Chapter V - Algebraic Structures I

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups
Algebraic structures
NGUYEN CANH Nam1
1 Faculty of Applied Mathematics Department of Applied Mathematics and Informatics Hanoi University of Technologies [email protected]
HUT - 2010
NGUYEN CANH Nam
Mathematics I - Chapter 5
Agenda
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Binary operators Denitions and examples Properties of binary operators Groups Semigroups Concepts on groups Basic properties of groups Subgroups, normal subgroups Subgroups Normal subgroups
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Denitions and examples Properties of binary operators
Agenda
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Binary operators
Denition
Denition A mapping :SS S is called a binary operator on the set S. A binary operator on S thus assigns to each ordered pair of elements of S exactly one element of S. Binary operators are usually represented by symbols like , , +, , instead of letters f , g and so on. Moreover, the image of (x, y ) under a binary operator is written x y instead of (x, y ).
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Binary operators
Examples
Example Addition (+) and multiplication () in the set Z of integers, Z more generally, in the set IR of real numbers are the most familiar examples of binary operators. If A and B are subset of X , then A B, A B, and A B are also subsets of X . Hence, union, intersection and difference are all binary operators on the set P(X ). Again, given mappings f : X X and g : X X , their composition f g is also a mapping X X . Hence, the composition () of mappings is a binary operator on the set S = X X of all mappings from X to X .
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Binary operators
Closure
Denition Let be an operation on a set B and C B. The subset C is said to be closed under the operation provided that Whenever a, b C then a b C
Example Let Z be the set of integer numbers, O be the subset containing all Z odd numbers and E be the set containing all even numbers. Then a) Under ordinary addition E is closed. Actually, if a, b E (even) then a + b E (even). b) The set O is not closed under ordinary addition. Indeed, if a, b O (odd) then a + b is even, doesnt belong to O.
NGUYEN CANH Nam Mathematics I - Chapter 5
Binary operators
Closure
Example Let O be the set of rational numbers and dene Q B = {a + b 2 | a, b O }. Then B is closed under ordinary Q addition and multiplication on O . Q Actually, a1 + b1 2 + a2 + b2 2 = (a1 + a2 ) + (b1 + b2 ) 2 and (a1 + b1 2)(a2 + b2 2) = (a1 a2 + 2b1 b2 ) + (a1 b2 + a2 b1 ) 2 Example Given X Y , the power set P(X ) is closed under the operation of union and intersection on the power set P(Y ).
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Binary operators
Commutativity and Associativity
Denition A binary operation : S S S on the set S is

1
commutative if x y =y x for all x, y S
Addition (+) and multiplication () in the sets IN, Z and IR are Z commutative : a + b = b + a, a b = b a associative if x (y z) = (x y ) z for all x, y , z S Addition (+) and multiplication () in the sets IN, Z and IR are Z associative : a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c, a (b c) = (a b) c
Binary operators
Identity element
Denition Identity element. We say that a binary operation : S S S on the set S has the identity element e if e S and ae =ea=a Example Addition (+) in the sets IN, Z and IR has the identity element 0 : Z a+0=0+a=a Multiplication () in the sets IN, Z and IR has the identity element Z 1: a1=1a=a for all a S
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Binary operators
Inverse element Denition Inverse element. Let : S S S be an binary operation on the set S with the identity element e. Consider an element a S, element a S is called the inverse of a if aa =a a=e If every element of S has the inverse element we say that operator is invertible. Example Addition (+) in the sets Z and IR, all element a has the inverse element a : a + (a) = (a) + a = 0 Multiplication () in the sets Z , all element a = 1 has no inverse element. 1 Multiplication () in the sets IR, all element a = 0 has the inverse element a , 1 1 1 we write a , a = a=1 a a
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Binary operators
Remark a) If a binary operator denoted by + then the identity element is usually denoted by 0 and the inverse element of x is usually denoted by x called the negative of x. b) If a binary operator denoted by then the identity element is usually denoted by 1 and the inverse element of x is usually denoted by x 1 .
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Binary operators
Example Let Sym(X ) be the set of all bijections from on X . The composition operation has the following properties a) (f g) h = f (g h) (associative), b) The identity element is idX , c) For f Sym(X ), its inverse element the inverse map f 1 . d) The operation is not commutative since, as you might remember, in general, f g = g f .
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Semigroups Concepts on groups Basic properties of groups
Agenda
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Semigroups
Denitions
The simplest algebraic structure to recognize is a semigroups which is dened as follows. Denition Let S be a non-empty set on which there is dened a binary operation denoted by . For a, b S the outcome of the operation between a and b is denoted by a b. Then set S is called a semigroup if the following axioms hold (i) For all a, b S, a b S (closure). (ii) For all a, b c S, (a b) c = a (b c) (associativity). Any algebraic structure S with a binary operation + or is normally written (S, +) or (S, )
Semigroups
Examples
Example (a) The system of integers or reals under usual multiplication (or addition) (b) The set of mappings from a nonempty set S into itself under composition of mappings.
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Semigroups
Examples
Semigroups are common in mathematics and easy to create as the following examples show Example
1
Let S be the set of one element, S = {a}, say. Dene a a = a Then (S, ) becomes a semigroup. Let S be a non-empty set. Dene a binary operation on a b = b for all a, b S. S by We clain that S is a semigroup under this operation. Certainly, we have for ll a, b S, a b = b S. We also have for all a, b, c S, (a b) c = b c = c and a (b c) = a c = c and so (a b) c = a (b c). Thus (S, ) is a semigroup.
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Groups
Denition
Denition A group is a nonempty set G equipped with an binary operation that satises the following axioms (i) Closure : If a G and b G, then a b G. (ii) Associativity : a (b c) = (a b) c for all a, b, c G. (iii) There is an element e G (called the identity element) such that a e = a = e a for every a G. (iv) For each a G, there is an element a G (called the inverse of a) such that a a = a a = e. If the binary operation in a group (G, ) is commutative - that is, a b = b a for all a, b G - then the group is called commutative or abelian.
Groups
Examples
Example
1
Let Z be the set of all integers and let be the ordinary Z addition, +, in Z That Z is closed and associative under Z. Z are basic properties of the integers. What serves as the unit element, e, of Z under ? Clearly, since Z a = a e = a + e, we have e = 0, and 0 is the required identity element under addition. What about a1 Here too, since e = 0 = a a1 = a + a1 , the a1 in this instance is a, and clearly a (a) = a + (a) = 0. Moreover, it is a Abelian group. However, Z under multiplication is not a group. We know Z that, for example, the number 2 does not have an inverse element in Z Z.
Groups
Examples
Example 2 Let O be the set of all rational numbers and let the Q operation on O be the ordinary addition of rational Q numbers. As above, O is easily shown to be a group under Q . Note that Z O and both Z and O are groups under the Z Q Z Q same operation . They are all Abelian group. 3 Let IR+ be the set of all positive real numbers and let the operation on IR+ be the ordinary product of real numbers. Again it is easy to check that IR+ is an Abelian group under . 4 Sym(X ) with the composition of maps is a noncommutative group.
Groups
Order
A group G is said to be nite if it has a nite number of elements, otherwise it is said to be innite. If G is nite , the number of elements in G is called the order of G and is denoted |G|. An innite group is often said to have innite order. Example Z and O under multiplication are examples of groups of innite Z Q order.
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Groups
Properties
Proposition In a group, the identity element is unique; for an element x its inverse element is unique
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Groups
Properties
Theorem Let (G, ) be a group. (i) (Cancellation) Let a, b, x G be such that a x = b x. Then a = b. (Similary y a = y b, y G implies a = b.) (ii) (Unique solution of equation) Let a, b G. Then the equation a x = b has the unique solution x = a1 b. (Similary y a = b has the unique solution y = b a1 . Proof. (ii) Certainly a1 b is a solution since a (a1 b) = (a a1 ) b = e b = b where e is the identity. On the other hand, a x = b implies that aa (a x) = a1 b from which we conclude that (a1 a) x = a1 b and so x = e x = a1 b.
Groups
Properties
Theorem Let (G, ) be a group and a, b G. Then (a b)1 = b1 a1 .
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Subgroups Normal subgroups
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Subgroups
Denition
Denition Let H be a non-empty subset of the group (G, ) which is also a group under the operation . Then H is called a subgroup of G. Example
1 2 3 4 5
Two obvious subgroups of G are G itself and {e}. Z is a subgroup of (O , +) or (IR, +). Z Q 2Z = {2n | n Z is a subgroup of (Z +). Z Z} Z, H = {2n + 1 | n Z is not a subgroup of (Z +). Z} Z, Z is not a subgroup of (O , ) where O = O \ {0}. Z Q Q Q
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Subgroups
Criterion conditions
Theorem (Subgroup criterion) A nonempty subset H of the group (G, ) is a subgroup of G if and only if two following conditions hold (i) For all a, b H we have a b H. (ii) For all a H we have a1 H. Proposition The intersection of a collection of subgroups of G is also a subgroup.
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Cosets
Denition
Denition Let H be a subgroup of a group (G, ). The left and the right cosets of H containing g are gH = {g h | h H} respectively. Proposition Assume that H is a subgroup of the group (G, ). Then (i) For x G, x xH. (ii) If y xH then xH = yH. (iii) The cosets of H form a partition of G. (iv) xH = yH if and only if x 1 y H.
and
Hg = {h g | h H}
Normal subgroups
Denition
Denition A subgroup H of a group G is called a normal subgroup of (G, ) if for all x G, h H we have x h x 1 H. In this case we write H 0 G. Example
1
Let G be a group and e is the identity element of G. Then G and {e} are normal subgroups of G. If G is an Abelian group then any subgroup H of G is a normal subgroup.
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Quotient group
Denition
Let H be a normal subgroup of (G, ). Put x = xH for x G. On the set G/H = {xH | x G} = {x | x G} we dene an operator as follows x y = x y. Then this is a binary operator. Proposition Assume that H is a normal subgroup of G. G/H with the above operator id also a group, called the quotient group.
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Quotient group
Example
Example Let Z be the set if integers, m be a x natural number, Z mZ = {mn | n Z Then mZ is a normal subgroup of the Z Z}. Z additive group Z and the quotient group Z Z Z/mZ = {0, 1, , m 1} where k = {mn + k | n Z Z Z}.
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Chapter V - Algebraic Structures I

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Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Denitions and examples Properties of binary operators

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Denitions and examples Properties of binary operators

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Denitions and examples Properties of binary operators

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Denitions and examples Properties of binary operators

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Denitions and examples Properties of binary operators

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Denitions and examples Properties of binary operators

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Denitions and examples Properties of binary operators

Denition A binary operation : S S S on the set S is

commutative if x y =y x for all x, y S

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Denitions and examples Properties of binary operators

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Denitions and examples Properties of binary operators

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Denitions and examples Properties of binary operators

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Denitions and examples Properties of binary operators

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Semigroups Concepts on groups Basic properties of groups

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Semigroups Concepts on groups Basic properties of groups

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Semigroups Concepts on groups Basic properties of groups

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Semigroups Concepts on groups Basic properties of groups

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Semigroups Concepts on groups Basic properties of groups

NGUYEN CANH Nam

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Semigroups Concepts on groups Basic properties of groups

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Semigroups Concepts on groups Basic properties of groups

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Semigroups Concepts on groups Basic properties of groups

Binary operators Groups Subgroups, normal subgroups

Semigroups Concepts on groups Basic properties of groups

NGUYEN CANH Nam