Psychodynamic – Freud and Jung

History

Psychodynamic therapy is a worldview of paradigm. The idea started when Charcot saw hysterical
symptoms as a result of organic weakness, which led to splitting the conscious. According to Charcot,
you can fix this with hypnosis. Breuer also treated hysteria, but with talking freely. Freud said that
not everyone was suggestable enough for hypnosis and treated with free association, which was a
counterindoctrination -> he used uncomfortable thoughts instead of suggestion.

The seduction theory is about problems being the root of sexual trauma, and drive theory is based on
Darwin and is about libido/physic energy and includes the pleasure principle, which is when a tension
is reduced. The structural theory is about the ID, ego and superego.

Breuer – who treated hysteria – hired Jung to measure the response time of emotionally charged
words, which they called emotional complexes. Jung said that Freud was too one-sided about the
unconscious, and sexuality not the only thing for motivation.

Overview

Psychodynamic therapy is based on the principles of psychoanalysis -> unconscious motivation,

defences, that we are ambivalent about changing and the therapeutic relationship.

There are a couple of basic concepts, including: the unconscious = impulses, wishes and memories
that are seen as a threat (according to Brenner this is a compromise between wishes and fear of
consequences), fantasy = which motivates behavior and shapes experience, and regulates self-
esteem and affect, masters trauma and provides a feeling of safety, primary and secondary processes
= primary is instinctive and not sequential, secondary is conscious. Defensive mechanisms, such as
intellectualization, projection, reaction formation and splitting, transference from the past to the
current relationships, which is an opportunity to explore unresolved things from the past and now a
2-person approach, in which they are co-participants instead of a blank screen.

Personality

Personality is based on 3 theories:

1. Conflict theory, in which there are several styles with wishes and conflicts:
a. Obsessional is a conflict between obedience and defiance and uses intellectualization
b. Hysterical is a wish for intimacy
c. Phobic states that anxiety arises from sexual
d. Narcissistic is because of a fear of abandonment
2. Object relations theory, in which the environment in early life is very important, especially
important figures. According to Klein, we become mature when we merge the instinct to love
and aggression. According to Faibairn, internal objects establish when it withdraws from
external reality.
3. Developmental arrest model, which states that mothers are important. Subjective
omnipotence is when a mother will satisfy wishes and creates a distinction with reality.
When a mother is unresponsive, you will create a false self. It states that it is optimal when
you get gradual, limitations and optimal disillusionment, and that failure is needed for a
coherent self.

Psychotherapy
The goal is to understand and resolve unconscious conflicts, that are believed to be the source of
distress and problematic behaviours. They believe that our thoughts, feelings and behaviors are
influenced by unconscious forces, such as early life experiences, repressed memories and unresolved
conflicts.

The therapist and client work together to explore thoughts, emotions and experience through
therapeutic alliance, with a focus on identifying unconscious patterns and underlying conflicts. They
support in developing more adaptive ways, that can lead to greater emotional well-being and
improved relationships. The therapist provides a safe and supportive environment, in which the
client can explore and change, and in which they make a construction of the past and present.

Transference-countertransference-matrix is a totally of interactions. Also intersubjectivity is

important: the analytic dyad is that 2 minds produce a emergent product, and this is about learning
that relationships are flexible and not the same as in childhood. You can use enactment, in which you
play out a mental scenario when a client unconsciously brings in a pattern of behavior or relationship
dynamic, which they experience in past or current relationships.

For contemporary psychodynamic therapy empathy is crucial for alliance. According to Kohut, is
helps to make sense of own experience. Also clarification, support and advice is now important to
promote trust in themselves, which is against the original ideas of Freud.

Applications

Psychodynamic therapy is typically long-term, but short-term is available and also effective.
However, long-term is better for overall outcome, target problems and personality functioning. It can
be used for a variety of issues, including depression, anxiety, personality disorders and relationship
difficulties. However, it is not very useful for immediate relief, and some will think it is too long or
frequent, or too threatening. According to the book it is suitable for neurotic people, high ego
strength and cohensiveness, and those who have a capacity for selfreflection.

Psychoanalytical / Jungian – collective + future

History

Jung thought that his teacher were to optimistic, and was drawn to Romanticism, which was more pessimistic,
focus on occult and wholeness. Goethe, Kant, Schiller and Nietzsche based the idea of that people are made of
opposites. Nietzsche came up with the Shadow, persona and archetypes.

Jung thought that our way of looking at things is conditioned by what we are. He also talked about women a
lot. Now, we are rethinking the anima and animus. The trainings are long and there is a unity of the big 3:
Freud, Jung and Adler.

Jung emphasises just like Freud the exploration of the unconscious, but more broad: people have a conscious,
personal unconscious and collective unconscious. It is based on the belief that people have a natural drive
towards wholeness (individuation), and that health depend on the integration of all aspects of the self –
including the unconscious and conscious.

The collective conscious is a repository of shared experiences and inherited psychic material, that is common to
all humans -> it includes archetypes. These archetypes are symbolic representations of human experience and
behavior (such as the Hero or wise old man), which can be accessed through dreams, myths and other cultural
symbols.

Complexes are emotionally charged patterns of thoughts, feelings and emotions that are tied to specific
experiences and situations. These patterns can become unconscious and have a negative impact. You can
notice this by defence mechanisms like projection and repression, and needs to be confronted with.
Personality

Jung thought that the conscious understanding comes from the encounters of reality and the observation of
others. If these are incongruent, you perceive this as abnormality.

The self is a archetypal energy that orders and integrates personality, and the goal is personal development.
When you are an infant, you start as a whole, which degenerates in subsystems and they need to be
reintegrated. The self consists of the persona, which shields the ego – what you believe yourself to be – and the
personal shadow. The shadow is what you could be, but what the ego denies. It comes in dreams as the same
gender and is collective.

The task in the first half of life is to strengthen the ego, take a place in the world and relationships and to find a
duty. After that, individuation is needed to become a whole: the assimilation of the shadow and the integration
of the anima/animus.

According to Jung you respond to the world as an introvert or extravert. There are 4 types: the thinker who
values rules, names and theories, the feeler who values reality, the senser who uses senses to grasp reality and
the intuitive who uses hunches to penetrate the past- and future reality.

According to Jung development comes through tension, and everything will eventually turn into opposites:
enantiodromia. Any excess will compensate. Transcendent function is when symbols/images form bridges
between the opposites. The mandala is the symbol of wholeness and the center of personality.

The development of the conscious comes from the total emerge with mother, and the splitting of the mother in
good and bad. A firm ego is when you integrate the mother- and father world. Psychopathology emerges
mostly from problems with mother-child interactions, but it can be made worse by other stressors. It is a
frustrated urge toward wholeness.

Psychotherapy

There are a couple of tenets: the psyche is self-regulating, the unconscious has a creative and compensatory
component, alliance plays a major role in self-awareness and healing and personality growth occurs at many
stages. Now growing is seen as early childhood experiences, verbal interpretation and present behavior.

Neurosis is a disturbance in equilibrium.

There are a couple of stages in psychoanalytical therapy:

1. Confession = secrets, empathy and non-judgemental → emotion

2. Elucidation = transference and dreams/fantasies to infantile origins
3. Education = active and health promoting role → integration into group, changing behavior for ego
needs

If this not works -> individuation.

4. Transformation = self actualization, which values unconscious and conscious

Jungian therapists use a variety of techniques to explore the unconscious, including dream analysis (window
into unconscious), active imagination and sandplay therapy. Just like Freud, they use a therapeutic relationship
as a way to explore and integrate unconscious material.

Transference has multiple stages including: conscious that projection is theirs, discriminate personal and
collective unconscious, stop idealizing the therapist and true evaluation of the therapist to connect. Also active
imagination is used, in which the mind is cleared and you need to concentrate. Interact and express this
creatively. You need to have ego strengthen before this. Dreams are seen as the window to the unconscious,
but dream analysis is different than with Freud. You let the patient explore it, and look for a role a dream máy
play in the conscious attitude. However, this can block therapy because the patient is stuck. You can see this
through observation. There are different types of dreams: the initial dream which is a sign for therapy, the
recurrent dream which are mirroring complexes and repressed traumas, shadow dreams which are violent and
dreams about the therapist -> unaware of fear transference.

Jung emphasizes the importance of individuation, which is the lifelong process of becoming a whole and
integrated individual. This process involves recognizing and integrating unconscious aspects, developing a
personal identity and establishing a sense of meaning in life.

Application

You can use psychoanalytic therapy for all kinds of problems: common life problems such as anxiety,
depression, midlife crisis and low-self esteem, but also more severe disorders. This completely depends on the
therapist.

Mostly it is 1-2 times a week, and can be individual, but also in groups and families. Other forms are
body/movement therapy (body stores, active imagination through movement and therapist mirrors), art
therapy (unconscious through dreams or active imagination), sandtray therapy (miniature world to express
trauma), child analysis (child picks up everything), PTSS (healing through repetition) and psychosis (meaning
behind it).

Adlerian – Individual - social, inferiority, life-style

Adlerian therapy is based on the idea that people are motivated by social interest or a sense of
belonging, and the need to contribute to the common good. It focuses on individual uniqueness and
their social context, rather just symptoms and problems. It is a optimistic, teleological approach, with
holism: the whole person in the social network. People are creative actors and co-creators. Also
phenomenology, in which they can differ in perceiving what they are born with -> curse or gift. It is
also idiographic, in which the specifics are more important.

It emphasises the importance of early childhood experiences and their impact on personality and
behavior. According to Adler, people are driven by their desire to overcome feelings of inferiority and
achieve a sense of competence and mastery, you always want to go from a minus to plus situation. It
aims to help and overcome their feelings of inferiority and develop a sense of empowerment and
social interest.

It includes the social field theory, in which the main tasks of life are work, community and love. If you
avoid these life tasks you have psychopathology -> safeguarding operations. The concept of Acting as
if, is a map representation of reality which includes self-concept, self-ideal, worldview and ethical
convictions. If the maps do not match the terrain, is causes stress. They used lifestyle-interviews for
this. Also, self-fulfilling prophecy comes from Adler.

History

This was a reaction to the materialistic perspective. Aristotle saw people as animals, Kant common
sense, Nietszche ‘’will to power’’, Shakespear mismatch between characteristics and demands and
Freud the role of childhood.

Adler thought different about women than Freud. Freud saw women as inferior because of a lack of
penis and no oedipal stage. Adler saw symptoms as a result of exercise control. They also thought
different about repression: Freud saw it as necessary to function, but Adler saw repression only
needed when you are not using drives, or refusal of social living. Also a big difference is that Adler
thought the unconscious does not exist.

Personality
Adler believed that we have a temperament which is genetic but modified through learning and
socialization. Personality is also through socialization. We use traits, temperament and psychological-
and biological processes to find a place in the social matrix.

For the self-concept, self-ideal, worldview and ethical convictions they used lifestyle-interviews,
which consists of: degree of activity (energy for problem solving), organ inferiority (somatic takes
over, sympathetic protect weaker and psychic blind -> painter. Also birth order (1 perfectionist,
second rebel, middle pleaser, young attention and old lender). Also family values and atmosphere
and parenting style -> democratic good.

Common sense is share with others, and private logic is unique.

Psychotherapy

Goals are fostering community feelings, decrease feelings of inferiority, lifestyle more adaptive,
changing faulty motivation and destructive values, encourage quality and acceptance and helping to
be a contributing member.

The treatment plan is stabilization of crisis, medical and somatic interventions, short-term and long-
term goals and ancillary supportive services. Stages are relationship building which is mutual but
client expert, investigating dynamics in which you go from private to common sense and the initial
interview with nomothethic info such as general problems and current info, interpreting lifestyles
which is idiographic and consists of memories before 10, family constellation, faulty promises and
strengths, and last reorientating when the lifestyle summary is accepted.

Adlerian therapy emphasizes the therapeutic relationship, that explores the clients beliefs, goals,
values and develop strategies. They use modelling for empathy, goal alignment, mutual discovery
and encouragement, guessing for feedback, speeding up and OK to be imperfect, pattern
recognition, task setting to generalize to real world, encouragement, early recollections to be aware
of the present and dream interpretation to reflect recent concerns. They use questioning to see what
is avoided, who is affected and use The question: What would be different?. Also family sculpting:
how they are, how you like and how symptoms move, confrontation and spitting in the soup: so they
feel spoiled.

Techniques include exploring family history, lifestyle and social context, as well as goal setting,
encouragement and re-education.

Application

You can use it for many sorts and settings. It can be individual, but also couples lifestyle matching,
family treatment and groups. There is a difference between counselling and therapy, in which
therapy is more complex.

However, Adlerian therapy is difficult to research because it has a wide range of techniques,
idiographic aspects and complex problems. But many aspects have been validated.

Client-centred – Rogers – therapeutic relationship, expert

Client centred therapy emphasises the importance of the therapist creating a supportive and
empathetic environment, with an emphasis on the capacity for self-direction and growth.

The therapist listens actively and reflects feelings and experiences, without judgement or
interpretation. Also atmosphere of unconditional positive regard, empathy and
congruence/acceptance.
The personhood is that people are architects of their own lives, and so the therapist has a non-
directive attitude. Human nature is nomothetic, but also idiographic because they have a unique
temperament. Because of their uniqueness, therapy can not be predicted and so it is not manualized.
It is through the assimilation of experience that congruence (wholeness) is achieved. Clients often
come because they lack positive self-regard: the locus of evaluation changes, and becoming less self-
focused and more flexible.

History

The diagnostic, manualized treatments did not work well. The Rankian theory had the same critique.

Personality

The experience is the private world, and reality is perceived. People have a tendency to actualizing,
which is a dynamic process motivated by the tendency to maintain and hence themselves. This can
be distorted by the environment -> SDT.

The self, self-concept and self-structure are organized, consistent, conceptual gestalt of the
composed I or me. Symbolization is becoming aware of experience. Psychological maladjustment is
when there is congruence or absence of sensory- and visual experiences and their self-concept. The
organismic valuing process is ongoing, and freely relies on evidence of their own senses to make
valuable judgements. The fully functioning person can readily assimilate organismic experiencing and
who is capable of symbolizing these ongoing experiences in awareness.

Psychotherapy

The core is that the client is incongruent, the therapist congruent + the 3 principles. The process
begins with trying to understand the world, and questions with recognition and acceptance.
Conditions of worth is when good behavior is conditional.

Zimring is that person becoming is only through interactions with others in a specific culture -> you
need to strengthen the subjective world.

The goal is to help client become more self-aware and self-accepting, and develop more
understanding of own experiences and behavior. This can lead to greater personal growth, improved
relationships, and greater sense of well-being.

Application

It is often used to treat a variety of concerns, including depression, anxiety and relationship issues. It
is effective in developing self-esteem, self-awareness, self-acceptance.

The thing is that the relationship heals, and there is no diagnosis and unique. According to the book it
is not for severe disorders, and a lack of focus on political context.

Treatment is focus on constructs instead of labels. You can use play therapy when no self-realization,
group therapy, classroom teaching, intensive group in which they respond with empathy and peace
and conflict resolutions – feelings in stead of stereotypes.

Dodo bird verdict = therapist most, and dodo bird conjecture = factors in common.

Evidence is that therapeutic and extra therapeutic are equal, and that there are large pre-post
changes which are stable.
Behavior

Cognitive

Existential – ultimate concerns

Existential therapy is a way of deep humanistic thinking, that explores the dilemmas that individuals
face -> the ultimate concerns. It is based on existentialism, which emphasises the search for meaning
and purpose in life, and the freedom and responsibility. The therapist provides a supportive and non-
judgemental environment, and work towards greater self-awareness and personal growth.

Coherence = sensemaking, purpose = direction, significance = value

Enlightenment -> scientific → industrial.

The ultimate concerns are Death, freedom, isolation and meaninglessness. When there is an
underlying crisis, someone experiences symptoms. For freedom (and responsibility) we use Gods to
remove the burden. For death we use methods such as projecting ourselves into the future and gods,
can lead to narcissistic behavior but also let us live life as fully as possible.

The goals are to gain deeper understanding of values, beliefs and motivations, as well as developing a
greater awareness and acceptance of their own mortality. The therapist is seen as a fellow traveller.

History

Epicurus said that death concerns are not conscious, and there is also symmetry in this: nothing
before birth, and nothing after death. Nabokov said that life is a crack of life between darkness, and
St. Augustine said that the self is only born in the face of death.

Existential therapy is developed by Satre and Marcel, but the central foundation by Nietzsche with
guilt and hostility and by Kierkengaard with anxiety and depair. They reacted to the mechanical
approach. Binswanger combined existentialism with psychotherapy with a phenomenological
approach. Yalom did the first textbook and Frankl logotherapy -> will, freedom, meaning and
responsibility.

Personality

This is based on Freuds’ conflicting forces, but they replaced the drive for the awareness of ultimate
concerns. So awareness ultimate concerns -> anxiety -> defense.

According to Existential therapy anxiety is normal, and you have to accept non-being.

1. Freedom = we differ in willingness. Impulsity avoids wishing by failing to discriminate

between them, and compulsity is unconscious driven demands
2. Isolation = we escape through fusion to avoid personal growth. Compulse sexuality.
3. Meaning = personal narratives
4. Death = specialness and ultimate rescuer

Psychotherapy

The therapist is affected by ideological system, and helps with self-experience and self-actualization.
The goal is not to eliminate, but reduce because it is normal. The process is:

1. Freedom = identify avoidance, in line with wishes, remove affect blocks

 2. Isolation = develop meaningful relations. Hard when lack of experience, and unhealthy when
avoid being alone
3. Meaning = listen, become aware. Solution is engagement
4. Death = awakening is signs of mortality, milestones etc. anxiety is the amount of unlived life.

Empathy is a connecting tool, dreams for inner world, transparency,

Application

It can be helpful for issues like anxiety, depression, grief, relationships problems, but also greater
clarity and direction in lives. Evidence that relationships heals. Difficult for people who adopted
religious systems.

Gestalt – awareness, contact here and now, experimentation,

boundaries
Gestalt focuses on present and importance of awareness and personal experience. It is based on the
notion that people must be understood as whole beings, rather than a collection of individual parts.
It is based on the field theory which is contextual and the paradoxical theory of change – the more
one tries to be the more he stays the same. Awareness does not cover unconscious wishes, but it is
in the here and now. It is similar to client centred, but the Gestalt is more active and more likely to
tell more about their own feelings.

History

The Perls integrated unconscious motivation with holism. Lewin applied principles.

Personality

This is ecological and no full objectivity. Boundaries have a dual function: connecting and separating
people. The connection of boundaries meets needs, and the separation creates autonomy and
protects intrusion. When the need to connect is blocked you experience isolation, when you have
need to withdraw confluence, when taken in without awareness introjection, attributed to another
projection, turned into 1-person is retroflection. People are self-regulating organisms, who are
motivated to solve problems. This is healthy when you are aware of shifting need states.

We have creative adjustment: balance between changing environment and adjusting. The gestalt
formation cycle is that a need becomes figural and you act on it, and there becomes a new figure.

Anxiety comes from futurizing or unsupported breathing.

Psychotherapy

Therapy needed when you can not self-regulate. What and how, here and now method. New sense
of self is perspective taken seriously and aware of old is phenomenological. You begin with needs,
description of therapy and the clarification of awareness. Then feelings, current needs, strengths and
weakness. Awareness begins when both begin to relate and understand. Important is to experiment:
try this and see what happens.

The therapist and client work together to explore thoughts, emotions and behaviors in the present.
Techniques can be role-playing, guided fantasy and empty-chair. Also focusing, enactment, body
awareness and loosening and integrating techniques.
The goal is to help develop greater self-awareness and self-acceptance, and to integrate different
aspects of themselves into a whole. It is often used to treat a variety of mental health issues,
including anxiety, depression and relationship problems. Second order awareness is that you become
conscious about awareness process.

You can use it to anyone the therapists understands.

Family
Family therapy is based on the idea that problems within a family are best understood and treated
within the context of the system. In 1960 the family became the locus of pathology. It is like gestalt,
but each part is also more than the whole. Reciprocal causality is how they influence each other, and

Homeostasis is the stable environment, which they want to restore at crisis with learned
mechanisms. This feedback can be negative with attenuating effect, but also positive by accelarting.
The family has subsystems, which may be determined by sex, generation, family function and
sometimes long-term coalitions. These systems are: parental which is effective when nurturance,
guidance etc, spousal which is effective when secure and commitment and sibling, where they
negotiate and compete. Boundaries separates the systems: rigid is restrictive and little contact,
diffuse is overinvolved, and difference between open and closed. The reality depends on the living
system perspective and is subjective. Family is part of a greater context.

History

Adler said that context can influence personality, and Sullivan said that schizo is product of
relationships. Acckerman symptom displacement within family and Bell role playing into family group
therapy. Bateson noticed the importance of interaction flow and the back-and forth patterns with
law of cybernetic (second order = when therapist helps define problem it influences goals and
outcomes) and theory of human communication. Double-blind and complementary and symmetric
relationships.

In 1950 schizo foundation with double-blind communication patterns: when you receive
contradictory messages and you can’t say anything about it.

Marital skew is dominant is accepted. Marital schism = divorce threat, undermines children.
Mystification = denying what child believes.

Psychotherapy

Relatiogram = most important, most often think about and who will miss you most often

Belonginogram = most important groups

Family problem + goals. Therapeutic alliance. Assessment & first hypotheses. History family,
genogram, life chronology.

Reframing (positive), paradocical prescriptions/double-blind (voluntary), enactment (role), family

sculpting, circular questioning, cognitive restructuring (interpretation), miracle question,
externalization.
Lecture

Responsibility for failure lies within family -> treatment resistance. Therapist co-actor and new
system, NOT neutral anymore and not expert but facilitator, collaboration and authenticity.

Family is autopoietic system -> self-organized and self-maintained, capable of self-management en

creation.

Systems far from equilibrium, can create and change new organizations

Interdepdences between observing and observed systems. Self-reference.

Positive
We lost sight of the positive, we also want more joy, satisfaction, zest and courage. Flourishing is a
state of positive emotions, meaning, good work and relationships. Goal is to learn to function well
with dysphoria or distress.

Gratitude is a positive emotional response that we perceive on giving or receiving benefit from
someone.

Awe is perceptual vastness: something much larger than the self and a sense of disorientation: need
for accommodation. It is overwhelming and when they experience this they feel a sense of
connection to something larger than themselves!

Without forgiveness we feel worse, depression, PTSD and addiction.

Some genes are stable, some are malleable like happiness.

PERMA = positive emotions, engagement, relation, meaning, accomplishment + character strength

and symptoms as golden mean = full life.
Multicultural