type, it could impose grave danger to the present and future
generation as well.
Basically, a hazard is a threat or situation of a naturally occurring event with the potential for harm in
terms human/people, human activity, property and environment, or a combination of these. Some
examples of hazards are: earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, cyclones, floods, and landslides.
By its nature, a hazard involves something that could potentially be harmful to a person's life, health,
property, or the environment. One key concept in identifying a hazard is the presence of stored energy that,
when released, can cause damage. Stored energy can occur in many forms: chemical, mechanical, thermal,
radioactive, electrical, etc. Another class of hazard does not involve release of stored energy, rather it
involves the presence of hazardous situations. Examples include confined or limited egress spaces, oxygen-
depleted atmospheres, awkward positions, repetitive motions, low-hanging or protruding objects, etc.
Classification of Hazards
There are several methods of classifying hazard, but most systems use some variation on the factors of
"likelihood" of the hazard turning into an incident and the "seriousness" of the incident if it were to occur
A common method is to score both likelihood and seriousness on a numerical scale (most likely and most
seriously scoring highest) and multiplying one to the other to produce a comparative score (Risk= Hazard
(H) x Vulnerability (V) / Capacity (C)).
This score identifies hazards that require mitigation. A low score on likelihood of occurrence may mean
that the hazard is dormant, whereas a high score indicates it may be an "active" hazard. An important
component of "seriousness if incident occurred" is "serious to whom?" Different populations may be
affected differently by accidents. For example, an explosion has widely differing effects on different
populations, depending on the distance from the explosion. These possible effects range from death from
overpressure or shrapnel, to inhalation of noxious gases (for people downwind), to exposure to a loud
noise.
There are many ways of classifying hazards. One is to consider the extent to which hazards are natural.

 Natural hazards such as earthquakes or floods arise from purely natural processes in the environment.
 Quasi-natural hazards such as smog or desertification arise through the interaction of natural
processes and human activities.
 Technological (or man-made) hazards such as the toxicity of pesticides to fauna, accidental release of
chemicals or radiation from a nuclear plant. These arise directly as a result of human activities.
Hewitt and Burton (1971) itemized a variety of factors relating to damaging geophysical events, which
were not process-specific, including:
1. Aerial extent of damage zone
2. Intensity of impact at a point
3. Duration of impact at a point
4. Rate of onset of the event
5. Predictability of the event.
A typology based on Hewitt and Burton (1971) would appear as follows:
1. Aerial extent of damage zone
2. Intensity of impact at a point
3. Duration of impact at a point
4. Rate of onset of the event
5. Predictability of the event.
Modes of a Hazard
1. Dormant – the situation presents a potential hazard, but no people, property, or environment is
currently affected. For instances, a hillside may be unstable, with the potential for a landslide, but
there is nothing below or on the hillside that could be affected.
2. Armed – people, property, or environment are in potential harm’s way.
3. Active – a harmful incident involving the hazard has actually occurred. Often this is referred to not as
an “active hazard” but as an accident, emergency, incident, or disaster.
Types of Hazard and Examples for Each
(According to Hewitt and Burton 1971)

GEOLOGIC HYDROLOGIC ATMOSPHERIC BIOLOGIC MAN-MADE

Earthquakes
·         Vibration
·         Ground
Rupture
Floods – River Typhoons and Epidemic in Transport
·         Liquefaction and Coastal Hurricanes Humans Accidents
·         Earthquake-
induced
Landslide
·         Tsunami

Volcanic Eruption
·         Lava Flow
·         Volcanic Gas
·         Pyroclastic
Flow Industrial
Epidemic in
Wave Action Thunderstorms Explosions and
·         Tephra Fall Plants
Fires
·         Lahar
·         Volcanic
Debris
·         Avalanche

Accidental
release of toxic
Rainfall-induced Epidemic in chemicals,
Drought Excessive Rainfall
Landslide Animals radiological
material, biologic
material, oil, etc.

Rapid Sediment Rapid Glacier

Tornadoes Locusts Nuclear Accidents
Movement Advance

Collapse of Public
Subsidence Heavy Snowfalls
Building

Sinkhole Formation Hail WMD – Weapons

of Mass
Destruction
(Biological,
Nuclear,
 Incendiary,
Chemical, and
Explosives)

Blizzards
“Glaze” Storms
Freezing Rain Computer Virus
Impacts with Space such as the
High Speed Winds
Debris “Trojan Horse”
Extreme Program
Temperatures
Lightning

Use these notes to help you identify and assess hazards that might occur in your workplace:

 Chemical Hazards - Chemicals can affect the skin by contact or the body either through the digestive
system or through the lungs if air is contaminated with chemicals, vapour, mist or dust. There can be
an acute (immediate) effect, or a chronic (medium to long-term) effect from the accumulation of
chemicals or substances in or on the body.
 Noise Hazards - Excessive noise can disrupt concentration, interfere with communication, and result in
loss of hearing. High impact noises are particularly damaging. Noise can also mask out signals, affecting
communication or danger warnings.
 Radiation Hazards - Equipment such as radioactive gauging devices or the radioactive trace element
used in analytical chemistry produce Ionising radiation. Non-ionising radiation covers infrared
radiation (heat-producing processes), lasers, ultraviolet radiation (welding, sunlight), and microwaves
(high-frequency welders, freeze drying)
 Electrical Hazards - These include the risk of injury from all forms of electrical energy.
 Lightning Hazards - Inadequate lighting levels are a potential safety hazard. A common problem area is
the reaction time needed for the eyes to adjust from a brightly lit to a darker environment — such as a
forklift driver coming indoors from bright sunlight. Temporary lighting is often inadequate.
 Vibration Hazards - This includes whole-body vibration — for example, truck drivers, people standing
on vibrating platforms, and operators of 1110bile equipment — and also more localised vibration
effects front such equipment as hand tools, chainsaws, and pneumatic hammers.
 Temperature Hazards - Extreme cold or heat can cause problems such as tiredness, vulnerability to
infections or reduced capacity to work.
 Biological Hazards - These include insects, bacteria, fungi, plants, worms, animals and viruses. For
example, poultry workers exposed to bird feathers and droppings to which they are allergic can
contract a medical condition. Brucellosis is a well-known problem in New Zealand associated with
people handling meat and meat products infected with brucella. Hepatitis and the AIDS virus are other
biological hazards.
 Ergonomic Hazards - Ergonomics (the 'fit' between people and their work) covers risk of injury from
manual handling procedures, incorrectly designed desks or workstations, audio and visual alarms, and
colour coding control mechanisms.
 Physical Hazards - These include a wide range of injury risks— as diverse as being caught in or by
machinery, buried in trenches or hurt by collapsing machinery. This category also includes the hazards
from working in confined spaces, being hit by flying objects, caught in explosions, falling from heights
and tripping on obstacles
 Other hazards include stress, fatigue, the effects of shift work, and even assaults from other people.
GENERALIZATION: Hazards are the potentials for damage to man and his environment that may result
from the occurrence of natural events such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, floods, and storm surges. A
hazard is a situation that poses a level of threat to life, health, property, or environment. By its nature, a
hazard involves something that could potentially be harmful to a person's life, health, property, or the
environment. One key concept in identifying a hazard is the presence of stored energy that, when
released, can cause damage. There are different ways of classifying hazards indicated such as natural
hazards, quasi-natural hazards and technological (or man-made) hazards. There are variety of factors
relating to damaging geophysical events including aerial extent of damage zone, intensity of impact at a
point, duration of impact at a point, rate of onset of the event and predictability of the event but it is
important to note that these are not process-specific. Hazards are sometimes classified into modes or
statuses such as dormant, armed and active by identifying the hazards, assessing the risks involved and
then controlling or eliminating these risks, the consequences and/or likelihood of illness, injury and death
are reduced.

WEEK 6: EARTHQUAKE HAZRADS

What are Earthquake Hazards?
Earthquakes really pose little direct danger to a person. People cannot be shaken to death by an
earthquake. Some movies show scenes with the ground suddenly opening up and people falling into fiery
pits, but this just does not happen in real life.
The first main earthquake hazard (danger) is the effect of ground shaking. Buildings can be damaged by
the shaking itself or by the ground 'beneath them settling to a different level than it was before the
earthquake (subsidence).
Buildings can even sink into the ground if soil liquefaction occurs. Liquefaction is the mixing of sand or soil
and groundwater (water underground) during the when the soil underwent liquefaction. Shaking of a
moderate or strong earthquake. When the water and soil are mixed, the ground becomes very soft and
acts similar to quicksand. If liquefaction occurs under a building, it may start to lean, tip over, or sink
several feet. The ground firms up again after the earthquake has past and the water has settled back down
to its usual place deeper in the ground. Liquefaction is a hazard in areas that have groundwater near the
surface and sandy soil.
Buildings can also be damaged by strong surface waves making the ground heave and lurch. Any buildings
in the path of these surface waves can lean or tip over from all the movement. The ground shaking may
also cause landslides, mudslides, and avalanches on steeper hills or mountains, all of which can damage
buildings and hurt people.
Ground shaking is both a hazard created by earthquakes and the trigger for other hazards such as
liquefaction and landslides. Ground shaking describes the vibration of the ground during an earthquake.
Most earthquake damage results from the shaking caused by seismic waves passing beneath buildings,
roads, and other structures. For example, ground shaking may cause a store's exterior building walls to
crumble, injuring people, blocking sidewalks and streets and bringing down utility lines.
Earthquake cracks and fissures swallowing houses and similar structures? One have probably seen or heard
these scenes from folktales, fiction books, and movies. Can these things happen during an earthquake?
What do you think? Many of these accounts do not give us an accurate picture of what really happens
when the ground ruptures during an earthquake. Earthquakes occur by the sudden motion along
lithospheric breaks called faults. During strong earthquakes, faulting may reach the earth's surface as
ground ruptures.
These are some of the most basic questions that must be addressed to appreciate the nature of the danger
ground ruptures bring. The following activity should help us understand the nature of movement along
each type of ground rupture or surface fault.
The second main earthquake hazard is ground displacement (ground movement) along a fault. If a
structure (a building, road, etc.) is built across a fault, the ground displacement during an earthquake could
seriously damage or rip apart that structure.
Certain types of spreads and flows are designated as liquefaction phenomena. Ground shaking may cause
clay-free soil deposits to lose strength temporarily and behave as a viscous liquid rather than as a solid. In
the liquefied condition soil deformation may occur with little shear resistance. Deformation large enough
to cause damage to constructed works (usually movement of about ten centimeters) is considered ground
failure.
The occurrence of liquefaction is restricted to certain geologic and hydrologic environments, primarily in
areas with recently deposited sands and silts (usually less than 10,000 years old) with high ground-water
levels. It is most common where the water table is at a depth of less than ten meters in Holocene deltas,
river channels, and areas of floodplain deposits, eolian material, and poorly compacted fills.
Liquefaction describes the way in which soil liquefies during ground shaking. Liquefaction can undermine
the foundations and supports of buildings, bridges, pipelines, and roads, causing them to sink into the
ground, collapse or dissolve.
Types of Liquefaction Features
Understanding how liquefaction may be destructive led to the development of appropriate remedial
measures and development of affordable technologies. Ground failure types that are induced by
liquefaction:

 Flow Failures – Considered the most dangerous type of ground failure due to liquefaction, this occurs
on liquefiable slope material with steepness greater than 3 degrees. Blocks of overlying material slide
down so fast (as much as 10 kms/hr) that these reach distances tens of kilometers from the source.
 Lateral Spreads – Blocks or the broken pieces of the flat or very gentle ground (less than 3 degrees)
above a liquefied zone move laterally.
 Ground Oscillation – Due to the flat or nearly flat slope, the ground is unable to spread and instead
oscillates like a wave (back and forth and up and down). Water and wet sand are ejected through the
fissures that form conical-shaped mounds of sand at the surface (sand blows).
 Loss of Bearing Strength – Loss of strength of sediments resulting in tilting of houses and floating of
buoyant structures (e.g., fuel tank) that are anchored on the liquefied zone.
 Settlement Vertical – Readjustment or settlement within the liquefied zone as a result of dissipation of
pore-water pressure or the ejection of materials during the formation of sand boils (fountains of water
and sediment coming from the pressurized liquefied zone).
Everybody gets excited going to a favorite destination in summer time. Why not? The heat and humidity
can really take its toll on you that all you want to do is escape from it. You are almost there but a landslide
makes the long and winding road impassable. Going back so soon spoils all the fun, all because of a
landslide!
EARTHQUAKE-INDUCED LANDSLIDES
Do you know why landslides occur? When an object is released from one's grip, it yields to the pull of
gravity and must come down. Slope failure occurs when part of it changes from a stable to an unstable
condition. There are many processes or factors that cause a piece of the mountain slope to fail. Can you
name some of these? Do you know the main driving force of landslides? Regardless of how a landslide is
triggered, gravity is always the primary force that enables any landslide to occur. Many known devastating
landslides had been triggered by earthquakes.
Why Landslides Occur
A change in the stability of a slope can be caused by a number of factors acting together or alone. These
factors include:
1. Removal of support at the base of a slope which may be due to erosion at the toe of a slope by rivers
or ocean waves. That is why landslides may occur even on a hot summer day.
2. Groundwater (pore water) pressure during sudden changes in the water level of bodies of water
adjacent to a slope also acts to destabilize it.
3. Volcanic eruptions. Bulging of slopes and the force of volcanic material ejection or emission may also
contribute to slope instability.
4. Intense rainfall. Landslides are triggered due to the weakening 0f the slope material by water
saturation.
5. Snowmelt is also known to have the same effect as in saturating slope material.
6. Human interventions. Man contributes to the instability saturating of slopes through construction
activities (roads, buildings' and other facilities), quarrying/mining, and unabated logging and kaingin
which lead to the loss of deeply rooting trees and soil cohesiveness. What other human interventions
contribute to the problem of slope instability?
7. Slopes are prone to widespread failure during earthquakes because of the sudden shaking of hilly and
mountainous areas. What a prolonged period of rainfall cannot do to slopes is accomplished by a
strong earthquake that may last only less than a minute. This is demonstrated, for instance, by the
occurrence of landslides in many parts of the mountainous region of northern Luzon during the 1990
LUZON earthquake.
“Hazard has conditioned us to live in hazard. All our pleasures are dependent upon it. Even though I
arrange for a pleasure; and look forward to it, my eventual enjoyment of it is still a matter of hazard.
Wherever time passes, there is hazard. You may die before you turn the next page.”― John Fowles, Áristos
GENERALIZATION: Earthquake Hazards is a type of hazard on the strength of seismic activity, along with
such factors as local topographic and built features, subsurface geology and groundwater. A large
earthquake will always be followed by a sequence of aftershocks. Ground shaking, if an earthquake
generates a large enough shaking intensity, structures like buildings, bridges and dams can severely
damage and cliffs and sloping ground destabilised. Liquefaction occurs when waterlogged sediments are
agitated by seismic shaking. This separates the grains from each other, reducing their load bearing
capacity. It is also important to note that earthquakes may induced landslides especially in areas with
water-saturated soils. It may also result in falling rocks and debris that collie with people, buildings and
vehicles.

WEEK 7: EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC HAZARD

Perhaps you have already heard or witnessed the worst nightmares that anybody could imagine. In 2004
and 2011, hundreds of thousands of lives were lost by the combined effects of tsunamis occurring in the
Indian Ocean and in the Pacific Ocean. Yet if you go to the beach on a hot summer day, people seem to be
unmindful of the possible dangers waves might bring them.
What sort of waves might bring them? What sort of waves were those that were generated by the 2004
and 2011 earthquakes that originated in Indonesia and Japan, respectively? Are tsunami waves like the
seismic waves that are transmitted through the rocks of the earth’s outer layers? How different are these
from storm surges and from the ordinary waves that you see while bathing in a beach resort?
Tsunamis – Tsunamis are water waves or seismic sea waves caused by large scale sudden movement of the
sea floor, due usually to earthquakes and on rare occasions to landslides, volcanic eruptions, or man-made
explosions. Tsunamis differ from other earthquake hazards in that they can cause serious damage
thousands of kilometres from causative faults. They travel at incredible speeds as much as 900km/hr, and
the distance between wave crests can be as much as 500 km. As the waves approach shallow water, a
tsunami’s speed decreases and the energy is transformed into wave height, sometimes reaching as high as
25m, but the interval of time between successive waves remains unchanged, usually between 20 to 40
minutes.
Destructive waves that are generated by earthquakes and other events had been given numerous and
misleading names in the past. These types of wave are not rare occurrences in Japan. It is no wonder then
that Japanese term “tsunami”, which means harbour waves, is widely used even if it is also a misnomer.
Perhaps a term that reflects both the conceptual and operational sense of the phenomenon would be
preferred. Regardless of origin, all tsunamis are triggered by powerful events that can cause displacement
of large volumes of water.
Tsunamis are one of the most destructive hazards especially when a community is not prepared for it. They
wash away houses, people, animals, trees, and even sea vessels in the shore. They create flooding that may
become extremely destructive. “The large waves of a tsunami are preceded by initial lowering of the water
level beyond the lowest tide levels. This phenomenon resembles the low tides which may have led to
tsunamis being falsely called tidal waves. Tsunamis generated in distant locations will generally give people
enough time to move to higher ground. For locally-generated tsunamis, where you might feel the ground
shake, you only have a few minutes to move to higher ground (DepEd 2008).”
How does earthquakes generate tsunami wave?
Earthquake-generated tsunami is initiated through the pushing up of ocean water caused by the vertical
displacement of the seabed due to faulting.
A tsunami may occur when ocean water is displaced suddenly causing the formation of waves that reach
the shore in large heights. The movement of an offshore fault during an earthquake may trigger
displacement of ocean water if accompanied by an uplift of the seabed. This causes a piece of the seafloor
to be pushed up into the overlying ocean. The water above is displaced or pushed up, triggering waves to
be formed. Sufficient vertical displacement of the sea bottom is required to cause disturbance of a large
volume of water. If two pieces of crust merely slide past each other without a substantial vertical
component involved. (e.g., movement of transform fault), no tsunami will form.
There are two types of tsunami generation: (1) LOCAL TSUNAMI (2) FAR FIELD or DISTANT TSUNAMI. The
local areas The coastal areas in the Philippines especially those facing the Pacific Ocean, South China Sea,
Sulu Sea and Celebes Sea can be affected by tsunamis that may be generated by local earthquakes.
Local tsunamis are confined to coasts within a hundred kilometers of the source usually earthquakes and a
landslide or a pyroclastic flow. It can reach the shoreline within 2 to 5 minutes.
Far field or distant tsunamis can travel from 1 to 24 hours before reaching the coast of the nearby
countries. These tsunamis mainly coming from the countries bordering Pacific Ocean like Chile (1960 2010,
2015), Alaska in USA and Japan (2011). PTWC (Pacific Tsunami Warning Center) and NWPTAC (Northwest
Pacific Tsunami Advisory Center) are the responsible agencies that closely monitor Pacific-wide tsunami
event and send tsunami warning to the countries around the Pacific Ocean. (From PHIVOLCS, 2008,
Training Module School Teachers’ Seminar-Training on Natural Hazards Awareness and Preparedness
Focus on Earthquakes and Volcanoes)
Most tsunamis are generated during earthquake occurring along trenches, and along offshore active faults
or the offshore extensions of these. Not all submarine earthquakes cause tsunamis. A basic requirement is
the presence of a vertical component of fault movement that generates sufficient displacement and
disturbance of the surrounding water. Tsunamis are caused by events near the tsunami site of origin but
may also be caused by something that is not local to tsunami source.
EFFECTS OF TSUNAMI
Large tsunamis have devastating effects to life, property, and the environment. Our main concern is the
wholesale loss of live due to drowning, building collapse, impact of various kinds of debris, and sometimes
by electrocution.
The effects of tsunamis can be greatly amplified by the configuration of the local shoreline and the sea
bottom. Since a precise methodology does not exist to define these effects, it is important to examine the
historic record to determine if a particular section of coastline has been subjected to tsunamis and what
elevation they reached. An attempt should also be made to determine the possible amplifying effects of
the coastal configuration, even with the crude methodologies available (Nichols and Buchanan-Banks,
1974).
Seiches are phenomena similar to tsunamis but occur in inland bodies of water, generally in elongated
lakes. Seiche waves are lower (less than three meters high) than those of tsunamis and are oscillatory in
nature. They can cause structural failure and flooding in low-lying areas.
The figure above shows the damaged residential areas in Malabang, South Cotabato and in Zambaoanga
due to the Tsunami triggered by the 1976 Moro Gulf Earthquake.
Tsunami Mitigation Measures (Nichols and Buchanan-Banks, 1974; Blair, 1979)
1. Avoid tsunami run up areas in new development except marine installations and others requiring
proximity to water. Prohibit setting of high-occupancy and critical structures.
2. Place areas of potential inundation under floodplain zoning, prohibiting all new construction and
designating existing occupancies as non-conforming.
3. Where economically feasible, establish constraints to minimize potential inundation or to reduce force
of waves.
THESE MEASURES INCLUDE:
1. Constructing sea walls along low-lying stretches of coast and breakwaters at the entrances of bays and
harbors.
2. Planting belts of trees between the shoreline and the areas require ring protection.
3. Where development exists, establish warning and evacuation systems.
4. Set standards of construction for structures within harbors and known runup areas.
Landslides occur in a wide variety of forms. The focus of this section is on those induced by earthquakes.
Not only can earthquakes trigger landslides, they can also cause the soil to liquefy in certain areas. Both of
these forms of ground failure are potentially catastrophic. Earthquake-induced landslides occur under a
broad range of conditions: in steeply sloping to nearly flat land; in bedrock, unconsolidated sediments, fill,
and mine dumps; under dry and very wet conditions. The types of landslide movement that can occur are
falls, slides, spreads, flows and combinations of these.
EARTHQUAKE-INDUCED LANDSLIDES
Do you know why landslides occur? When an object is released from one's grip, it yields to the pull of
gravity and must come down. Slope failure occurs when part of it changes from a stable to an unstable
condition. There are many processes or factors that cause a piece of the mountain slope to fail. Can you
name some of these? Do you know the main driving force of landslides? Regardless of how a landslide is
triggered, gravity is always the primary force that enables any landslide to occur. Many known devastating
landslides had been triggered by earthquakes.
EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKE-INDUCED LANDSLIDES
Ground shaking is widely considered to be primary cause of damage to structures, loss of lives and injuries
due to earthquakes. There are numerous examples of earthquake where loss of lives due to earthquake-
induced ground failure have been significant (as much as 30 percent in the mountainous regions). Slides
can cause disastrous flooding particularly when landslide dams across streams are breached and flooding
may trigger more slides.
Types of Landslides
1. Topples – occurs suddenly when a massive part of very steep slopes break loose and rotate forward.
2. Rock Falls – involves chunks of detached rock that falls freely for some distance or bounce and roll
down the steep slope.
3. Lateral Spreads – are triggered by earthquakes and affect gentle slopes with less than 10 degrees
inclination. Slope material loses cohesion through liquefaction caused by the shaking during
earthquakes.
4. Flows – involve downslope motion of fine grained clay, silt, and fine sand made mobile by water
saturation. These include mudflows and earthflows and are common during rainy season.
TYPES OF FLOW

 Debris Flow – a form of rapid mass movement in which a combination of loose soil, rock, organic
matter, air, and water mobilize as a slurry that flows downslope.
 Debris Avalanche – this is a variety of very rapid to extremely rapid debris flow
 Earthflow – Earthflows have a characteristic "hourglass" shape. The slope material liquefies and runs
out, forming a bowl or depression at the head. The flow itself is elongate and usually occurs in fine-
grained materials or clay-bearing rocks on moderate slopes and under saturated conditions. However,
dry flows of granular material are also possible.
5. Slides – involve large blocks of bedrock that break free and slide down along a plana or curved surface.
6. Complex slides – are combinations of two or more types of movement
PRECAUTIONARY AND SAFETY MEASURES BEFORE, DURING, AND AFTER AN EARTHQUAKE
BEFORE:
Prepare survival kit. It should contain at least the following items:

 Bottled-water
 Canned goods and can opener
 First-aid kit
 Battery-powered radio
 Flashlight with working batteries
 Clothes
 Avoid placing breakables on high shelves or cabinets.
 Check regularly the stability of hanging objects such as ceiling fans and chandeliers. Make sure that
these objects are securely fastened. Change the screws or tighten them if you notice any slight
movements in these hanging objects.
 Fasten heavy furniture to the walls or floor. Tall cabinets can be secured by hooking them up against
the wall.
 Know the emergency numbers of the police, rescue, and fire departments. Make sure all family
members know these numbers.
DURING:
IF YOU ARE INDOORS:

 Stay calm. Duck under a sturdy table and protect your head. Remember the DCH (DROP, COVER and
HOLD on) method.
 DROP- whatever you are doing or whatever your position you are in, immediately drop down to the
floor.
 COVER - fined a sturdy piece of furniture, such as a table or a chair, and take COVER under it.
 Stay away from glass windows and doors, and heavy furniture.
 Watch out for falling debris or objects.
 Never use an elevator to get out of the building.
IF YOU ARE OUTDOORS:

 Stay clear of buildings, trees, light posts, power lines, and other structures that could fall or collapse on
you.
 If you are in a mountainous area, be alert for falling rocks and other debris. If you are in a coastal area,
move to a higher ground in case a tsunami follows after the earthquake.
IF YOU ARE DRIVING OR INSIDE A CAR:

 Slow down and turn on the hazard lights to alert other drivers. Stay inside the car until the shaking
stops.
 Avoid pulling up near or under bridges, overpasses, and power lines that may fall or collapse.
IF YOU ARE ON A BUS OR TRAIN:

 Hold tightly to the strap or handrail.

 Stay inside and listen to the instructions of the train staff. Wait until it is safe to go out of the vehicle.
AFTER:

 Expect aftershocks, so remain calm.

 Check yourself and other for injuries. Do not attempt to move any person who is seriously injured.
 Stay away from downed or damaged power lines.
 Check for damaged electrical wiring. Shut off the main electrical switch if you suspect any damage.
 Inspect gas tanks (by smell only) for leaks.
 Tune in to local radio stations and listen for any news and danger reports.
 Stay out of damaged buildings and area with broken glass and debris.
 Follow the emergency plan or instructions of building personnel if you are inside a building.
Volcanoes are opening in Earth’s crust that allows the energy from the interior of Earth to escape to the
surface. The energy in the magma (composed of molten rock from Earth’s mantle) that goes out are in the
form of lava, ash, and gas. There are volcanoes because Earth’s crust is broken up into tectonic plate
plates. Most volcanoes are found on the edges of plates where one plate connects to another. For
example, the Pacific Plate has active volcanoes strategically located on its edges, from which the term
“Pacific Ring of Fire” came about. Another example is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge located on the edge of the
Eurasian Plate and the North American Plate. This area also has volcanoes at the bottom of the Atlantic
Ocean.
POTENTIAL VOLCANIC-RELATED HAZARD
Volcanic hazard are volcano-related phenomena that pose potential threat or negative impact to life,
property, and the environment in a given period of time. The following are some potential volcano-related
hazards:

 LAHAR – this is an Indonesian term for the mixture of water, pyroclastic materials, and rock fragments
flowing down a volcano or river valley.
 ASH FALL – this is composed of bits and pieces of pulverized rock, minerals, and volcanic glass
generated from the volcanic eruption.
 PYROCLASTIC FLOW – this refers to the fast-moving fluidize mass of rock fragments and gases. When
pyroclastic flow travels down a volcano, it maintains a very high temperature, burning everything in its
path.
 VOLCANIC GAS – this consists of sulphur dioxide and hydrogen sulphide, which are poisonous and
hazardous to organism.
 LAVA FLOW – this is a molten rock that pours down from the slope of the volcano.
SIGNS OF AN IMPENDING VOLCANIC ERUPTION
1. Occurrence of tremors or increase in the frequency of small earthquakes.
2. Deformation on the ground manifested by changes in ground elevation and formation of crack or
opening.
3. Increase in the amount of volcanic gases and in temperature, which may indicated that magma has
gone closer to the surface.
4. Glow of volcanic crater due to the presence of magma.
5. Increase in steam emission coming from volcanic opening, fissure or hot spring.
6. Thermal changes within the surroundings of the volcano.
7. Drying up of spring and freshwater sources around volcano.
ARE YOU PREPARED?
BEFORE:
1. Stay updated with the local news.
2. Learn about your community warning system and emergency plan.
3. Prepare an emergency supply kit that should include the following:
 First aid kit
 Clean clothes
 Food and water
 Flash light
 Medicine
 Dust mask
 Goggles
 Sturdy shoes
DURING:
1. Follow evacuation orders issued by local authorities.
2. Wear long sleeve shirt and pants. And use goggles to protect your eyes.
3. Use dust mask to prevent inhalation of ashes and other volcanic particle.
4. Listen to battery – operated radio for the latest emergency information
AFTER:
1. Wait for the announcement from local authorities that is safe to return to your home.
2. Wear dust mask, gloves, goggles while cleaning the debris and ash fall.
3. Check electrical wirings and gas tank before using.
4. Boil water before drinking. And stay informed and listen for emergency updates and news.
GENERALIZATION: Earthquakes are natural ground movements that can pose further potential hazards
such as ground shaking, ground rupture, liquefaction, subsidence, tsunamis, or landslides. Earthquakes are
frequent in the Philippines because of its proximity to the Pacific Ring of Fire and its condition of having the
Philippine Fault System run along the midsection of the country. Because of this, active faults and areas
with high risk to earthquakes are constantly being monitored by PHILVOCS.
Tsunamis are one of the most destructive hazards especially when a community is not prepared for it. They
wash away houses, people, animals, trees, and even sea vessels in the shore. They create flooding that may
become extremely destructive. Tsunamis cause a wide variety of destruction.
Earthquake-induced landslide is a type of landslide that resulted from the vibration and stress originating
underneath the earth. There are different types of earthquake-induced landslide namely topples, rock falls,
lateral spreads, flow, debris flow, debris avalanche, earth flow, slides and complex slides. All these types
cause damage to property and to human life. For us to be prepared for such earthquake disaster, there are
different things we need to do before, during and after an earthquake.
Other than earthquake hazards, we also have volcanic-related hazards. These hazards are mostly due to a
volcanic eruption event. These hazards include lahar, ash fall, pyroclastic flow, ballistic projectile, volcanic
gas and lava flow. These are ejected during eruptions which may devastate nearby communities. For us to
be prepared for such earthquake disaster, there are different things we need to do before, during and after
an earthquake.