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3
Principles of
Atatürk and
History of Turkish
Revolution II
Editor
Prof.Dr. Zülal BALPINAR
Authors
CHAPTER 1,5,6 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Birten ÇELİK
CHAPTER 2,7,8
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Nesim ŞEKER
CHAPTER 3,6
Assist.Prof.Dr. Şefika Akile Zorlu DURUKAN
CHAPTER 4,6
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Nalan TURNA
Director of Center for Research and
Development in Learning Technologies
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Alper Tolga Kumtepe
Textbooks Production Coordinator

Lecturer Erdem Erdoğdu
Graphic and Cover Design

T.C.
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Halit Turgay Ünalan
ANADOLU
UNIVERSITY
Proof Reading
PUBLICATION
Lecturer Ayla Balcı
NO: 3883
Assessment Editor
FACULTY OF
Asuman Ergün
OPEN EDUCATION
PUBLICATION NO: 2685
Typesetting and Composition
Dilek Özbek
PRINCIPLES OF ATATURK
Halil Kaya
AND HISTORY OF TURKISH
Saner Coşkun
REVOLUTION II
Kağan Küçük
Handan Bağ
ISBN: 978-975-06-3506-9
Yasin Özkır
Copyright © 2019
by Anadolu University
All rights reserved.
This publication is designed and produced

based on “Distance Teaching” techniques.
No part of this book may be reproduced or stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any
means of mechanical, electronic, photocopy, magnetic
tape, or otherwise, without the written permission of Anadolu
University.
First Edition
Printed at ANADOLU UNIVERSITY PRESS
Eskişehir, Republic of Turkey, March 2019

Contents
Basic Concepts,
The Birth of
Scope and
CHAPTER 1 the Turkish CHAPTER 2
Methodology of
Republic Economics
Introduction ................................................... 3 Introduction ................................................... 47
The Peace Treaty of Lausanne and its Economic Goals as Stated Durıng the Turkish
Consequences ................................................ 4 War of Independence .................................... 47
The First Phase of the Lausanne Peace The Economic Congress of Izmir ......... 48
Conference ............................................. 5 The Constraints of the Treaty of
İzmir Economic Congress .................... 7 Lausanne ................................................ 49
The Second Phase of the Lausanne Peace Economic Developments from
Conference ............................................ 7 1923 to 1929..................................................... 50
Abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate .... 10 The Great Depression and the Rise
The Basic Principles and Laws of Turkey: the of Ètatism ....................................................... 53
1921 and 1924 Constitutions ......................... 12 Initial Responses to the Great
1921 Constitution (Teşkilât-ı Esasiye Depression ............................................. 53
Kanunu) ................................................. 12 The Free Republican Party and
1924 Constitution (Teşkilât-ı Esasiye its Criticism of Economic Policies ........ 54
Kanunu) ................................................ 14 Ètatism and Economic Development
Honoring and Accepting April 23 as a between 1932 and 1939 ......................... 56
National Day ......................................... 17 War Economy and the Fall Of Ètatism ....... 60
The Republican Regime in Turkey ............... 17 The National Protection Law
The Establishment of the Republican (Millî Korunma Kanunu) ...................... 60
People’s Party (RPP) ............................ 17 Redefinition of Ètatism ........................ 61
Proclamation of the Republican
Regime ................................................... 19
Ankara: The Capital City of the Turkish
Republic ................................................. 24
Power Struggles in the Early Republican Era
and Multi-Party Experiences ........................ 25
Political Groups in the TGNA .............. 25
Multi-Party Experiences in the Early
Republican Era (1924-1930) ................ 28
An Assassination Attempt against
Mustafa Kemal in İzmir ........................ 33
iii
Reforms and
Nation-Building Atatürk: His Life,
CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 4
in the Early Ideas, and Ideals
Turkish Republic
Introduction: Defining Characteristics Introduction.................................................... 111
of the 1920s and the 1930S ........................... 73 Atatürk’s Background.................................... 111
Significant Reforms and Changes Childhood................................................ 111
in the Turkish Republic ................................. 74 Education................................................ 112
The Overall Target of Reforms and Military Career....................................... 113
Changes: 1920s and 1930s..................... 74 Mustafa Kemal and the War of
Major Reforms and Independence......................................... 116
Decisive Changes.................................... 75 Mustafa Kemal’s Presidential Years..... 121
Nation-Building Efforts and Collective Mustafa Kemal’s Final Years, His Death,
Identity Formation: Cultural Nationalism and Thereafter........................................ 123
During the 1930s ............................................ 78 The Speech (Nutuk)....................................... 126
The use of History and Language in Principles......................................................... 130
Identity Formation................................ 79 Republicanism (Cumhuriyetçilik) ........ 131
Creating Nation-building Tools and Secularism (Laiklik)............................... 132
Institutions............................................. 81 Nationalism (Milliyetçilik).................... 134
Public Education: Raising the Youth Statism (Devletçilik).............................. 136
for the Nation................................................. 86 Populism (Halkçılık) ............................. 137
List of Major Reforms and Regulations Revolutionism (İnkılapçılık )................. 139
in the Field of Education....................... 87 Atatürk’s Legacy............................................. 141
The Law for the Unification of In Conclusion ......................................... 144
Education and its Implications............. 89
The Infiltration of Rising Cultural
and Ideological Formulations
into Curricula.......................................... 89
Re-organization of
Higher Education .................................. 91
Women and Nation-Building in the
Early Turkish Republic................................... 92
Judicial Framework................................ 92
The Representation and Visualization
of Women by the Regime .................... 93
Ethnic Roots and Nationalization
of Equality in the Official Rhetoric....... 94
Dress Code and Conduct ...................... 95
Limits of Emancipation......................... 95
Transition to the 1940s:
Modification and Adjustment ...................... 96
Economy................................................. 96
Diplomacy .............................................. 96
Politics..................................................... 97
Ideology ................................................. 98
Education................................................ 98
iv
Turkish Foreign
Turkey and
CHAPTER 5 Policy During CHAPTER 6
World War II
the Atatürk Era
Introduction ................................................... 155 Introduction ................................................... 197
The Turkish Foreign Policy During the World War II: Causes and Facts ................... 198
Post-Lausanne Period: Major International The Battle Fronts of World War II....... 203
Challenges in the 1920s ................................ 155 The End of World War II ...................... 206
The Mosul Question and the Frontier Conferences Held During World War II..... 207
Treaty of 1926 ....................................... 157 Turkish Foreign Policy During WWII ......... 210
The Greek and Turkish Population Turkish Foreign Policy from
Exchange ................................................ 158 1939 to 1943 ........................................... 211
Ottoman Debts ..................................... 162 The Critical Years, from 1943 to 1945... 213
Turkish Relations with Former State and Society in Turkey During
Enemies, Neighboring States, and World War II ................................................. 217
Other States ........................................... 162 State Measures for Economic
International Efforts to Preserve Peace in the Regulation ............................................. 217
Interwar Period: 1920 and 1930 .................... 166 The Social Sphere: Alienation and
Locarno Pact .......................................... 166 Discontent ............................................. 220
Turkey’s Entrance to the Kellogg-
Briand Pact ........................................... 169
The Disarmament Policy in the
World ..................................................... 169
The Treaty of Nyon .............................. 170
Turkey’s Foreign Policy in the 1930s and her
Active Participation in the Regional Politics
and Peace: The Balkan Entente (Pact) and the
Sadabad Pact .................................................. 173
The Balkan Entente (Pact) (1934) ....... 173
The Sadabad Pact (1937) ....................... 175
Adherence to Law and Turkey’s
Contribution to World Peace and its
Rewards ......................................................... 176
Bozkurt-Lotus Case ............................... 177
Turkey’s Membership to the League of
Nations .................................................. 178
Turkey’s Membership to the International
Court of Justice ..................................... 179
The Regime of the Straits and the
Montreux Convention ......................... 179
Alexandretta Question ......................... 180
The Foreign Statesmen who Visited Turkey
During the 1920s and 1930s ................. 182
v
Transition to Turkey between
the Multi-Party Two Military
CHAPTER 7 System and the CHAPTER 8 Interventions,
Democrat Party
Era: 1945-1960 1960-1980
Introduction.................................................... 231 Introduction.................................................... 261
Transition to the Multi-Party System, From the Military Intervention back to the
1945-1950........................................................ 232 Civilian Politics, 1960-1961............................. 262
The Democrat Party Takes the Power, The 1961 Constitution ........................... 263
1950-1954........................................................ 239 Political Life from 1961 to 1980..................... 265
Worsening Economy and the Democrat Party’s The Justice Party in Power .................. 265
Shift to Authoritarianism, The Interregnum, 1971-1973 ................ 267
1954-1960........................................................ 245 The 1973 Elections ................................ 267
The Democrat Party and the Military.......... 248 Nationalist Front Governments ......... 270
Economic Developments in the 1960s
and 1970s......................................................... 272
Industrialization through
Import-Substitution .............................. 272
Economy in Dire Straits ....................... 273
The Military Intervention of September 12,
1980 and its Aftermath.................................. 274
vi
Preface
Dear Reader,
Modern Turkey has had a long history of survival. The
This book is an attempt to explain all the developments
struggle Turkish people went through to stay alive and
Turkey went through until 1980s. It has eight chapters.
ensure their independence is best exemplified by the
The first four chapters are about the foundation of the
Turkish War of Independence under the leadership of
Turkish Republic and Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, which covers
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. The first book of this course
the period from 1922, when the Armistice of Mudanya was
covered the stages and the trials of this war. This book
signed and the Lausanne Peace Meetings started, until
will concentrate on the events, which took place in the
1939, when World War II started. These chapters also
aftermath of the War of Independence.
provide information about the founding years of Modern
Winning the war against the imperial powers and Turkey with its constitutions, the modernization process
saving the motherland was only the beginning for of the country via the secular laws, state and education
Turkey. Throughout and immediately after the War institutions, national economic policies, political parties,
of Independence, Mustafa Kemal instigated a series of and the single party regime. Also discussed in these
political reforms. One of the most important of these chapters is the Turkish foreign policy, which in a short time
reforms was the acceptance of the Republican regime made the country one of the respectable nations in the
on 29 October 1923. The Republican regime and the post-war period by making either regional or worldwide
parliamentary system ensured the sovereignty of the contributions to world peace.
young Turkish Republic. The regime depended on the
The fifth chapter is especially devoted to Mustafa Kemal
establishment of democracy in the country with the
Atatürk, his life and his achievements and sacrifices that
participation of the citizens. Under the leadership
he has made to build Turkey and make her one of the
of Mustafa Kemal, Turkey materialized a series of
respected nations in the world among the clashes in the
modernization efforts to alleviate the country and her
interwar periods between World War I and World War II.
systems to a level equal to those of the modern states.
The sixth chapter is about World War II. It explains the
One of the important steps in these efforts was the
reason behind the war, its course of development, the
recognition of Turkey as an independent state by
effects of the war on Turkey, and Turkish foreign policy
the world. This was achieved through the Lausanne
during this war.
Peace Treaty, signed in 1923. After the Turkish War of
Independence, Turkey followed a peaceful foreign policy The seventh chapter examines Turkey between the years
and established friendly relations with the neighboring from 1945 to 1960 by concentrating on the Multi-Party
countries and with the former enemies such as France, Experience and the Democratic Party period and the
the Great Britain, Italy, and Greece. Another international impact of the Cold War on Turkey.
success was the signing of the Montreux Convention,
which granted Turkey sovereignty and empowered her to The eight chapter is a summary of the periods after the
take control of the Straits. 1960s. The Military Intervention of 1960, the ensuing 1961
Constitution, and its impact on Turkish social, economic,
In the early years of her foundation, the leaders and people and political life are examined with reference to political
of Modern Turkey united their hands to build a country and economic instability in the 1970s.
with industrial investments in the fields that the country
needed. They did this in co-operation with national banks, I am grateful to four colleagues who worked tirelessly
credit institutions, and national capital. Nationalization of in the writing of this book. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Birten Çelik,
the economy, institutions, harbors, postal services, railway Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nesim Şeker, and Assistant Prof. Dr. Akile
companies were supported by the credits provided by the Zorlu Durukan of the Middle East Technical University;
national banks for the Turkish entrepreneurs. Between 1923 and Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nalan Turna of Yıldız Technical
and 1929, Turkey followed an economic system mixing University. Without their commitment to the scientific
étatism and liberalism. and objective study of history, this book would not
have materialized. I am indebted to their dedication and
The Law of Fundamental Organization (Teşkilât-ı Esasiye hard work. I have learned from their work and enjoyed
Kanunu), the first constitution of Modern Turkey, was reading through the events of the past. I have no doubt
accepted in 1921. A more detailed one was sanctioned in that our readers will feel the same. My last thank you and
1924. With minor changes, this constitution, shaped the expression of gratitude goes out to my dear friend and
democratic regime in Turkey. The secular laws, which were colleague Ayla Balcı, who went through our manuscript
adapted from France, Germany, Italy, and Switzerland, with diligence and admirable patience, which helped us to
contributed to the process of making Turkey a modern attain this final outcome.
state by giving rights to Turkish citizens of both genders.
Turkish women received their suffrage rights in 1930, long
before some European countries. Modern educational Editor
institutions contributed to the bringing up of new Prof.Dr. Zülal BALPINAR
generations to whom Modern Turkey was entrusted. The
young Turkish Republic struggled to establish a balanced
foreign policy as she also tried to become democratic by
the introduction of a multi-party system.
vii
Chapter 1 The Birth of the Turkish Republic
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
1 2
identify the importance of the Lausanne Peace comprehend the features and the importance
Learning Outcomes
Treaty in the foundation and the international of the 1921 and 1924 Constitutions for
recognition of the Turkish Republic, ensuring the national sovereignty in Turkey,
explain the historical background of the

Republican Regime in Turkey as well as
its materialization after the abolition of the
3 4
Sultanate and the role of the Republican
People’s Party in preserving this regime in list the early multi-party experiences in Turkey
Turkey, during the lifetime of Atatürk.
Key Terms
Lausanne Peace Treaty,
Chapter Outline 1921 Constitution,
Introduction
1924 Constitution,
The Peace Treaty of Lausanne and its
Turkish Republic,
Consequences
Capital City Ankara,
The Basic Principles and Laws of Turkey: the 1921
April 23,
and 1924 Constitutions
Political Opposition in the TGNA,
The Republican Regime in Turkey
Republican People’s Party,
Power Struggles in the Early Republican Era and
Abolition of the Caliphate,
Multi-Party Experiences
Progressive Republican Party
Free Republican Party
İzmir Assassination
2
Principles of Atatürk and History of Turkish Revolution II
INTRODUCTION the republican regime, the Caliphate was abolished

The Turkish Republic was established after on March 3, 1924 both to clear the remnants of the
the Turkish War of Independence when the old regime and to prevent the use of Caliphate as
Turkish Grand National Assembly Army under a political instrument to intervene in the internal
the command of Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) was affairs of Turkey (Ahmad, 1993, p.54). The TGNA
victorious in 1922. This victory was grudgingly not only deposed the caliph but also banished
accepted by the Allied Powers first by signing of the House of Ottoman from Turkey. All these
the Armistice of Mudanya on October 11, 1922. revolutionary acts and practices caused protests
Later, followed by a peace treaty signed between and power struggles in the TGNA and opposition
the Allied Powers and the Turkish Grand National parties were established during the formative years
Assembly (Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi, hereafter of the republic. Meanwhile, Kurdish Rebellions
TGNA) in Lausanne (Lausanne Peace Treaty) on and radical protests started against the secularist,
July 24, 1923. Turkey experienced important statist, and revolutionist policies. Despite the
developments between the Armistice of Mudanya protests, problems, and power struggles, the young
and the peace meetings held in Lausanne between Republic tried to recover from the devastating
1922 and 1923. Prior to the peace conference, the effects and destruction caused by World War I and
Ottoman Sultanate was abolished in Turkey on the Turkish War of Independence while trying to
November 1, 1922 by the TGNA. This decision push the country forward so it could reach the level
signified the end of the Ottoman Empire, which of contemporary civilizations.
lasted approximately 623 years. Ottoman Empire This chapter examines the developments that
took her place in world history leaving behind took place in Turkey following the Lausanne Peace
a long lasting legacy, important contributions, Treaty and its aftermath: the peace treaty and its
experiences and an interesting history. After the consequences, the foundation of the Turkish
sultanate was abolished, the TGNA became the sole Republic as well as the first two constitutions of
governing body in Anatolia and represented Turkey Turkey. The first constitution was accepted in
in the Peace Conference held in Lausanne. In fact, 1921, and it was replaced by the second one in
the TGNA under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal 1924. In this chapter, we will basically discuss the
established authority in those parts of Anatolia contributions of these two constitutions to the
neither occupied by the Allied Powers nor under emergence of Modern Turkey. Additionally, the
the control of the Ottoman sultanate. Ministries following will be included in our discussion: the
were established, and a constitution was accepted acceptance of the republican regime and Ankara
in 1921. This constitution was not a detailed one as the capital city of Turkey, the political rivalries
and was replaced by a new one in 1924. The TGNA and criticism against the republican regime, the
and the 1921 Constitution were the beginning of revolutions, and the establishment of opposition
Turkish revolutions in different areas soon after parties. Another important issue, the
the Lausanne Peace Treaty was signed. Republican assassination attempt on Mustafa
People’s Party (hereafter RPP) was established by Kemal (Atatürk), will also be examined
Mustafa Kemal on September 9, 1923, and this in this chapter.
party ruled Turkey until 1950. Then it was RPP
the governing party until 1950 that carried out all
reforms and revolutions in Turkey. It also became
the guardian of the Republican regime accepted Please watch the documentary covering the
in Turkey on October 29, 1923. However, the period from the Treaty of Sévres to Lausanne.
declaration and acceptance of a republican regime
caused protests among the leading figures and
supporters of the Turkish War of Independence.
Their criticism was that the conditions have not yet
matured for adopting this regime and, furthermore,
it would give Mustafa Kemal powers similar to
those of the sultan. Shortly after the acceptance of
3
The Birth of the Turkish Republic
THE PEACE TREATY The Lausanne peace talks initially started on

OF LAUSANNE AND ITS November 20, 1922 and lasted until February 24, 1923;
CONSEQUENCES this was the first phase of the conference. After a break, the
second phase of the peace talks started on April 23, 1923
The Allied occupation of Anatolia ended finally and continued until July 24, 1923. The participants of the
when the TGNA Armies defeated the Greek Armies conference were Britain, France, Italy, Japan, Romania,
in western Anatolia. This event also signified the Greece, and Serb-Croat-Slovene State on one side and the
annihilation of the Treaty of Sevrés and its terms representatives of the TGNA government on the other.
forced on the Ottoman Empire. This victory was Additionally, Soviet Russia and Bulgaria participated
first documented by the Armistice of Mudanya when the question of the Straits was discussed. Belgium
signed on October 11, 1922. In fact, prior to the and Portugal participated when trade and settlement
Armistice of Mudanya, the Allied Powers offered agreements were discussed. The United States of America,
to have peace talks with the Ankara Government however, participated as an observer (Soysal, 1989, p.69-
at four different intervals. These offers were the 71). The British delegation was headed by Lord Curzon,
direct result of the success of the national forces the Foreign Secretary of Britain; the French delegation by
fighting against the Allied occupation of Anatolia. Camille Barrere, the French Ambassador to Rome; the
The TGNA rejected these peace offers since their Italian delegation by Marquis Garroni, the Italian High
content was against the terms of the National Pact, Commissioner in İstanbul; and the Greek delegation by
which formed the foundation of the Turkish War of M. Eleftherios K. Venizelos, formerly President of the
Independence. The National Pact came into effect Council of Ministers (Dockrill, 1993, p.4). Turkey was
after the victories against the Allies in the Turkish represented by İsmet Pasha (İnönü), newly appointed
War of Independence. The Armistice of Mudanya the Minister of Foreign Affairs; Hasan Saka, the former
was the first step in realizing the Pact. Minister of Finance; Dr. Rıza Nur, the Minister of Health,
Following the Armistice of Mudanya, a peace and the officials from various ministries including the
conference was held in Lausanne, Switzerland, to Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Soysal, 1989, p.69-71). İsmet
discuss the terms and conditions of a new peace Pasha was chosen to lead the Turkish delegation in honor
treaty which would replace the Treaty of Sèvres of his two victories over the Greeks at İnönü, Eskişehir,
(Zürcher, 2004, p.161). Before the conference, during the Turkish War of Independence as well as his
the TGNA convened and adopted a motion to success at the Armistice of Mudanya Conference. More
abolish the Ottoman Sultanate on November 1, than this, İsmet Pasha was also the most trusted right hand
1922. One of the main reasons for such a measure person to Mustafa Kemal.
stemmed from the fact that the British government The Turks and the Allies came together at the
had been trying to undermine the authority of Lausanne Peace Conference with different and
the TGNA by inviting the representatives of the opposing agendas. The Allies, mainly the British,
Ottoman Government to the peace talks along considered themselves as the victors of World
with the representative of the Ankara Government War I and, therefore, were considering this peace
(Ahmad, 1993, p.50). This action on the part of conference as an adjustment to the the Treaty of
the British caused concern in Ankara because, Sévres signed earlier. However, the course of the
beside undermining the authority of the Ankara conference did not proceed in the manner that
Government, having two representatives at the they expected (Zürcher, 2004, p.161). İsmet Pasha,
peace conference would also cause two different the Head of the Turkish delegation, left the ground
types of discussions: one maintained by the TGNA neither to Britain nor to the allies, and this was so
and the other by the Ottoman government. from the beginning of the conference.
Moreover, this duality would also undermine the
victories of the TGNA armies against the Allied
Powers. Therefore, the abolition of the Ottoman
Sultanate became a necessity for the future and
salvation of Anatolia and the Turkish people
(Ahmad, 1993, p.50).
4
Figure 1.1 Turkish Delegation in Lausanne

Source: https://www.bbc.com/turkce/haberler-turkiye-42275486
The First Phase of the Lausanne attention

Peace Conference
The Conference was opened on November 20, The following is the remaining part of
1922 at Casino de Mont Benon with the welcoming the speech delivered by İsmet Pasha at the
speech of Robert Haab, the President of the Swiss opening of the Lausanne Peace Conference:
Confederation. Lord Curzon, following him, went “The State of Ankara is entitled to be proud
to the rostrum and delivered his opening speech. for everything that it had achieved. Based on
Although the Turkish delegation was not on the list the consciousness that the decision of Sévres
for an inaugural speech, İsmet Pasha, who believed abolished both the undisputed rights of the
in and insisted on the principle of equality among Turkish people and the declared principles
the participants, went up to the rostrum and said by the Allies during the determination of the
that they, as the Turkish delegation, were there for war goals, it had taken on a difficult battle of
peace that would be fair and just. In his speech, decisions, from point zero, to reach a point that
İsmet Pasha said, “in exchange for the sacrifices we would enable it to fight against the injustice
had to make, we want freedom and independence and secure for Turkey the owed position in the
just like all other civilized nations, and there will family of civilized nations, from which it was
be no concessions on or deviations from this attempted to be expelled. Turkey managed to
principle” (İsmet İnönü’nün Hatıraları, 1998, s.81). cope with the Pan-European injustice that
In fact, the mission of the Turkish delegation in this Greek hands had undertaken to impose, and to
conference was not only to represent the interests accomplish the National Pact of Ankara, which
of the Turkish people but also of the people who constitutes the Decalogue of the just claims of the
were oppressed by the imperialist powers some of Turkish people, and is now in the happy position
which were among the Allied powers participating to consider that she had earned her freedom and
in this conference. Thus, in his speech İsmet Pasha the right and means to live and advance among
added, “even at this moment, there are over one the civilized nations as ‘an equal among equals’”
million innocent Turks wandering in the uplands (Klapsis, 2015, p.97).
of Asia Minor, homeless and breadless, and we want
freedom and independence for them just like in all
the civilized nations.” (İsmet İnönü’nün Hatıraları,
1998, s.81).
5
Even though İsmet Pasha determined the limits Turkish delegation had instructions from Ankara
of the discussions that would insure peace, the not to deviate from the principles set by the
Allied Powers pretended to see the Turkish War of National Pact (Misak-ı Milli) (Sonyel, 1989,
Independence as a war between Greece and Turkey. p.97). İsmet Pasha responded to the Allied claims
Therefore, they treated the Turkish delegation with his own unique tactics: he used his hearing
as a supplicant rather than the representative of loss as an excuse to contest every point, however
a government with recent victories. Moreover, minor; he read long prepared statements to delay
the Allied Powers tried to discuss the status of the debates; and he consulted his colleagues so as
Armenians and Kurds in Turkey but the Turkish to ensure that he had enough time to follow the
delegation rejected to discuss these matters in this instructions from Ankara (Zürcher, 1993, p.161).
conference and even declared that this would end Meanwhile, Mustafa Kemal Pasha, the Head of
peace talks. Meanwhile, the British delegation the TGNA, followed every step of the conference
headed by Lord Curzon tried to dominate the talks and conveyed his orders via telegraph. If
conference from the beginning. Lord Curzon even the principles set forth by the Turkish delegation
appointed himself president of the conference. could not be met, then the plan was to create the
Nevertheless, the Turkish delegation did not idea that the war would continue. In other words,
allow the Allies to forget that the Turks were the the Turks, in the words of Horace Rumbold, the
victors who defeated the Allies during the Turkish High Commissioner of the Britain in Istanbul,
national struggle (Zürcher, 2004, p.161). The first went to the conference the National Pact in one
day of the conference, with all the tension, ended hand and a sword in the other.” (Sonyel, 1974,
with the establishment of three sub-commissions p.53). The unreasonable demands made by
all of which were to be chaired by the Allies. The the British, who seemed to be controlling the
first commission was on the territorial (borders, conference and the Allied claims indicating that
nationality, minorities, the Straits) and military they insisted on maintaining their earlier interests
questions and chaired by Lord Curzon; the second in the Ottoman Empire were totally against the
commission was on the future of the judicial status National Pact. Little was achieved through the
of foreigners in Turkey and chaired by the French endless discussions, and the patronizing tone of
ambassador Camille Barrère; and the third was the Allies created a bad tempered atmosphere. The
on the financial and economic issues and chaired Allies presented the Turkish delegation “a draft
by the Italian Diplomat Marquis Garone (Sosyal, treaty, which it considered its final offer” which
1989, p.71). made a list of their claims. The Turkish delegation
The first phase of the conference started with “refused to sign” on February 4, 1923, then left
these commissions on November 21 and continued the conference venue, and the conference was
with endless negotiations. France and Britain were interrupted on February 5, 1923. (Zürcher, 1993,
the main supporters of Greece throughout the p.161). The unacceptable offers made by the Allies
conference and at the same time guarded their old to Turkey were interpreted by Mustafa Kemal as
policies of interests. During the peace meetings, “…our addressees (the Allies) at the conference
the participants of both sides discussed the were preparing to settle up not a three or four-
topics concerning the minorities in the Ottoman year-old, but a three or four hundred-century-old
Empire, borders, the Straits, Thrace, Ottoman account...” (Ökçün, 1997, p.212).
debts and capitulations, war compensation, the When the Turkish delegation left the conference
Sandjak of Alexandretta (İskenderun-Hatay), venue and went back to Turkey to discuss the matters
Mosul, and Orthodox Patriarchate. There was pertaining to Allied claims and offers, the first phase
also the discussion about the population exchange of the peace talks at Lausanne had come to an end.
between Turkey and Greece as proposed by the It should be noted here that in the first phase of this
Greeks. The question of Mosul, Ottoman debts conference, after long debates, a separate convention
and capitulations, Thrace, war compensation and comprising 19 articles was signed by Greece and
the Allied withdrawal from Istanbul were among Turkey on January 30, 1923: The Convention
the first issues discussed in the conference. The Concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish
participants could not agree on the terms. The Populations. (Hirschon, 2004, p.6).
6
This convention excluded the Turks who resided in and it would continue her struggle against adverse
Western Thrace and the Greeks who lived in Istanbul, interferences and defend her independence” (Ökçün,
and it covered the Turks in Macedonia and Thessaly 1997, p.211). In his speech, he also said that this new
and the Greeks in Western Anatolia. The Convention state was not going to be a gendarme of the foreign
was ratified by Turkey on August 23, 1923 and by capital but the owner of the national sources, and it
Greece on August 25, 1923. It was put into practice was going to accept foreign investments as long as
on January 27, 1925 (League of Nations, Treaty Series, they respected the rights of Turkey (Ökçün, 1997,
1925, p.77). Furthermore, territorial problems p.211). He also added: “We cannot turn our country
concerning the borders in Thrace and the future regime into one of slaves…our interlocutors (the Allies)
of the Straits were resolved in February 1923 before the at the conference do not realize that the Ottoman
conference was interrupted (Zürcher, 1993, p.161).
Empire has passed into history, and today there is a
After the Turkish delegation returned to Turkey, new Turkey. The nation who established this country
criticism arose both against İsmet Pasha and the Allies is determined, faithful and brave enough not to
at the TGNA. It was Mustafa Kemal, who had to compromise on full independence and national
intervene in the discussions at the TGNA by saying:
sovereignty” (Ökçün, 1997, p.212). He further said
“Friends, the matter at stake is indeed worrisome and
the following: “Those who conquer by the sword
critical. Discussing it with anger is inappropriate;
are condemned to be defeated by the plough.” Thus
therefore, I will take the liberty to invite all my friends
he defined Turkey’s economic policy as: “No matter
to keep calm.” (Zürcher, 2004, p.162).
how great political and military victories may be, they
While there was criticism in the TGNA
must be crowned by economic victories. Otherwise,
following the interruption of the Lausanne Peace
they cannot be maintained, but will be extinguished”
talks, an economic congress was held in İzmir
(Ökçün, 1997, p.206, 210).
on February 17, 1923. This congress conveyed
important messages about future Turkish policies In addition to Mustafa Kemal’s, the speech
concerning economy but also included statements by Mahmut Esat (Bozkurt) Bey, was also full of
about general policies and diplomacy. important messages to the Allies, especially about
Turkey’s future economic policies. The Minister,
like Atatürk, said that Turkey was to welcome
İzmir Economic Congress
foreign capital “on condition that it conforms to
İzmir Economic Congress started on February 17 our laws and regulations and is not granted more
and continued until March 14, 1923. İzmir Economic privileges than Turks” (Ökçün, 1997, p.220). All in
Congress had two targets: one was to determine the all, Mustafa Kemal’s and Mahmut Esat’s speeches
economic policies, the other to send a message to delivered at the İzmir Economic Congress set the
the Allied Powers (Hale, 1984, p.154). In his speech indispensable Turkish principles for a definitive
delivered at this Congress, Mustafa Kemal discussed peace and reminded the Allies that if they wanted
and criticized the previous and current policies which to have peace with Turkey and to have investments
affected Turkey. He first criticized the Ottoman in Turkey, they had to accept these terms.
Empire and said: “by assuming sole responsibility
for military and administrative affairs during the
long centuries of the Ottoman rule, the Turks had The Second Phase of the Lausanne
been unable to give thought and attention to their Peace Conference
own economic activities and that this had led to the During the period when Lausanne Peace
economic decline of the empire.” Mustafa Kemal Conference was interrupted, correspondences
also stated that this decline caused “the Ottoman continued between the TGNA and the Allied
Empire to become a semi-colony of the European powers. Finally, the Allies accepted to discuss
powers via the capitulations since they were able to the Turkish terms which were delivered by the
give little attention to their own economic activities TGNA on February 29, 1923. The second phase
because of war. Nevertheless, this new Turkish state of the peace talks restarted on April 23, 1923.
was not going to be a colony of the imperialists, Actually, the date of April 23 was important for
Turkey since the TGNA was founded and opened
7
in 1920 on that day. Meanwhile, the opponents The main topics in the articles of the Lausanne
of Mustafa Kemal, both Islamists and liberal Peace Treaty were listed under five parts. Part I was
‘Westerners’, were maneuvering the Assembly to about Political Clauses together with sections such
restore the Sultanate in a new form. Upon these as Territorial Clauses, Special Provisions, Nationality,
attempts, Mustafa Kemal and his supporters and Protection of the Minorities (The Treaties of Peace,
decided to dissolve the TGNA on April 1, 1923 1924, p.961-973). Part II was about Financial Clauses
to concentrate on the Lausanne Conference including sections such as Ottoman Public Debt,
(Ahmad, 1993, p.53). Miscellaneous Clauses (The Treaties of Peace, 1924,
When the conference reconvened, the British p.974-985). Part III was about Economic clauses
delegation was headed by Sir Horace Rumbold, the including the following sections: Property, Rights and
High Commissariat of Britain in İstanbul during Interests, Contracts, Prescriptions and Judegements,
the occupation, and the French delegation was and an annex on Life Assurance, Industrial, Literary
led by General Maurice Cesar Joseph Pellé. After and Artistic Property, Mixed Arbitral Tribunal, and
months of hard discussions, conflicts and debates, Treaties (The Treaties of Peace, 1924, p.986-1006).
the Lausanne Peace Treaty was finally signed on Part IV was about Communications and Sanitary
July 24, 1923 (Zürcher, 2004, p.162). This treaty, Questions (The Treaties of Peace, 1924, p.1007-
which is composed of 143 articles and additional 1012). Part V was about Miscellaneous Provisions
protocols, in fact, was the last one of the treaties with the following sections: Prisoners of War, Graves,
that ended World War I. General Provisions (The Treaties of Peace, 1924,
p.1013-1022). In addition to these, there were also
additional conventions/protocols signed on July 24,
1923.
Turkey’s international borders were determined
according to the previously signed treaties between
the TGNA governments and the related countries.
Turkey’s border with Syria was to be the same as was
accepted in the Ankara Treaty of October 20, 1921
(Article 3). As a result, the Sandjak of Alexandretta
was left within the borders of Syria (The Treaties
of Peace, 1924, p.962; Zürcher, 2004, p.162). A
solution to the problem of the Iraqi border could
not be achieved during the conference since the
Mosul-Kirkuk issue needed settlement before any
agreement could be reached. The decision was made
on this issue through negotiations between Turkey
and Britain within the next nine months (Article
3) (The Treaties of Peace, 1924, p.962). Although
meetings were held between Turkey and Britain,
Mosul was lost to Iraq in 1926 with the political
maneuvers of Britain, which was ruling Iraq at that
time as a mandatory power (Soysal, 1989, p.308).
Figure 1.2 İsmet Pasha pictured in the Journal L’Illustre The border in Western Thrace was accepted as
dated 2 August 1923 one week after the Lausanne Treaty set out by the Armistice of Mudanya; accordingly,
was signed. Karaağaç, a town in Thrace, was given to Turkey by
Source: https://historyontheorientexpress.tumblr.com/
Greece as a war compensation to make reparations
post/147890588036/isvi%C3%A7re-lillustr%C3%A9-
for the damage caused in Anatolia by Greece listed
dergisi-kapa%C4%9F%C4%B1ndan-ismet-pa%C5%9Fa
in the Article 59 (League of Nations, Treaty Series,
1924, p.51, 217).
The issue of the islands bordering Turkey was
also resolved through the Treaty. Imbros, Tenedos,
8
and Rabbit islands were given to Turkey. The island Code, and a Commercial Code based largely on
of Rhodes, the island of Meis and the Dodecanese the German and Italian codes in 1926. (Ahmad,
Islands, which were under Italian occupation, were 1993, p.80).
left to Italy. The remaining islands in the Aegean According to Article 28 of the Lausanne Peace
Sea seized by Greece during the Balkan Wars Treaty, capitulations were completely abolished “in
remained under Greek rule. Moreover, Turkey every respect”. The Ottoman debts were shared
recognized “the annexation of Cyprus proclaimed among her successor states including Turkey as
by the British Government on November 5, 1914” stated in Articles from 46 through 57 (The Treaties
with Article 20 of this treaty (League of Nations, of Peace, 1924, pp.968, 974-982). First, the
Treaty Series, 1924, p.21, 23, 25). According to the Ottoman debts to the central powers which was
peace terms and the Convention relating to “the about “£170 million sterling was written off…”
Regime of the Straits”, the Straits would be ruled (Hale, 2013, p.40). The remaining debt was shared
by an international commission named “Straits among the Ottoman successor states including
Commission” to be formed by Turkey, France, Turkey. Turkey’s share in this debt was determined
Britain, Italy, Japan, Bulgaria, Greece, Romania, to be 84.8 million gold Turkish Lira, equaling £78
Soviet Russia, and the Serb-Croat-Slovene State and million sterling (Hale, 2013, p.40). Moreover,
be headed by Turkey. According to the convention, although the Treaty did not have any articles
15 kilometers on both shores of the Straits were on the abolition of the Ottoman Public Debt
accepted as a demilitarized zone. Nevertheless, the Commission, established in 1881, the Commission
Turkish administration would maintain a military lost its legal presence when the capitulations were
unit of 12,000 soldiers to guarantee the safety of abolished. After the Lausanne Peace Conference
Istanbul (The Treaties of Peace, 1924, p.1025-1033). ended, a Debt Council was established in Paris to
However, the status of the Straits as determined by negotiate with the representatives of bondholders
Lausanne lasted for 13 years and ended with the concerning Ottoman Debts. Regarding the
Treaty of Montreux signed on July 20, 1936. The payment of the debts, a Draft Contract was offered
Treaty of Montreux, as a Convention regarding the in February 1928, and this contract was ratified
Regime of the Straits with Annexes and Protocol, by the Turkish government on December 1, 1928
was signed in Montreux on July 20, 1936, and it (Blaisdell, 1929, p.202, 206-207).
ensured Turkey to have absolute sovereignty over
The aforementioned case of the Greeks in
the straits (League of Nations, Treaty Series, (1936-
Turkey and the Turks in Greece was included in
1937), pp.215-241).
the Article 142 of the Peace Treaty (The Treaties of
Furthermore, the Treaty covered under articles Peace, 1924, p.1021).
38-44 the issue of non-Muslim minorities. These
minorities, though not specifically named in the
treaty, were mainly Armenians, Greeks, and Jews.
attention
All were granted the same judicial rights as the
Turkish citizens. They were to fulfill their duties
as Turkish citizens. They were given the right to For further information on the full Articles of
establish their own schools and provide education the Lausanne Peace Conference, please watch
in their mother languages. They were entitled the following link.
to build their own religious temples and social
buildings provided that they meet their own
expenses (The Treaties of Peace, 1924, p.971-973).
Although the treaty gave non-Muslims the right
to practice their family law and personal matters
according to their customs with the Article 41,
the Jewish and Christian communities renounced
these privileges and agreed to live under a common
Western civil code when the Turkish government
introduced the Swiss Civil Code, the Italian Penal
9
Figure 1.3 Map of Turkey’s borders compiled during the Lausanne Peace Conference.
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Lausanne
The Lausanne Peace Treaty was ratified by the

second TGNA on August 23, 1923 by 213 votes
against 14 votes. Because of the fact that the
1
ratification process in the participating states were
delayed, the Lausanne Peace Treaty officially took What might be the outcomes of the Lausanne
effect on August 6, 1924. In fact, this treaty was a Peace Treaty for Turkey?
sign of recognition of the independent Turkey by all
signatories, and it remains as the only treaty which
has survived to this day after World War I (Ahmad, Abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate
1993, p.3). The Lausanne Peace Treaty was an important step
in the establishment of Modern Turkey. By signing
this treaty, the participant countries recognized
attention Turkey as an independent state and the TGNA as
the sole ruling authority in Turkey. In fact, after the
“Gentlemen, I do not believe it is necessary to invasion of Istanbul, the TGNA, which was opened
continue with a comparison of the stipulations in Ankara on 23 April, 1920, declared that it was the
of the Lausanne Peace Treaty with the contents only legitimate representative of the Turkish Nation,
of other Peace proposals. The Treaty of Lausanne and “all legislation by the Istanbul government after
is the document which reveals in a decisive March 16 was officially declared void” (Zürcher,
manner the failure of a vast plot which had 1993, p.152). Throughout the national war of
been hatching for centuries against the Turkish independence, the TGNA ruled Anatolia through
nation, a plot which many believed they had the system of Government by Assembly until 1923
carried to success through the Sévres Treaty. It is and became the representative of the national will
a diplomatic victory unheard of in the Ottoman and sovereignty (Arsel, 1961, p.40). The power and
history!” 1927 M. Kemal Atatürk (A Speech legitimacy of the TGNA depended on the deputies
Delivered by Atatürk, 1981, p.633-634). who were elected by the people. The TGNA set tge
principles from the beginning. In order to ensure
10
the national sovereignty and prevent any danger to attention

it they decided to pass a resolution called the High
Treason Law (Hıyanet-i Vataniye Kanunu) on April The 4-point motion was composed of the
29, 1920 to prohibit the crimes against the nation following statements:
and to condemn to death anyone who betrayed “1. It is absolutely necessary to form a
the nation (Shaw and Shaw, 2002, p.352). When government.
the number of deserters from the Army increased, 2. We cannot allow a regency to be established
the Law on Deserters (Firariler Hakkında Kanun) or the chief of the government to be defined as
was also passed on September 11, 1920 (Turan, provisional.
1992, pp.170-172). When the current courts 3. It is a vital principle to recognize that the
were not sufficient to try the ones who committed national will expressed by the Assembly is
crimes against the nation and to punish the actually governing the destiny of the country.
deserters, it was decided that special courts had There is no power standing above the Grand
National Assembly of Turkey.
to be established to try them. These courts were
4. The Grand National Assembly of Turkey
the Independence Tribunals (İstiklâl Mahkemeleri)
combines in itself the Legislative and Executive
established by the law number 45 on September power. A council elected and authorized by the
18, 1920 in the cities of Ankara, Eskişehir, Konya, assembly conducts the affairs of the Government.
Isparta, Sivas, Kastamonu, and Kayseri (Shaw and The President of the Assembly is at the same time
Shaw, 2002, p.362). These courts were inspired the president of this Council. (Note: as soon as
by the Revolutionary courts in France, and their the Sultan-Caliph is delivered from all pressure
duty was to try and execute the opponents and and coercion, he will take his place within the
deserters on the spot. These and other laws passed frame of the legislative principles which will
in the TGNA established and institutionalized the be determined by the Assembly” (A Speech
authority of the TGNA and Ankara government in Delivered by Atatürk, 1981, pp.380-381).
most of the country.
Mustafa Kemal insisted on the supremacy of Mustafa Kemal was right in his word since
the Assembly to remove the need for an executive neither the Ottoman Sultan Vahidettin, by name
position whose occupant would be like a substitute Mehmet VI (r.1918-1922), nor the Istanbul
for the Sultan. He made his views very clear with Government wanted to accept this reality.
a 4-point motion he submitted to the Assembly Instead, from the beginning of the Turkish War of
in April 1920 after it was opened. This motion, Independence, the Ottoman Sultan opposed the
formed the fundamental principles the TGNA was National Forces and cooperated with the Allied
to follow. In it, it was told that there could be no Powers to undermine the authority of the TGNA
and minimize its influence and also remove them
question of designating a head of government, even
from Anatolia. The Sultan even established the
a provisional one, or a regent-sultan in Anatolia.
Kuvay-i İnzibatiye (Disciplinary Forces) literally
“Caliphate Army” on April 18, 1920 to fight against
the nationalists (Kuvva-yı Milliyeciler). Moreover,
the sultan ordered the capture and execution of
Mustafa Kemal Pasha and supporting nationalists.
They were all sentenced to death. Furthermore,
Şeyhülislam issued fatwas for the destruction of the
nationalists (Zürcher, 1993, p.152).
11
Having lived through the national struggle and letter, Sultan Vahidettin claimed himself as the
seeing the indifference of the Sultan and his actions Caliph of the Muslims while not claiming the right
against his own people, Mustafa Kemal Pasha was to the sultanate. On November 17, the British
waiting for a suitable time to depose the sultan and armored ship Malayan took Sultan Vahdettin to
abolish the Sultanate. This became possible when Malta (Zürcher, 1993, p.160). In fact, the British
the Allied Powers, namely the British government, government or their own imperialist aims planned to
invited both the Istanbul and Ankara government, to take advantage of the Sultan against Turkey. When
Lausanne. This invitation was nothing more than a the deposed Sultan escaped from the country, the
British policy of divide and conquer. It also implied TGNA appointed Abdülmecid Efendi, a dynasty
that they really ignored the success of the TGNA member and cousin to the deposed sultan, as the
Army against the Allied Armies in Anatolia. Tevfik Caliph on November 18, 1922. With the adoption
Pasha, the last Grand Vizier of the Ottoman State, of the law to this effect, the status of the Caliphate
sent a telegram dated October 29, 1922 to the TGNA was reduced to the level of a symbolic state official
proposing that the TGNA and the sultanate should without any political authority who would be
act together (Zürcher, 1993, p.160). This was nothing appointed by the parliament (Ahmad, 1993, p.54).
more than a maneuver to take advantage of the With this development, an important step was
triumphs won by the nationalist armies through three taken toward the birth of Turkish Republic while
years of suffering and bloodshed that were caused by the 623 years Ottoman sultanate came to an end.
both the Sultan, his government and the Allies. Upon
this offer by Tevfik Pasha that actually was serving the
plans of the Allies to undermine the victory in the
THE BASIC PRINCIPLES AND
National War, Mustafa Kemal presented a proposal LAWS OF TURKEY: the 1921 AND
to the TGNA to abolish the Ottoman Sultanate. 1924 CONSTITUTIONS
This proposal only included the abolishment of the
sultanate and not the office of the caliph that the 1921 Constitution (Teşkilât-ı Esasiye
sultan also assumed. The proposal to abolish the
Kanunu)
sultanate by separating it from the Caliphate led to
heated debates in the TGNA (Zürcher, 1993, p.160). The Turkish War of Independence was carried
Especially, the deputies from the Second Group out according to the principles of a nation state
who aligned themselves emotionally with the Sultan after the TGNA was opened. Ensuing the election
protested this proposal vehemently (Ahmad, 1993, of Mustafa Kemal as the President of the TGNA,
p.52-53, 56-57). Following a convincing, decisive, a government and a commission was established
and precise speech made by Mustafa Kemal Pasha to prepare a constitution for this nation state. The
addressing the conservative deputies in a secret first draft of the constitution was discussed on
meeting of the TGNA to accept the existing order September 18, 1920 based on a populist program
based on the nation’s sovereignty, the motion to on the national sovereignty. The conservative
abolish the sultanate was accepted on November 1, deputies in the Assembly reacted to this program
1922, ending the Ottoman Sultanate officially. since they were afraid of a change in the regime
of the country. Accordingly, they demanded that
The abolition of the sultanate legally did not
the Parliament had to continue to work only
require a constitutional amendment because
until the country and the Caliphate and Sultanate
the Constitution did not include an article on
could be saved from the Allies, and they wanted
the caliphate or the sultanate. A new law was
the constitution to be temporary (Shaw and Shaw,
not issued during the abolition of the Sultanate,
2002, p.349). When the conservative deputies
and the decision of the Assembly was deemed
insisted on their claims, Mustafa Kemal Pasha
sufficient. On November 16, 1922, following the
declared the following in a secret session at the
developments in Ankara, Sultan Vahidettin wrote
TGNA held on September 25, 1920: “Today, we
a letter to General Harrington, the Commander
must enact and express the meaning and power to
in chief of the Allied Powers in Istanbul, with
strengthen the National Assembly and the National
whom he had been cooperating for the last four
sovereignty, which will save our independence and
years, and requested asylum from Britain. In his
our existence ... If the purpose is to say again and
12
again the loyalty to the caliph and the sultan, this Article 4. The Grand National Assembly is
person is traitor. A traitor the enemies use to do composed of members who are elected by the
evil to the land and the nation…” (Turan, 1992, people of the provinces.
p.254). Then, despite the reactions continued for Article 5. Elections to the Grand National
months, the constitution Teşkilât-ı Esasiye Kanunu Assembly are held every two years. Membership
(the Law of Fundamental Organization) was is limited to two years but reelection of a member
accepted on January 20, 1921. This was the first ever is possible. The former assembly remains in office
constitution of Modern Turkey. This constitution until the new assembly convenes. When holding a
new election seems to be impossible, the legislative
was adapted from the 1876 Ottoman constitution
period can be extended only one year. Each
(Kânûn-ı Esâsî) but with major changes especially member of the Grand National Assembly is not
in the articles concerning the elections and the only the representative of the province by which
rule of the provinces. The constitution authorized s/he is elected but also that of the whole nation.
the decisions and acts of the TGNA government Article 6. General Assembly of the Grand
(Shaw and Shaw, 2002, p.350). The Constitution National Assembly convenes of its own accord on
of 1921 was a revolutionary constitution set in the first day of November.
extraordinary circumstances, but it lacked sections Article 7. The basic rights of the application
substatial to a constitution such as sections on of the ordinances of the sacred law; the
fundamental rights and freedoms and the judicial promulgation, amendment, and abrogation of
system. It consisted of six sections, namely; “basic all laws; the concluding of treaties and peace;
provisions” (Mevâdd-ı Esasiye) and “administration” the promulgation of the defense of the fatherland
(idare), “provinces” (Vilâyet), “sub-district” (Kaza) (i.e., the declaration of war) belong to the Grand
and counties (Nahiye), general inspectorships National Assembly. The preparation of laws
(umumi müfettişlik) with twenty-three articles and regulations will be guided by juridical and
additionally one unordered additional substance religious provisions, which best conform to the
(madde-i münferide). The first nine articles of the modus operandi of the people and the needs of the
times, as well as established customs. The functions
Constitution regulated the legislative and executive
and responsibilities of the Council of Ministers
affairs, setting forth the formation and authority
shall be fixed by a special law.
of the TGNA. The rest of the articles covered the
Article 8. The government of the Grand National
provincial, municipal, administrative and general
Assembly exercises the executive function
inspectorate matters (Shaw and Shaw, 2002,
through ministers who were elected according to
p.350). its special law. The Grand National Assembly
The articles concerning the rule of the Assembly directs the ministers on executive affairs and
and its responsibilities were covered in the first changes them when necessary.
nine articles. Article 9. The Head of the Grand National
Assembly who is elected by the General Assembly
Article1. Sovereignty is vested in the nation is the head of the GNA for one electoral period.
without condition. Governmental system is With this status, he is entitled to sign on behalf of
based on the principle of self-determination and the Assembly and to approve the decisions of the
government by people. Council of Ministers. The Council of Ministers
Article2. The executive and legislative powers are elects one member from among themselves as
exercised by and concentrated in the hands of the the head of the Council of Ministers. However,
Grand National Assembly which is the sole and the Head of the GNA is the natural head of the
real representative of the nation. Council of Ministers. (http://genckaya.bilkent.
Article 3. The Turkish State is governed by the edu.tr/1921C.html)
Grand National Assembly and its government is
titled as “the Government of the Grand National In the constitution, there was no mention of the
Assembly.” state presidency and of the public rights because
of the extraordinary circumstances. Consequently,
it did not mention either the position of the
sultanate or the caliphate. Mustafa Kemal preferred
13
to use the system of government since he believed Marşı) whose lyrics were written by Mehmet Akif
it to be “compatible with the concept of National (Ersoy was accepted on March 12, 1921(Turan,
Sovereignty… a form of government based on 1992, pp.255-256). In March 1924, the Caliphate
‘unity of powers’”. With this system, legislative was abolished since this office would not befit a
and executive powers “were combined and held regime of a country proclaimed a Republic.
by the Assembly representing the people” (Shaw On October 29, 1923, the Turkish Republic was
and Shaw, 2002, p.350). Moreover, according to proclaimed. This new declaration made the rule of
the constitution, the ministers would be chosen Kânûn-ı Esâsî obsolete. This political development
among the deputies who were elected in the general made it necessary for the new state to determine
elections, which were held in two-year terms. its basic functions with a new comprehensive
“They were to be appointed by and responsible constitution.
to the Assembly” (Shaw and Shaw, 2002, p.350).
Moreover, the TGNA reserved the rights to
promulgate, amend, and abrogate all laws, conclude 1924 Constitution (Teşkilât-ı Esasiye
the treaties and peace as well as declare war when Kanunu)
necessary. The articles between 10 and 21 concerned The new 1924 constitution replaced the 1921
the administrative units, and gave an autonomous constitution. The draft of the new constitution was
role to the provinces, districts and counties. They presented to the parliament in March 1924. After
would organize and administer the “matters relating extensive and lengthy discussions and additional
to religious foundations, religious schools, public amendments, the first constitution of the Republic
schools, health, economics, agriculture, public and the second constitution of Turkey was accepted
works, and social aid” under the authority of the on April 20, 1924. The new constitution was named
councils in accordance with the laws, while other Teşkilât-ı Esasiye Kanunu (the Law of Fundamental
matters were to be administered by the TGNA. Organization). This constitution consisted of
The operations of these administrative units were to six sections and 105 articles. It was based on
be controlled by the general inspectorships which the principles of “national sovereignty”, “one
were also in charge of the maintenance of public parliament”, “unity of forces” and “supremacy of the
security under the authority of the TGNA (Shaw parliament”. The 1924 Constitution embraced the
and Shaw, 2002, p.350). The 1921 Constitution ideals of republicanism and nationalism and laid out
affirmed the TGNA and the government as the the general characteristics and basic principles of the
sole authority of the nation by its first article that state.
declared, “Sovereignty unconditionally belongs to The first Section of the Constitution consisted
the nation” (Shaw and Shaw, 2002, p.350). This of eight items titled Fundamental Provisions that
statement, in actuality, openly changed the political emphasized the general characteristics and basic
regime to a constitutional one. As the consequence principles of the state. They were:
of this feature, the constitution was revolutionary,
and it was opposed by the Ottoman Government Article 1. The Turkish State is a Republic.
in İstanbul. Article 2. The religion of the Turkish State is
The Assembly used different methods to Islam; the official language is Turkish and the seat
compensate the issues such as the administrative of government is Ankara.
or political problems that were not covered by the Article 3. Sovereignty belongs without restriction
Constitution since it was adapted from the 1876 to the nation.
Ottoman constitution (Kânûn-ı Esâsî) and the Article 4. The Grand National Assembly of
latter was not compatible to govern the nation as Turkey is the sole lawful representative of the
democratically as possible. After the acceptance nation, and exercises sovereignty in the name of
of the 1921 Constitution, important events and the nation.
decisions followed. To name some, the sultanate Article 5. The legislative and executive powers
was abolished on November 1, 1922; the imperialist are vested and centered in the Grand
powers recognized Turkey as an independent state National Assembly which concentrates these two
in 1923; the national anthem of Turkey (İstiklal powers in itself.
14
Article 6. The Grand National Assembly of The fourth section, The Judicial Power, consisted
Turkey exercises the legislative power directly. of Articles 53-67 which clarified the fundamental
Article 7. The Assembly exercises the executive workings of the judiciary and the duties of the
power through the intermediary of the President judges as well as the establishment of a High Court
of the Republic, whom it elects, and through a (Earle, 1925, p.95-96).
Cabinet chosen by him. The Assembly controls
The fifth section, Public Law of the Turks, consisted
the acts of the government and may at any time
withdraw power from it.
of the Articles 68-88, explained the rights and freedoms
given to the citizens such as freedom of speech,
Article 8. The judicial power is exercised in the
assembly, movement and religion. This section also
name of the Assembly by independent tribunals
constituted in accordance with the law (Earle,
elaborates on the term Turk. Article 88, in particular,
1925, p.89). adjudicated that “The name Turk, as a political term,
shall be understood to include all citizens of the Turkish
The 1924 Constitution made the judicial Republic, without distinction of, or reference to, race or
power independent of the executive and legislative religion.” (Earle, 1925, pp.96-98). This section of
powers. Article 8 of the Constitution stated that the constitution stressed that every Turkish citizen
independent courts would exercise the judicial was born free and had the right to live freely and
power in the name of the Nation; however, the guaranteed equality, life, property, honor, immunity
necessary guarantees for the judges were not of housing and the right to education before the law.
provided. Since the Assembly had the power and Primary education was made mandatory and was free
acted on behalf of the ruling party, the government of charge in public schools.
was in a position to affect the judiciary (Arsel, The sixth, Miscellaneous Provisions, covered
1961, p.48). Articles 89-101, explained the issues concerning the
The second Section, The Legislative Power, administration of the provinces, the organization
covering 22 articles (9-30) established the electoral of the administration, civil servants and financial
laws and the legislative power of the National matters (Earle, 1925, pp.99-100). This section
Assembly (Earle, 1925, p.89-91). The legislative explained as the restriction of the authority of
power was given to the National Assembly on the local councils and emphasized the centralist
all issues including the national budget and structure. With this understanding, both the rapid
international treaties. The right to vote was given application of the revolutions at the country level
to male citizens who were 18 years old or older. and the prevention of separatist movements such as
The age to run for a parliamentary office was 30. regionalism were targeted.
On December 5, 1934, with the amendments The last four articles (102-105) under the title
made to the articles 10 and 11, the suffrage rights Amendments to the Constitution laid down the
were granted to female citizens of the Turkish fundamentals of the Constitution and reiterated
Republic while the electoral age was increased to Article 1 of the constitution that the form of
22 (Özbudun, 1981, p.92). government was a Republic by stating the following:
The third section, The Executive Power, “The Turkish State is a Republic”. Furthermore, it
consisting of 22 articles (31-52) explained the reiterated that Article 1 and its statement could
procedure for the election of the President of not ever be changed and not even a proposal of a
Turkey and clarified the extent of his authority. change could be made (Earle, 1925, p.100).
Accordingly, the President was the head of the The 1924 Constitution prevailed until 1961;
executive organ and the state. He was entitled to however, some important changes were made
appoint his cabinet ministers and preside over the in this constitution due to the changes that
cabinet when and if it necessary. The president’s took place in the country toward establishing a
powers were symbolic regarding the legislature modern democracy. This constitution took a more
which was the sole responsibility of the cabinet national and a more secular character with various
of ministers (Earle, 1925, p.91-95). This section amendments made in 1928, 1934, and 1937 by
also explained the working method and the introducing political equality. It remained in force
responsibilities of the government. until 1960 (Özbudun, 1981, p.92).
15
of Atatürk, with a reference to Mustafa Kemal

Atatürk’s reflections and policies he favored in
order to establish a modern, democratic, populist
2
and secular Turkey. It was these principles that
What were the differences between the 1921 and laid the ideological soul of Modern Turkey.
the 1924 Constitutions? These principles became the integral part of
the Republic and determined Turkey’s peaceful
foreign policy with universal values.
Among the changes made in the 1924
Constitution, the following two are worth Republicanism (Cumhuriyetçilik) meant the
mentioning: the abolition of the Caliphate on continuation of the Republican regime based on
March 3, 1924 and the nullifying of the Sharia popular sovereignty. It aimed to create and maintain
(religious) courts on April 8, 1924 (Mardin, 1981, a classless Turkish society with Populism (Halkçılık)
p.210). Moreover, the law on the Unification of and to create new laws and establish institutions
Education enabling co-education for both male in order to correct the economic situation of the
and female students was accepted on March, 1924, people with Statism (Devletçilik). Statism was
and it took education “out of the hands of ülema” defined as a system of classless society and as the
(Mardin, 1981, p.216). Waiting for the revolutions state’s decision to enact laws and boundaries on
to take effect one by one delayed the removal of the the economic arena as well as on political, military,
religious expressions from the constitution until cultural, social, and other matters in order to
1928. The TGNA’s duty of protecting the religious protect the existence of the country. The aim of
provisions was removed from Article 2 of the Secularism (Laiklik) was to have laws and practices
Constitution on April 10, 1928. The Article 26 of that were free of religion and apply secular practices
the Constitution had specified one of the duties as that would enable people to live together in peace.
executing the holy law (Arsel, 1961, p.41). Article With the principle of Nationalism (Milliyetçilik),
16 on the oath the members of the parliament took the understanding was that a nation shared the
on the day of their admission to the Assembly as same homeland within her geographical, political,
well as Article 28 on the oath that the president cultural, historical and ideological unity stemming
took in presence of the Assembly after his election from nationalism and history. Revolutionism
were changed. Accordingly, the expression vallahi- (Devrimcilik) was accepted as a principle to ensure
billahi (I swear before God) was changed to I that the other aims would be organized in a timely
promise upon my honor (Feyzioğlu, 1982, p.215, manner (Shaw and Shaw, 2002, p.375-395).
220). These changes made the structure of the The 1924 Constitution remained in effect
Constitution more secular. Besides these political until 1961 with various changes some of which
revolutions, there were reforms and revolutions were mentioned above. After some revisions that
in education, judiciary, social life, and economy. were made in 1920s and 1930s, this constitution
Education was emphasized in the sense that it was was rewritten in contemporary Turkish without
needed to train the young generation with the any changes in meaning and content and was put
necessary know-how so that they could meet the into force under the name Constitution (Anayasa)
demands of the modern world. instead of Teşkilat-ı Esasiye Kanunu on January 10,
Other important changes made in the 1945. However, the Democrat Party that ruled Turkey
constitution were related to the suffrage between 1950 and 1960 and opposed to Modern Turkish
rights given to women in 1930 for municipal format of the constitution, transformed the text of the
elections, in 1933 for village elders’ elections, Constitution on December 24, 1952 into the language
and in 1934 for general elections (Özbudun, and name of the old 1924 Constitutional Law (Lewis,
1981, p.92). On February 5, 1937, Mustafa 1968, p.435). Later, the Committee of the National
Kemal’s six principles, namely, nationalism, Unity, formed after the Military Intervention of May
populism, republicanism, secularism, statism 27, 1961, passed a law abolishing and amending
and revolutionism, were ingrained into Article certain provisions of the 1924 Constitution on
2 of 1924 Constitution (Özbudun, 1981, June 12, 1960. Then the Committee, put a new
p.89). These principles, named the Principles constitution into force on July 9, 1961. The new
16
constitution, Constitution of Turkey (Türkiye against the Greeks in 1922 that finalized the victory
Cumhuriyeti Anayasası), was based on the separation during the Turkish War of Independence, was
of powers. However, this constitution was in force accepted as the Victory Day of Turkey (Akbayrak,
for only 19 years until 1982 (Zürcher, 1993, p.246, 1987, p.36-37). August 30 is also known as the
280-281). Armed Forces Day in Turkey.
April 23 began to be celebrated with the
Honoring and Accepting April 23 as a participation of children from all around the
world in 1979 when UNESCO announced this
National Day
year as the World Children’s Day. In 1980, the
The struggle of TGNA in their efforts to save name of April 23 holiday was changed to the
the country from occupation was not forgotten. National Sovereignty and Children’s Day (Alkan,
The anniversary of its inauguration, April 23, was 2011, p.60).
accepted as a national day (Iyd-i Milli) with a law
passed in the Assembly on April 23, 1921(Akbayrak,
1987, p.35). Acceptance of April 23 as a national THE REPUBLICAN REGIME IN
day was made possible with a proposal given by TURKEY
a group of deputies. Although the pro-Sultanate
deputies objected to this proposal arguing that
there was no need to celebrate secular days other
The Establishment of the Republican
than the religious days and holidays, they were the People’s Party (RPP)
minority (Turan, 1992, p.256). April 23 remained The alignment in the TGNA and the increasing
as the sole national day of Turkey until 1923, when power of the second group enforced Mustafa Kemal
the abolition of the Sultanate on November 1 was to take action, and he decided to transform the
accepted the National Sovereignty Day (Egemenlik Society for the Defense of Rights into a political
Bayramı). These two national days were combined party. There were several leftist groups and parties
in 1925, and April 23 was accepted as the National in the TGNA such as Islamist Socialism defended
Sovereignty in Turkey (Akbayrak, 1987, p.36-37). by the Green Army (Yeşil Ordu), Communism
In the ensuing years, April 23 was accepted as defended by the Turkish Communist Party (Türkiye
the Children’s Protection Day (Himaye-Etfal Günü) Komunist Fırkası, hereafter TCP) and “labor based
in 1925. The proposal was made by Fuat Umay, one principle” supported by the People’s Participation
of the founders of the Children Protection Society Party (Halk İştirakiyûn Fırkası). During this period
(Himaye-i Etfal Cemiyeti) established in Ankara. socialist ideas became dominant since there was
When this proposal was accepted, the Society named a close relationship with the Soviet Union. The
April 23 “Children’s Day” (Çocuk Günü) in 1926 anti-imperialism of the newly established system
and Children’s Festival in 1927 (Alkan, 2011, p.55). in Russia and the impact of their championing
Thus, April 23 began to be celebrated as the National world peace had its affects in Turkey. However, the
Sovereignty Day on one hand and Children’s Festival proponents of socialism in Turkey and their ever-
on the other. Mustafa Kemal showed close interest in increasing dependence on Russia caused concern
the celebrations as well. After 1931, April 23 began in the populist groups. Mustafa Kemal allowed
to be celebrated as the National Sovereignty Day the formation of a separate Turkish Communist
and Children’s Day officially in the primary and Party on October 18, 1920 and controlled it via
secondary schools (Alkan, 2011, p.59). Then with a the participation of some of his close associates.
law passed in the Assembly on May 27, 1935, it was However, when the communists began to attract
officially renamed the “National Sovereignty Day”. more people, Mustafa Kemal decided to unite like-
minded people in a political party. An important
The same law also declared two important dates
step for the foundation of the party was taken in
of Turkish history to be national holidays: October
a meeting with his staff on January 14, 1923, after
29 and August 30.
the Turkish War of Independence. Mustafa Kemal
October 29, the date of the declaration of the had expressed his wish to establish a political party
Republican regime, was accepted as the National by the name of the People’s Party based on the ideas
Day. August 30, the date of the Great Offensive of Populism, which later became the Republican
17
People’s Party. He hoped to plan a Turkey with published a leaflet to inform people about the
no class conflict and with a working class as much elections and requirements for both electors and
similar as to those of Europe. Thus, the political candidates (Güneş, 1991, p.259).
party he planned would be supportive of a classless Soon as the First TGNA completed its term,
society in solidarity without a class conflict, which Mustafa Kemal issued a program (they named
would be the base of the Turkish Republic (Karpat, it umde) consisting of nine articles on April 8,
1991, p.55). The next step in the formation of a 1923 and they were accepted by the Society for
political party was taken in March 1923, well after the Defense of Rights. While there was a break
the invading Greek forces were removed from for the elections, the members of the Defense of
Turkey and the Lausanne Peace negotiations were Rights Group met in Ankara on August 9, 1923
interrupted. He declared on March 16, 1923 that; to prepare the by-laws of the People’s Party, and
there was now a new Turkish state different from they accepted the proclamation made by Mustafa
the old one, that the government was populist, Kemal on September 9, 1923. The party, however,
that ‘the destiny of the people was eternally in was officially established on September 11, 1923
its own hands’, and that the government’s two (Karpat, 1991, p.47). These nine articles were on
chief purposes were the ‘preservation of national the electoral program. At the same time, they were
existence and the securing of national welfare’. the first principles of the People’s Party’s ideological
Mustafa Kemal stated that the government infrastructure. These principles covered a multitude
accomplished these goals and that what was of areas such as: the national sovereignty; the
lacking was a political instrument to do the job. role of TGNA as the sole representative of the
(Karpat, 1991, p.47). Turkish nation; the abolition of the Sultanate to
Meanwhile, the TGNA served out its first term be nonnegotiable; the establishment of trust and
on April 1, 1923, and the elections were held on security in the country; lawful courts distributing
June 28, 1923 following the amendments made justice according the national needs; necessary
in the Law on Parliamentary Elections (İntihab-ı investments for the building of railways; the
Mebusan Kanunu) on April 3, 1923. This law was improvement of agriculture; primary and
actually the adaptation of Ottoman Electoral Law. secondary school education; general health, forests,
However, in order to meet the needs that came military services; welfare of reserve officers; the
about due to the the changes in the population social rights of citizens; ranks and duties of civil
profile and territorial losses after World War I officials; and the reconstruction of the country
and the Turkish War of Independence, revisions which suffered considerable destruction during
were made in this law by the proposals of deputies the Allied occupation (Lewis, 1981, pp.259-60; A
on November 25, 1922. According to the new Speech Delivered by Atatürk, 1981, pp.598-599).
provisions added on April 3, 1923: The Society of Defense of Rights Group
• Every 20 thousand men would elect a single participated in the general elections held on
deputy. June 28, 1923 with this program and won the
elections with a majority of %90. The Second
• Every man who has completed the age of
term of the TGNA started on August 11, 1923
18 had the right to vote.
and lasted until 1927, a 4 year term according
• A person needed not be a tax payer to be an to the 1924 Constitution. This TGNA approved
eligible primary voter or a secondary one. important treaties including the Lausanne Peace
• The elections would be held in two stages Treaty (August 13, 1923), took over Istanbul from
and by the method of absolute majority. the Allied Powers (October 6, 1923), approved
(Güneş, 1991, pp.256-260). significant motions such as the decisions to accept
Ankara as the Capital City (October 13 ), the
With the introduction of these regulations,
proclamation of the Republican Regime (October
the age requirement for the electoral population
29), the acceptance of the 1924 Constitution, and
was reduced to 18, and the number of eligible
the Abolition of the Caliphate (March 3, 1924).
voters increased as the tax payment was no longer
a requirement. Moreover, the government even Mustafa Kemal declared the foundation of the
People’s Party on September 11, 1923. He was
18
elected Party Chairman and Recep Bey (Peker) was accepted in Turkey on October 29, 1923. A
became the Party Secretary on the same day. The cabinet system was adopted and the name of the
party founders submitted a petition to the Ministry country was changed to Republic of Turkey (Zürcher,
of the Interior on October 23, 1923 and requested 1993, p.167). The Turkish equivalent of the word
official permission to legalize the party. Later, all the republic is cumhuriyet , a word that is derived from
members of the Society for the Defense of Rights the Arabic word “cumhur” which in its root means
joined this party and the People’s Party became ‘people’ (Turan, 1995, p.17). The connotation is that
the major and ruling party in the TGNA. The a republic is also known as a form of government that
following year, “the term Cumhuriyet (Republic) includes the participation of her citizens. Indeed, it
was added to the party’s title” at the party group was not wrong to use the name republic for a regime
meeting held on November 10, 1924, and it was that is found by election and not by inheritance.
renamed Republican People’s Party (Cumhuriyet The establishment of the republican regime
Halk Fırkası, hereafter RPP). Moreover, in the was important especially after the constitutional
Fourth Grand Meeting of the party that convened monarchic rule of the Ottoman Dynasty. In the
in 1935 “the Arabic term fırka was replaced by its Ottoman Empire, with the exception of the years
French equivalent, parti” (Karpat, 1991, p.47). 1876-1878 and 1908-1918, the sultans were the
absolute authority with no regard to laws or his
people, and they were not accountable for their
Fırka is the Arabic term for a political party.
actions or decisions to anybody or institution
(Lewis, 1968, pp.369-370). This is not the case in a
republican regime which is ruled with democracy.
In democracies, sovereignty is in the hands of the
attention
majority of the people. In this regime, the people
choose their representatives for a limited period
“In 1927 Mustafa Kemal explained the idea of time to govern themselves, that is, to use their
behind the People’s Party as: ‘I decided to sovereignty for their own sake. People have the
establish a group, entitled the Society for the right to question the rulers, and even penalize
Defence of Rights, with two purposes in mind: them when they do not act in accordance with
first, to marshal the nation’s moral and physical the law. Therefore, the rulers feel obliged to serve
strength to consolidate national independence people to meet their needs. A republic becomes
(through an international treaty); second, to invaluable when exercised with democracy because
reorganize the state and the nation within the in such a system, both the ruler of the state and the
framework of the Constitutional Act’.” (Karpat, parliament and the government are chosen by the
1991, p.46). people. Taking all these characteristics of a republic
into account, the acceptance of the republican
regime by the TGNA of 1923, aimed to bring
After its foundation, the RPP governed Turkey democracy to the country and rule the country
until 1950 and played an important role in the with the participation of her citizens.
reforms and revolutions that were implemented. Democracies, however, are the most advanced
Two more parties rival to RPP were established in forms of government in our time, governed by the
1924 and in 1930, respectively a topic which will people, for the people, on behalf of the people.
be examined in the following paragraphs. In democracies, there should be no shadow over
the sovereignty of the people. However, in the
Proclamation of the Republican Regime world there are examples of monarchial but
not republican states where democracy is fully
After peace was established with the Lausanne
implemented. It should be noted that not every
Peace Treaty, the road for modernization and freedom
country ruled with democracy have republican
was clear. The plan was to transform the traditional
regimes as in the example of the Great Britain, the
society into a modern republic, and this was not an
Netherlands, Spain, and Belgium. Republic, on the
easy task. Following Lausanne, republican regime
other hand, is a form of government.
19
Although, the idea of a republican regime in the the national forces under one central command.
Ottoman Empire was initiated during the Tanzimat From the Amasya Declaration onward, the most
period, no one believed that such a regime could important aspiration for Mustafa Kemal had been
be established within the Empire, and having the question of national sovereignty. Mustafa
a constitution was sufficient for the Ottoman Kemal, before the Erzurum Congress convened,
intellectuals. Furthermore, being a Republican was told his close friend Mazhar Müfit (Kansu) about
a major crime in the Ottoman Empire. However, the changes he intended to make in the future.
the thought of a republican regime remained only as One of these ideas was that the future form of
an idea which were frequently discussed among the government he wished had to be a republic, which
intellectuals (Turan, 1995, pp.17-19). Nevertheless, would ensure and preserve the national sovereignty
Mustafa Kemal Pasha (Atatürk) turned the idea of a possible (Kansu, 1997, p.74).
republican regime into a reality in 1923. Mustafa Kemal chose not to mention that he
Mustafa Kemal Pasha, who witnessed the wanted to establish a republican regime in the
second Constitutional Monarchy experience of the early days to avoid any obstacle for the republican
Ottoman Empire between 1908-1918, believed regime. He needed first to ensure a unity of the
that the economic, social and political problems people and national forces in Anatolia in order to
faced by the nation could not be resolved unless fight against the occupations and free the country.
a government based on national sovereignty was A statement about the name of a possible regime
established. Holding these views, he could not rise would have created disagreements among the
to higher echelons of the Committee of Union and nationalists, and thus this most important issue,
Progress. He stood apart from the leading figures of was undermined not to cause fights between
the Committee and even had opposing discussions brothers. For this reason, he kept the name of the
with them on the issues of government policies and political regime as, in his words, “a national secret.”
the involvement of the military in politics (Shaw (Turan, 1992, p.294)
and Shaw, 2002, p.374). On July 6, 1918, Mustafa In fact, the road to a republican regime was
Kemal wrote in his diary about his plans to change built from the beginning ofTGNA. Interestingly,
the society and bring it into civilized level. He wrote: while the Ottoman Sultanate was not aware of
the possible changes in the regime of the country,
If I ever acquire great authority and power, I
the foreign press published news about a possible
think that I will be able to introduce necessary
transformation needed in our social life with a change of rule to a republic in the country. For
‘coup’ suddenly. I do not accept and my spirit example, in a telegram he wrote to Lord Curzon
revolts at the idea entertained in some quarters on September 17, 1919, the British High
that this can be done [only] gradually by getting Commissioner John de Robeck in Istanbul stated
the common people and the ulema to think at that there could be an independent republic under
my level. After spending so many years acquiring the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha in Anatolia
higher education, enquiring into civilized social (Turan, 1995, p.20). The British newspaper, The
life and getting a taste for freedom, why should I Times, also wrote about the Sivas Congress as the
descend to the level of common people? Rather, I Anatolian Republic in Sivas (Turan, 1992, p.294).
should raise them to my level. They should become
like me, not I like them. Nevertheless, there are Meanwhile, the increasing tension in the
some points here which should be gone into. It Parliament during the discussions about the
would be wrong to make a start before deciding abolition of the Sultanate became more moderate
on them. (İnan, 1983, p.43). after the new elections were held. Before going
into elections, Mustafa Kemal, as the head of the
These ideas are important in the sense that Defense of Rights Group, issued a program (umde)
they presented a preview of what Mustafa Kemal consisting of nine articles on April 8, 1923. They
historically wanted to undertake. After the Armistice were accepted by the Society for the Defense of the
of Mudros, when the country was occupied and Rights on September 9, 1923 when the Society met
national organizations were established to counter to establish and prepare the by-laws of the People’s
the occupations, the opportunity Mustafa Kemal Party (Halk Fırkası) (Karpat, 1991, p.47).
was looking for emerged. He managed to unite
20
Figure 1.4 Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) together with the deputies in front of the TGNA.
Source: http://www.wikiwand.com/tr/T%C3%BCrkiye_B%C3%BCy%C3%BCk_Millet_Meclisi
The second term of the Grand National of Independence. Following the ratification, Istanbul
Assembly started on August 11, 1923. Mustafa was evacuated by the Allied forces on October 2, 1923
Kemal was elected once again the President of the and was handed over to the forces of the TGNA on
TGNA. However, before the second term started, October 6, 1923. Consequently, one of the important
Rauf (Orbay) Bey, an old friend of Mustafa Kemal’s aims of the War of Independence was achieved. Later,
and the Chairman of the Council of Ministers, it was time to name the already implemented form of
resigned on August 4, 1923 due to disagreements government that was in force since the establishment of
in the Council. Mustafa Kemal appointed Fethi the TGNA in1920. On September 13, 1923, Mustafa
(Okyar), his old friend and “political associate from Kemal told Yunus Nadi Bey, a journalist and the
the CUP days” as prime minister on August 14 owner of the newspaper Yeni Gün, which supported
instead of Rauf (Orbay), who at that time became the national struggle who was also a deputy in the
one of Mustafa Kemal’s opponents by leading the TGNA in which the first article of the constitution
conservatives in the TGNA (Ahmad, 1993, p.53). would be changed to state: “The State of Turkey is a
Fethi Bey had to take over the position of Minister Republic governed by a republican rule”. It was also the
of Interior. In fact, Mustafa Kemal’s preference for Yeni Gün Newspaper, dated October 8, 1923, that
Fethi Bey was also the result of the political conflicts announced the upcoming declaration of the republic
in the TGNA originating from the differences on (Turan, 1992, p.295). Moreover, Mustafa Kemal
the political matters such as the future positions of also said the following on September 27, 1923 in a
both the sultanate and the caliphate or the political statement to Neue Freie Presse, a Viennese newspaper:
regime that the TGNA was to adopt since it was “The sovereignty unconditionally belongs to the nation,
opened on April 23, 1920. and this wıll be ensured by the republic” (Atatürk’ün
The political groups that existed in the first Söylev ve Demeçleri- III, 1989, pp.86-87). Later on, in
TGNA did not exist in the second TGNA except a statement issued on October 22, 1923, the General
the Defense of Rights Group. This constituted the Directorate of Press announced that the name of the
majority of this parliamentary group. Shortly after state would be the Republic of Turkey. All these press
the beginning of the second term, the TGNA ratified news were surely signs that the TGNA Government
the Treaty of Lausanne on August 23, 1923. The was preparing to declare a republican regime.
treaty was accepted as a political victory of the War
21
attention day to the Assembly. This proposal was first accepted

in the meeting of the People’s Party Group at the
TGNA on October 29, 1923. Then, it was presented
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk studied and
to the Assembly, endorsed by it at 20.30 with the
enumerated the characteristics of a republic
approval of 158 deputies, and announced to the
with a scientist’s diligence. His own words
general population (Turan, 1992, p.295-298).
explain why he preferred a republican regime
for the Turkish nation as: According to these changes, an addendum
The last word in the republic is at the Assembly which read “The Turkish State is a Republic” was
elected by the nation ... added to Article 1 of the 1921 Constitution.
The Republic is the best way to protect the Relevant changes pertaining to the practice of
national sovereignty of the parliament and a republican regime were made in Articles 4,
the elected president for a limited time. In the 10, 11, and 12 of the constitution (A Speech
republic, the president and the president of the Delivered by Atatürk, 1981, pp.664-665; Turan,
parliament cannot do anything but think and 1995, pp.13-14). With the proclamation of the
foster the people’s freedom, security and comfort Republic, Mustafa Kemal Pasha was elected as the
... The Republic is the most robust form of state President of the Turkish State and became the first
that the great civilized nations in recent years President of the Republic. The cabinet system was
owned after having suffered untold misery and also accepted, and this made the foundation of a
blood. The Republic is the last chapter that government easier and enabled the government to
mankind has found struggling for its own sake fulfill its duties. Mustafa Kemal appointed İsmet
in the past four and a half centuries. (Atatürk’ün Bey as the Prime Minister on October 30 (Zürcher,
Söylev ve Demeçleri- III, 1989, pp.86-87).). 1991, p.33). The Republican regime as well as the
parliamentary system was reinforced to maintain
the existence of Turkey. Thus criticisms that arose
The Prime Minister Fethi Bey, who was at the same about lack of authority, lack of presidential power,
time the Minister of Interior Affairs, resigned from and political crises came to an end.
his second position on October 24 1923. Ali Fuat Important changes came about with the
(Cebesoy) Pasha, the vice president of the TGNA, also declaration of the Republican regime. It was the
resigned, and these resignations meant a government first time in the Turkish history that a republican
crisis. Then, the People’s Party group nominated Rauf regime was put into force. The ones who wanted to
Bey to the position of the President of the TGNA and bring the Ottoman sultanate back failed and this
Sabit (Sağıroğlu) Bey to the position of the Minister of paved the way and created a suitable environment
Interior. However, these nominations did not achieve to implement the Turkish revolutions.
success since, according to the 1921 Constitution, the When the Republic was proclaimed, the
ministers had to be chosen from the Assembly and by majority of the people did not know what it meant.
the Assembly one by one. Meanwhile, in a meeting Common people learned what the republic meant
held in the Presidential residence Çankaya Mansion and got exited with the cannons fired all over the
on October 26, it was decided that all members of country. They celebrated the new form of state with
the Council of Ministers should resign and that they festivals just as they had done after the national
should not accept if they were elected for the positions struggle. At the same time, there were those who
in the Council. They did so on October 27; in fact, met the news of the republic with a negative reaction
this was part of a plan to prepare the conditions for the and criticism. The reactions came especially from
declaration of the republican regime. Consequently, both the Istanbul Press and some of the leaders
when the government crisis could not be resolved who supported Mustafa Kemal during the Turkish
until October 28, Mustafa Kemal Pasha, who was War of Independence. Well known journalists and
at the same time the founder of the People’s Party, chief editors such as Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın from
called İsmet (İnönü) Pasha to Çankaya Mansion. Tanin newspaper, Velid Ebüziyya from Tevhid-i
They prepared a proposal for the declaration of the Efkâr, and Ahmet Emin (Yalman) the proprietor of
republican regime as well as for the necessary changes Vatan newspaper criticized the announcement of
in the 1921 Constitution to be submitted the next the republican regime saying that the regime was
22
proclaimed in a hurry without consulting anyone, and founded an opposition party in 1924 (Zürcher,
and the constitution entrusted too much power to 1991, p.56).
‘Mustafa Kemal similar to the sultans’. Moreover, The position of the caliphate emerged again once
they began to question the authority of the caliph. the regime became republican. The conservatives
Hüseyin Cahit, for example, said that he “favored continued to use it as the symbol of opposition
a republican regime but did not worship to this and as a counter-force to the president of the
regime.” Furthermore, he questioned why Mustafa Republic. Then political tension heightened with
Kemal still remained as the president of the People’s the involvement of the Muslims of British India
Party (Turan, 1995, pp.28-29). Mustafa Kemal, provoked by Britain. This unforeseen interference
who knew the drawbacks of running for presidency was accepted as an intervention in the internal
along with the party leadership, handed over the affairs and was protested by the Republican People’s
chairmanship of the People’s Party to Ismet Pasha Party members. Mustafa Kemal abolished the
on November 19, 1923 (Turan, 1995, p.96). Caliphate with the support of the People’s Party
The reactions against the Republican regime on March 3, 1924 so that Islam could not be used
and President Mustafa Kemal in the Istanbul as a political instrument by the supporters of the
press expressed the ideas of some of the leaders of old regime against the Republican regime. The
the Independence War. Rauf Bey, Ali Fuat Pasha, TGNA deposed the caliph and banished the house
and Refet Pasha were in Istanbul while Kazım of Ottoman from Turkey on November 1, 1922.
(Karabekir) Pasha was in Trabzon when the When the Caliphate was abolished the position of
republican regime was declared. Rauf Bey and Şeyhülislam, the Ministry of Religious Foundations
Refet Pasha were the supporters of the sultanate (Şer’iye ve Evkaf Vekâleti), and religious courts (Şeriat
and the caliphate (Turan, 1995, p.29-36). Ali Mahkemeleri) were also abolished. The Directorate
Fuat Pasha, however, did not voice any opinions of Religious Affairs (Diyanet İsleri Başkanlığı)
on this issue saying that he had just returned replaced the Ministry of Religious Foundations as
from Moscow and could not find time to assess well as the Directorate of Religious Foundations
the situation. By doing so, he avoided voicing his (Evkaf Müdürlüğü), and all came under the prime
opinion. The relationship between Ali Fuat Pasha minister’s office. Moreover, the Law of Union
and Mustafa Kemal worsened when the latter of Education (Tevhid-i Tedrisat Yasası) united all
decided to appoint İsmet (İnönü) Pasha as the educational institutions in Turkey on the same
Prime Minister although it was Ali Fuat Pasha who date. The members of the Ottoman dynasty and the
was nominated in the People’s Party group meeting Caliph were sent to exile on March 3, 1924. (Shaw
on October 29, 1923. Later, Ali Fuat, Refet, Rauf, and Shaw, 2002, p.384-385; Mardin, 1981, p.210).
and Kazım Pashas drew apart from Mustafa Kemal
Figure 1.5 Abdülmecid Efendi, the last Caliph, with his daughter Dürrüşehvar Sultan in Niece-France in exile.
Source: https://www.pinterest.ca/pin/183873597267492499/
23
All these were radical changes in Turkey

and followed by others to replace the Ottoman
institutions to establish a modern nation state that
3
would be different from the Ottoman Empire. Why
were changes necessary? Changes were necessary to What might be the importance of the republican
be able to survive in the conditions of the modern regime for Turkey?
world. The Turkish Revolutions made in every
field during the lifetime of Mustafa Kemal aimed Ankara: The Capital City of the
to transform the traditional Turkish society into
Turkish Republic
a modern state, and create a Turkish nation and
independent Turkish Republic. Ankara has been important for Modern Turkey
since the beginning of the national struggle. Because
Among these revolutions, the Surname Law
it became the headquarters of the nationalist
(Soyadı Kanunu) adopted on June 21, 1934 has
movement, Ankara was chosen as the capital city
a different and meaningful significance. Mustafa
of Turkey by the Heyet-i Temsiliye (Representative
Kemal, based on this law, was given the surname
Committee), whose members came to Ankara after
Atatürk honoring him as the father of the Turks.
the Sivas Congress on December 27, 1919. Mustafa
İsmet Pasha received the surname İnönü with a
Kemal, as the Chairman of the Representative
reference to his success at İnönü Battles.
Committee, and his friends were impressed by the
The republican regime, with its parliamentary warm welcome and faith of the people of the city
system, was reinforced to maintain the existence from the first day they arrived in this city (Zürcher,
of Turkey. Mustafa Kemal developed a nationalist 1993, p.151-152). This attitude continued
understanding depending on humanisn, a common throughout the Turkish War of Independence. In
history, a common culture, and a common fact, Mustafa Kemal and his colleagues did not
language. This understanding was materialized choose Ankara as the Capital city just because of
with the principles of populism, republicanism, this reason, but there were other important and
nationalism, secularism, statism, and revolutionism. rational reasons. Most importantly, Ankara was
These principles laid the ideological soul of Modern located in a region strategically important and
Turkey. almost equidistant to all the corners of Anatolia
After Mustafa Kemal passed away on November that gave easy access to people living in other cities
10, 1938, İsmet İnönü was elected as the second in Anatolia. Furthermore, Ankara was connected
President of Turkey. Later, İnönü was elected as to the Anatolian railway lines in 1892 and was
the Chairman of the RPP at the Extraordinary directly linked to İstanbul (Zürcher, 1993, p.77,
Party Meeting held on December 26, 1938, and 151). It was also located in the heart of Anatolia
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was honored as the eternal away from immediate enemies. Thus, it was easy
leader of the RPP (Ahmad, 1993, p.69). This was to defend this city against the Allied occupation.
the beginning of a new period in the history of Althought, the Greek Army tried to capture Ankara
Turkey with İsmet İnönü as the National Chief. but it managed to come only as far as Haymana.
The years with İsmet İnönü witnessed important They were defeated and forced to retreat after the
domestic and international events, most of which Sakarya Battle (Zürcher, 1993, p.155). Moreover,
were related to World War II and its impact on Ankara did not also have a cosmopolitan structure
Turkey and world politics. Turkey got more and like Istanbul. Istanbul, which was the seat of the
more involved in international politics with the Ottoman Sultan, was under occupation, and it
start of World War II, which had both a negative represented an old order which was about to end.
and a positive impact on the country. This is a
topic discussed in detail in the following chapters.
24
Having all these features made Ankara the number of the deputies was not limited since it was
center, and after the signing of the Treaty of not known how many of them would be able to
Lausanne, Ankara was accepted as the capital of the reach Ankara. Therefore, in the early days, when the
young Republic. On October 13, 1923, a motion number of representatives diminished due deaths,
was presented to the Assembly by his colleagues illness, resignation or other reasons by elections were
and İsmet Pasha, one of the leading commanders held for these seats. However, when it became hard
of the Turkish War of Independence and the hero to make decisions and pass laws in the Assembly
of the Lausanne peace talks. Ankara, which had due to lack of majority of vote, it was decided to
already served as the administrative center for three determine the quorum of decision at the Assembly
years before the declaration of the Republic, was sessions with a law titled the Law of the Quorum of
officially accepted as the capital city of the Republic Decision (Nisab-ı Müzakere Kanunu) on September
of Turkey (Zürcher, 1993, p.167). 5, 1920. With this law, it was declared that the
TGNA was to work until the Sultanate and Caliphate
and the country was saved from the Allied control.
POWER STRUGGLES IN THE Moreover, the law also determined the number and
EARLY REPUBLICAN ERA AND profiles of the deputies to be elected. Furthermore,
MULTI-PARTY EXPERIENCES this law ensured that the Army commanders could
serve as deputies while active on duty. Meanwhile,
Political Groups in the TGNA by elections continued to be held during the heyday
of the War of Independence in 1922 (Turan, 1992,
Turkish Republic was founded not only by
p.133).
defeating the Allied Powers at the Turkish War
of Independence but also by overcoming the The deputies in the TGNA shared “a variety of
ideological differences and power struggles at the ideologies, ranging from Islamism to populism and
TGNA. In fact, it would not be wrong to say that from nationalism to socialism. The idea uniting
the discussions at the Sivas Congress were the the various groups was the desire to overcome
precursors of these differences that took place in the foreign occupation and establish sovereignty
TGNA. There were different ideas and ideologies over the territory outlined in the National Pact
with very strong arguments each trying to win over (Misak-ı Milli) as accepted at the Congress of
the members of the other groups in the Congress Erzurum” (Karpat, 1991, p.46). Thus, “the first
and the same behavior continued in the TGNA. national assembly was quite a heterogeneous
The foremost and common idea among these and unruly body” which later became clear with
various groups from the beginning of the opening hardline communists forming the left wing and
of the TGNA was the unity of the people and the conservatives and Islamists forming the right
establishment of an independent state which would wing (Zürcher, 1993, p.157-158; Shaw and Shaw,
rule herself without interference. This common 2002, p.351-353). In the early years of the TGNA,
goal was enough to keep them together despite there was no vicious ideological struggle, and no
differences. Mustafa Kemal issued his circular political groups were formed in the early months
dated March 19, 1920 and called the nationalists since members did not know each other. However,
to come together at TGNA. He declared that every when the unity of forces was established in the
political opinion would be represented in the Assembly with the acceptance of the constitution
TGNA, which was to be opened in Ankara. and its revolutionary character with the acceptance
of the High Treason Law (Hıyanet-i Vataniye
The TGNA was opened with 115 deputies on
Kanunu), the members of the Assembly started
its first day. The number of deputies reached 365 on
to understand one another better. Then, the
August 18. Most of these candidates were nominated
ideas about the unity of the country began to be
by the Societies for the Defense of Rights (Müdafaa-i
differentiated among these different ideological
Hukuk Cemiyetleri) in March-April 1920. Moreover,
groups. The motions presented by the deputies on
92 deputies from the former Istanbul Parliament
various issues and the methods to be followed as
(1920) who were able to escape from Istanbul by
well as their speeches provided an environment
overcoming the Allied control joined the Assembly
where they could get to know each other and form
later (Zürcher, 1993, p.151). At beginning, the
25
groups. Especially, two events contributed to the Kemal since Çerkez Ethem wanted to make it an
formation of groups in the Assembly. One of them army led by himself. To counter this movement,
was the populist program publicized by Mustafa Mustafa Kemal, formed an official ‘communist’
Kemal on September 13, 1920 to determine the party named Türkiye Komünist Fırkası (Communist
basic features of the constitution synthesizing Party of Turkey) on October 18, 1920 with people
“the radical programs of the Easternists without close to him. There was also a communist party
their Bolshevik overtones, and the constitutional in Baku in the spring of 1920, and it was taken
liberalism of the Westernists without the sultanate”. over by Turkish communists under the leadership
The other was the acceptance of a bill offered again of Mustafa Suphi, a former teacher who escaped to
by Mustafa Kemal for “validating the TGNA as a Russia in 1914 and was interned there throughout
representative body and affirming its prerogatives the war. The leftists within the Defense Group
and objectives, while bringing greater clarity to the established “the People’s Communist Party (Halk
nature of the assembly regime” and empowering İştirakiyun Fırkası) in November 1920, which had
the role of the TGNA Army as the sole army on some connections to the Green Army” (Zürcher,
September 18, 1920. All these worried both the 1993, p.157). Meanwhile, Enver Pasha, the former
pro-sultanists who were expecting to preserve the leader of the CUP and the Ministry of War of the
Sultanate and the leftists who were planning to Ottoman Empire tried to obstruct Mustafa Kemal.
establish a Socialist Islamist regime via an army, After fleeing to Berlin in 1918, Enver Pasha built
and they began to form their groups to resist any up contacts with the Bolsheviks and traveled to
motion against their own plans (Kayalı, 2008, Baku with the intent to form an organization that
p.132-133). would enable him to come back and clean Anatolia
These groups were Tesanüd (Union), İstiklâl from the Allied occupation. He tried to ignore
(Independence), Halk Zümresi (People’s society), Mustafa Kemal and wanted to take the leadership
and Islahat (Reformation) (A Speech Delivered by from him. Enver Pasha wanted to build a kind
Atatürk, 1981, p. 502; Turan, 1992, p.257). There of Islamic Comintern on the basis of a group of
were also some other minor groups that were formed former Teşkilât-i Mahsusa, Special Organization of
for special purposes (Zürcher, 1993, pp.156-159; the CUP, agents from different parts of the Islamic
Shaw and Shaw, 2002, pp.353-354). Although world who then lived in Europe. Neither his
these groups were heterogeneous, they united participation at “the Soviet sponsored ‘Congress
when the reformist laws passed in the Assembly by of the Peoples of the East’ in Baku in September
the supporters of Mustafa Kemal, which worried 1920 as a representative of North Africa” nor the
the opponents as he dominated the Assembly People’s Soviets Party (Halk Şuralar Fırkası) a party
and government alone (Zürcher, 1993, p.159). supporting partly Islamic and socialist lines to
The opponents with their ideological stance later attract the Moslems in the world he established,
formed the right and left wings in the TGNA, and gave fruits despite the Soviet support (Zürcher,
the existence of different ideological formations in 1993, p.158). All his efforts to come to Anatolia
the TGNA caused political discussions and rivalry. failed when Mustafa Kemal won the battles against
the Greek Army one by one and the Soviet Russia
The Halk Zümresi Group as one of the leftist
supported Mustafa Kemal. Enver Pasha “never gave
groups was established on September 5, 1920. The
up his dreams of a new Islamic/Turkic empire.”
group wanted to establish an order in Anatolia
Interestingly, he went to Bukhara (Uzbekistan)
by taking the Soviet Revolution as an example.
when Lenin offered him to go there to organize the
This group with an anti-Western attitude was
Muslims there and suppress the Muslim resistance
the follower of the political organization called
against the communists. However, he joined the
the Green Army (Yeşil Ordu), which owned an
Muslim insurgents and even asked the Soviet
Islamist-socialist agenda (Kayalı, 2008, p.131).
forces to withdraw from Turkestan. He died there
The Green Army was established in May 1920 “to
for his ideals in June 1922 while leading the Turkic
counter the activities of the sultan’s propagandists
guerrilla bands near the Afghan borders in a fight
who operated under the name of the ‘Army of the
against the Red Army (Zürcher, 1993, p.158).
Caliphate’” (Zürcher, 1993, p.157). However, this
organization was disbanded in July 1920 by Mustafa
26
Additionally, the pro-Sultan and pro-Caliphate attention

groups in the TGNA posed another obstacle for
Mustafa Kemal to overcome since they affected
In his long Speech delivered in 1927, Mustafa
the work of the Assembly and made it difficult to Kemal said: “Eventually I took recourse to
issue laws. Especially the motions discussed during forming a party myself under the name of the
the course of the Turkish War of Independence, “Party [Society] for the Defense of Rights of
the 1921 Constitution and the abolition of the Anadolu and Rumeli” … I put a fundamental
Sultanate caused bitter struggles in the Assembly. article, the meaning of which I summarized in
However, the main rivalry arose when the leftists two points. The first was this: the party will secure
and the unionists wanted to control the TGNA by the integrity of the country and the independence
forming two apparent groups in the Assembly. of the nation on the principles laid down in
When Mustafa Kemal could not convince these the National Pact…. Secondly: “The party will
different groups and was faced with the danger of henceforward exert all its efforts within the
sectarian struggle, he had formed a group called compass of the Constitution act for the purpose
the Group for the Defense of Rights (Müdafaa-i of preparing and defining as far as possible the
Hukuk Grubu), which originated from the Society organization of the State and Nation…the
for the Defense of the Rights of Anatolia and Assembly now have a party bearing a similar
Rumelia (Anadolu ve Rumeli Müdafaa-i Hukuk name which had its origin in this union.” (A
Speech Delivered by Atatürk, 1981, pp.503)
Grubu) on May 10, 1921(Karpat, 1991, p.46). This
group was composed of his Western and reform
minded supporters. The major goal of the Defense While Mustafa Kemal formed the Defense of
of Rights Group was to realize the peace in the Rights Group, the opponents worked without having
country and the independence of the nation within a name for their groups for a while. Once they were
the principles of the National Pact. Furthermore, joined by the released detainees from Malta (including
this group also promised to realize the national Kara Vasıf -the former chief of Karakol Teşkilatı), they
goals and to form state and national organizations took the name of the Second Group in late 1921
within the framework of the constitution. The (Zürcher, 1993, p.159). However, the second group
group established a committee that determined the consisted of members of parliament with different
topics to be discussed and the decisions to be made. goals and ideas such as reactionaries, conservatives,
According to their principles, prior to bringing the pro-Cemal Pasha members, pro-Islamist members,
motions to the Assembly, the group was to discuss pro-sultan members, and pro-1876 Constitution
the topics of the motions among themselves to members. Hüseyin Rauf, Adnan Adıvar, Hüseyin
persuade their friends. Moreover, if a decision was Avni, Emin Bey, Salahattin Bey, and Kara Vasıf Bey
taken by the Group, it would be binding for all were dominant in the Second group. Refet Pasha also
supported this group. The second group accepted a
members (Shaw and Shaw, 2002, pp.351-352).
7-point program on July 16, 1922. They called for
However, this particular decision was criticized and
the removal of the presidency of the Assembly and the
caused a break within the group. The divisions in
head of the government, the introduction of a cabinet
the Assembly became clear according to where the
system of government, and removal of President’s right
deputies sat indicating their loyalties to a particular “to nominate ministers for the Assembly’s approval.”
group. The ones from the first group started to sit Furthermore, they wanted a return to the original
on the right, the opponents on the left, while the system by which members elected ministers from
neutralists and the elders sat in the middle. among themselves by secret ballot”, the amendments
to the laws of the Commander-inChief, and to
abolish of the Independence Courts (Shaw and Shaw,
2002, p.361-362).
27
Although the Second Group, which was formed Afterwards, the first group under Mustafa Kemal’s
by the opponents of Mustafa Kemal, tried to be leadership was able to control the TGNA to
seen as a supporter of both national sovereignty and achieve the national goals. However, the second
libertarian policies, its members did not hesitate to group continued their opposition to the decisions
promote or support pro-Islamist and pro-sultanate taken in the Assembly since they were afraid that
deputies. They even wanted to bring the Sultan to with such power Mustafa Kemal would replace
head the Assembly. This group became powerful the sultan, an idea that was dismissed after the
later, and on July 12, 1922, it even was able to republican regime was accepted and Mustafa
form the new government under the presidency of Kemal was elected the President of the Turkish
Rauf Bey ,who acted with them instead of Fevzi Republic. However, the conservatives from this
Pasha, who was the candidate nominated by the group began to use the Caliphate as the symbol
First Group, (Shaw and Shaw, 2002, p.362). This of opposition against Mustafa Kemal until the
became possible when the second group used this Caliphate was abolished.
chance after a law passed on July 8, 1922 in the
Assembly about ending the right of the president
of the Assembly “to nominate the ministers for the
Multi-Party Experiences in the Early
Assembly’s approval”. This would mean returning Republican Era (1924-1930)
to the original system by where members elected During the lifetime of Atatürk, there were
ministers from among themselves by secret ballot.” opposition movements within the TGNA which
Moreover, this law also ordered the separation of started diverse discussions in the TGNA, in the
the chairmanship of the Council of Ministers from RPP, and at the same time in the politics of Turkey.
the President of the Assembly. In this manner, Some of the aforementioned opposing movements
Mustafa Kemal as the President of the Assembly in the TGNA mainly appeared during the Turkish
was not going to run the government when Rauf War of Independence in 1920-1922 and during
Bey was presiding over the government (Shaw the discussions of the movement to abolish the
and Shaw, 2002, p.362). Meanwhile, the deputies Sultanate and to accept a republican regime. The
from the second group even tried to modify the ideological and political differences gave birth to
Draft about the election of the deputies with an different groups as mentioned above. While the
18-point motion. They submitted this motion on First group was evolved into the RPP in 1923,
November 25, 1922 to prevent Mustafa Kemal the Second Group represented by minor groups
from becoming candidate in the Parliamentary and Turkey Peoples’ Communist Party in the
election. The 14th Article of this motion read as TGNA later became a new political movement.
follows: “To be elected a member of the Grand Meanwhile, there were other opposition parties in
National Assembly, a person must belong to the the Assembly with a program different from the
population of those districts which are within the leftist group. One of these parties was Terakkiperver
present frontiers of Turkey, and he must have his Cumhuriyet Fırkası (Progressive Republican Party,
domicile in one of the present electoral districts.” hereafter PRP) established on November 17, 1924.
Mustafa Kemal protested this motion by saying The founders and leaders of the PRP were close
that he was born in Salonika and his home town friends of Atatürk and the former RPP members.
was not a part of Turkey anymore. Furthermore, There were many reasons behind the
he could not stay in the same electoral district establishment of the PRP. A series of radical
more than five years since he spent his life in battle decisions such as the abolition of the Ottoman
fields. Then, after long discussions, this article Sultanate in 1922, the Lausanne Peace Treaty, the
was rejected and this motion was criticized by the proclamation of Ankara as the capital city, the
supporters of Mustafa Kemal (A Speech delivered declaration of the Republican regime, and the
by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, 1981, pp.602-603). promotion of İsmet Pasha to important positions
28
disturbed the opponents in the TGNA. However, started provoked by Britain in the Eastern Anatolia.
after the abolition of the Caliphate, the acceptance Mustafa Kemal took the next action to keep his
of the 1924 Constitution, and the measures taken to military rivals from the Assembly by asking some
severe the relationship between the army and politics generals on October 30, 1924 to resign from the
created mutual distrust between Mustafa Kemal and Assembly and return to their military commands.
his rivals some of which were the old comrades in The only general who supported Mustafa Kemal
arms with him. Some were generals still in command on this issue was Fevzi (Çakmak) Pasha. The other
of the army, and they were not reactionaries but commanders who rivaled Mustafa Kemal resigned
liberals and modernists. The rivalry between them from their military commissions to continue with
and Mustafa Kemal increased after the proclamation their opposition in the Assembly. Finally, the former
of the republic, and even they “protested that they commanders with other opponents of Mustafa
had not overthrown an absolute monarchy in order Kemal and the RPP founded the PRP.
to set up an absolute republic under the personal The RPP members, mainly Kâzım (Karabekir)
rule of Mustafa Kemal” (Ahmad, 1993, p.56). Later, Pasha, Ali Fuat (Cebesoy) Pasha, Refet Pasha,
“rumors of a generals’ plot against” Mustafa Kemal, Hüseyin Rauf (Orbay), Adnan (Adıvar) and İsmail
severed the relations between Mustafa Kemal and (Canbulat) Beys, resigned from the RPP and
his military rivals. He “had the Assembly pass a established the PRP. Kazım Pasha was the chairman
law on 19 December [1923] obliging officers who of the PRP, Ali Fuat Pasha was the second leader.
wanted to be in politics to resign their commissions” These men were the leaders and the commanders
(Ahmad, 1993, p.57). This was done to neutralize during the Turkish War of Independence. The other
the rivals’ power in the Army. In 1924, while there founding members of the PRP were Rüştü Pasha,
were discussions about the Turks who were sent to Sabit Muhtar, Necati, Besim, Şükrü, Faik, and
Turkey within the framework of the Population Halis Turgut Beys. Soon after the formation of this
Exchange Convention between Turkey and Greece, party, with the deputies who had resigned from
the rivals criticized the government. Meanwhile, the RPP, the number of the PRP deputies in the
the Mosul question was on the agenda, talks started TGNA increased to 28 (Zürcher, 1991, pp.45-56).
between Turkey and Britain, and an insurrection
Figure 1.6 The founders of the Progressive Republican Party. (left to right Adnan (Adıvar), Ali Fuat (Cebesoy),
Kazım (Karabekir) Pasha, Rauf (Orbay), Refet (Bele)
Source: http://www.wikiwand.com/tr/Terakkiperver_Cumhuriyet_F%C4%B1rkas%C4%B1
29
The PRP program included the following in the High Treason Law. The cabinet also issued
principles: support for republicanism and martial law by a legislature and the Law for the
democracy, reduction of state power, single election Maintenance of Order (Takrir-i Sükûn Kanunu)
system (Article 8), judicial independence (hakim on March 4, 1925. Although the leaders of the
teminatı Article 10), non-partisan president (Article PRP were against the rebellion and supported the
13), administrative decentralization (idari adem-i ban on the use of religion as a means of political
merkeziyet, Article 14), sharing of the state owned instrumentation, they criticized the acceptance of
lands equally, and respect for religious beliefs. this martial law since they believed that this would
What seemed to worry the PRP was “unity of all allow the government to have more power to take
forces in the National Assembly and the possibility radical decisions (Zürcher, 1991, pp.73-82). With
to create an authoritarian administration ...”. They the acceptance of the Martial law, the Independence
advocated for the separation of power within the Tribunals (İstiklâl Mahkemeleri) revived and
government and emphasized this at different times. two-independence tribunals were set up: one in
The PRP members certainly meant Mustafa Kemal Ankara and an the other in Diyarbakır, called the
and his Party when they stated that they were Eastern Independence Tribunal. Incidentally, “the
aiming to “protect individual freedoms by defying rebels were soon disbanded. Şeyh Sait and his
the oligarchic intentions of few people” (Zürcher, chief assistants were captured on April 15, 1925,
1991, pp.95-109). Standing on different grounds, convicted by the Eastern Independence Tribunal
the two parties, the PRP and the RPP, clashed (May 25), and executed (June 29), thus putting
especially on the matters such as the use of state the cap, for the moment, on both the Kurdish and
authority and the radical changes in the country the conservative reactions.” (Shaw and Shaw, 2002,
such as the proclamation of a republican regime p.381).
and the abolition of the Caliphate. These disputes The leaders and supporters of the Sheikh Said
ended the PRP especially when combined with the Rebellion were arrested and they were sentenced to
Sheikh Sait Rebellion, which started three months death by the Eastern Independence Tribunal (Şark
after the PRP was established. This rebellion started İstiklal Mahkemesi). During the trials, the prosecutor
in Eastern Anatolia on February 11, 1925, and it of this tribunal also asked for the closure of the PRP
had a religious and Kurdish nationalist nature. It on the assumption that the party had encouraged
was one of the Kurdish rebellions that the Kurdish the religious propaganda and incitement during
nationalists attempted in Eastern Anatolia in the the rebellion. This decision was approved by
1920s with the provocation of Britain to be used the government on June 5, 1925 depending on
against Turkey in the Mosul affair (Shaw and Shaw, the Martial Law although the elders of the PRP,
2002, p.381: Zürcher, 1993, pp.170-172). especially Kazım Karabekir, condemned the rebellion
Soon as this rebellion started, the Prime (Zürcher, 1991, pp.81, 87-91). However, the reason
Minister Fethi Bey consulted the leaders of the PRP behind the closure of the PRP was in fact not in
suggesting that their party organs in Eastern Anatolia connection to the rebellion or religious propaganda
had to be either controlled or abolished altogether. but related to their criticism directed against the
The PRP leaders supported the government in its government. The dispute between the PRP and RPP
attempt to suppress this rebellion.However, in the was a struggle between the Constitutionalist, and
TGNA, the PRP group blamed the Prime Minister the Republicans. In the meantime, the government
Fethi Bey for not taking efficient enough measures used the Martial Law to establish control over the
to suppress the rebellion. When Fethi Bey and Press and managed to render their other opponents
his cabinet received a vote of no confidence with ineffective (Zürcher, 1991, p.86). The Progressive
94 signatures, he had to resign. İsmet Pasha was Republican Party, which had a short political life of
appointed to form a new cabinet. Soon, his cabinet about seven months, provided the first organized
was approved in the TGNA by a vote of confidence. political opposition in the history of the Republic.
The new cabinet banned the “use of religion as a It was not until 1930 that there was another
means of political instrumentation” on February 25, attempt at forming a political opposition. One of
1925 when this rebellion expanding in the Eastern the most important results of this first multi-party
cities became dangerous. This clause was inserted experiment was to understand that the multi-party
30
regime and the revolutions could not exist together. This move from Mustafa Kemal to encourage Fethi
For this reason, the republican government would Bey to form an opposition party was not a chance
have to wait for the revolutions to be completed incident. Fethi Bey had sent a letter to Mustafa
in order to establish a multi-party political system. Kemal and complained about the irresponsibility of
In the meantime, important political events the government, the lack of freedom of thought in
took place, some of the articles of the 1924 the parliament, and the failure of the government
Constitution were changed in accordance with in the financial and economic matters. (Karpat,
secularism, and significant reforms were put into 1991, pp.50-51).
action toward the modernization of Turkey, e.g., After lengthy discussions with Fethi Bey,
a secular legal system, the clothing reform and the Mustafa Kemal offered him help and a name for
alphabet reform. However, the economic problems the party that he was going to establish. The party
and poverty still prevailed in the country. Turkey was to be more liberal and left wing than the
was adversely affected by the world economic crisis RPP and would embrace secularism. Finally, the
that started in 1929 and accelerated later. The same planned party was established on August 12, 1930
year a poor crop harvest in the country aslo had by Fethi Bey and was named Serbest Cumhuriyet
negative affects on the economy. All in all, the Fırkası, Free Republican Party, hereafter FRP. This
economic problems caused the people to complain political party would be the second opposition
(Ahmad, 1993, p.58). Additionally, the fact that party after PRP which was established, during
the Populism Policy, which advocated equality the lifetime of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. To show
in political and legal sense, could not go beyond his support to the new party, Mustafa Kemal
being a political slogan. What was worse was that enlisted his sister Makbule Hanım and some of his
some of the RPP members were looking after their closest friends as members. At the same time, Nuri
own interests using their political influence. This Bey resigned from RPP to serve as the General
state of affairs was distressing the President and the Secretary of the new party along with 13 other
Party Chairman Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, and he members including the philosopher, politician
was well aware of all of these problems since he and writer Ahmet Ağaoğlu and the Poet Mehmet
had a chance to observe the conditions during his Emin (Yalman) (Weiker, 1991, p.84, 86). The FRP
visits around the country. In this sense, he favored had a party program of 11 articles about private
the establishment of an opposition party to test the initiatives, state investments, a single election
societal reactions to the revolutions and reforms system, and suffrage rights for women, all which
and to discover the alliance between the politicians Mustafa Kemal advocated for a liberal policy.
and feudal groups in rural areas and bourgeoisie Moreover, the party depended on the principles
in the cities, which ended with mistreatment of of republicanism, nationalism, and secularism.
people. (Turan, 1995, pp.291-294). Moreover, It believed in equal rights for the exercise and
he also did not want to be seen as a dictator. protection of human rights and freedom; justice
Furthermore, when the Martial Law was abolished in taxation and the elimination of corruption in
on March 4, 1929, there was a strong opposition in the government; cutting government expenses;
the TGNA, not against Mustafa Kemal but against removing harbor monopoly; low-interest-rate loans
the Prime Minister İsmet Pasha and his cabinet. for villagers and farmers; developing industry;
After assessing the facts, Mustafa Kemal invited reducing bureaucracy; fighting against bribery and
his close friend Fethi (Okyar) Bey, who was the abuse; a better working justice system; following a
Ambassador of Turkey to France after he was forced peaceful foreign policy, and more cooperation with
to resign from the prime minster position in 1925. the League of Nations (Weiker, 1991, pp.86-87).
31
Figure 1.7 Fethi Okyar, the Founder of the FRP, Adnan Menderes (in white). and other party members.
Source: https://www.turkcebilgi.com/serbest_cumhuriyet_f%C4%B1rkas%C4%B1
The FRP got organized in a short time in led the country to anarchy and laid the groundwork
the country mainly in Western Anatolia. Adnan for the revival of the reactionary events in the cities
Menderes, who was going to be one of the founders the party rulers visited. Since FRP did not take a
of Democrat Party and the Prime Minister of Turkey stand against them, the support for the opposition
in 1950, was elected as the Head of the FRP Branch came from the reactionaries (Weiker, 1991, p.89).
in Aydın Province. The newspapers Yarın and Son Among the mutual allegations, disagreements flared
Posta supported the FRP (Weiker, 1991, pp.87-89). between the RPP and FRP. As a result, the leaders
Fethi Bey and his party members were welcomed by of the FRP decided to dissolve the party. Soon after
large crowds wherever they went in Anatolia. The the dissolution of the FRP, on December 23, 1930 a
demonstrations in September 1930 in İzmir were reactionary incident developed in Menemen (İzmir),
striking. In a short time, FRP became very popular a town in Western Anatolia which had experienced
and gained people’s trust while there were militant the Greek occupation heavily. Five reactionaries
protests against it. Mustafa Kemal was apprehensive named Giritli Derviş Mehmet, Şamdan Mehmet,
since all these showed the reactions of the people Sütçü Mehmet Emin, Nalıncı Hasan, Küçük Hasan,
against the policies of the RPP. In the end, the FRP, all of whom belonged to the Naqshibandi order
which was accepted as an important initiative for the (dissolved in 1926) attacked Mustafa Fehmi Kubilay,
transition to a multi-party political system during a reserve officer in the local gendarmerie. Kubilay
Atatürk’s lifetime, did not last long and the party was beheaded crucially while Hasan and Şevki,
terminated itself on November 17, 1930 (Weiker, two guards who were sent to suppress the rebellion,
1991, p.84). were killed by bullets fired by the reactionaries.
It is important to note that the FRP did not stay Unfortunately, people of Menemen did nothing to
in the political scene long enough to participate in the prevent the developments; instead, some applauded
general elections of 1931. It participated in the single- the reactionaries (Ahmad, 1993, p.60). This incident
grade municipal elections of 1930 and won 31 out of caused anger and disgust all over Turkey. Mustafa
502 electoral districts. During the elections, the FRP Kemal wrote in a note to the Chief of General Staff
leaders accused the government of corruption as well that the incident “occurred not in a backward region
as putting pressure on the FRP and the Ministry of of Anatolia but in one of its most advanced provinces.
Interior of not taking measures to prevent corruption. This was … all more ‘shameful for all republicans
The government however, rejected the allegations of and patriots because some of the people of Menemen
the FRP and asserted that the FRP was the one which had applauded and encouraged the savagery of the
reactionaries’” (Ahmad, 1993, p.60).
32
Figure 1.8 Mustafa Fehmi Kubilay The monument honoring the three brave soldiers of Menemen
Source: https://www.biyografi.info/kisi/mustafa-fehmi-kubilay izmifkulturturizm.gov.tr
The FRP experience also showed that although An Assassination Attempt against
the people were eager to have the conditions become Mustafa Kemal in İzmir
better in the country with a different party than the While Turkey attempted to establish a multi-
RPP, the Menemen Incident proved that there were party political system, the reactions against Mustafa
still ongoing reactions against the secularization in Kemal and his revolutions in the country were
the country. The FRP was the last trial for the multi- shown not only by the formation of opposition
party experience during the lifetime of Atatürk and parties or rebellions but also by the assassination
Turkey had to wait until 1945 for another trial. attempt against his life. The most important of
these attempts was the Izmir Assassination attempt
planned to be executed after the closure of the
Progressive Republican Party. During the planning
phase of the attempt, Giritli Şevki, a boatman
4 who had fought during the national struggle,
learned about the plans when he was asked to help
What were the main similarities and differences
the assassins to flee to the Greek islands after the
between the Republican People’s Party and
assassination. He informed the authorities about
the opponent parties such as the Progressive
what was to happen. The attempt was discovered
Republican Party and the Free Party?
on June 15, 1926 in İzmir. It was planned to be
executed during Mustafa Kemal’s visit to İzmir
33
on June 15 as part of his tour of the country that alleged conspirators. The Izmir Tribunal worked
started on May 7, 1926. This visit presented the between June 23 and July 13, 1926. The Tribunals
assassins with the opportunity they needed, and even arrested some of the prominent members of
they planned the assassination to its smallest the Progressive Republican Party on suspicion of
detail and were planning to kill Mustafa Kemal conspiracy but the charges were dropped and they
by throwing a bomb into his car when he came were released. The thirteen people who were tried
to Izmir. Fortunately, Atatürk’s visit to İzmir was by the Izmir Tribunal were founded guilty and they
postponed to the next day, and Giritli Şevki went were executed in Izmir (Zürcher, 1993, p.174).
in panic to see the governor of Izmir and informed The Ankara Independence Tribunal also set
him about the attempt (Turan, 1995, pp.135-137; trials in Ankara from August 2 untill 26, 1926 for
Lewis, p.275). 57 people. Mainly, the former CUP members were
The assassins were all apprehended with the prosecuted on suspicion of conspiracy. Four of
evidence in their hotels. After the investigations them, namely Dr Nazım, Cavid, Hilmi, and Nail
and questioning of the culprits, it was understood Beys, were condemned to death.
that Ziya Hurşit, one of the fierce opponents of Finally, the İzmir assassination attempt was
Mustafa Kemal, was behind the assassination the last of the struggles between the republicans
plans. Furthermore, former Unionists Cavit Bey and the constitutionalist. The Unionists who
the former CUP Finance Minister, Sarı Efe Edip opposed the Republic and the new regime became
a friend of Çerkez (Circassian) Ethem, former disenfranchised after the attempt and the ensuing
deputies Dr. Nazım, İsmail Canbolat, and Halis trials. Thus, another act of the kind was out of the
Bey as well as Eskisehir deputy Arif Bey and question.
Izmir deputy Şükrü Bey were all accused of being
part of this plan. Independence Tribunals were
established in Izmir and Ankara to punish the
34
Identify the importance of the

LO 1 Lausanne Peace Treaty in the
foundation and the international
recognition of the Turkish Republic.
The Lausanne Peace Treaty was signed on July 24, 1923 after
long debates between Turkey and the Allied Powers. The Peace
talks started with a conference on November 20, 1922 in
Lausanne (Switzerland) and after a break between February
5 and April 23, 1923, the conference resumed and ended on
Summary
July 24, 1923 with the signing of the Peace Treaty. Prior to the
Lausanne Peace Conference, an important decision was taken
in Turkey. The TGNA abolished the Sultanate on November 1,
1922. This decision was taken when Britain as representative
of the Allied Powers invited both the Ottoman Government in
Istanbul and the TGNA Government in Ankara to the peace
conference. This invitation to both governments was nothing
more than to undermine the importance of the TGNA as
well as the victory won at the Turkish War of Independence
against the Greeks and the other Allied Powers. For this reason,
the TGNA decided to abolish the Sultanate separating it from
the Caliphate to subvert the plans of the Allied powers and the
TGNA became the sole representative of Turkey. The Turkish
delegation headed by İsmet (İnönü) Pasha showed great effort to
impose the Turkish terms within the framework of the National
Pact. Meanwhile, many of the topics discussed in Lausanne were
not only the issues that came about after World War I or the
National War of Independence. Some involved mainly the issues
concerning the Ottoman period or those left from the Ottoman
Empire. The topics discussed and agreed upon were Turkey’s
borders, the Straits, Thrace, Ottoman debts and capitulations,
war compensation, the Sandjak of Alexandretta (İskenderun-
Hatay), Mosul, and the Orthodox Patriarchate. Also discussed
was The Greeks’ proposal of a population exchange between
Turkey and Greece. The two parties finally agreed on this issue
under a separate convention. However, the position of the
Orthodox Patriarchate left unsolved. Moreover, the status of
Mosul and the Ottoman debts were settled later under separate
treaties. The rest of the topics discussed were agreed upon under
the Lausanne Peace Treaty. This treaty is accepted as the last
one of the treaties that ended World War I. The TGNA ratified
this treaty on August 23, 1923, and it officially took effect on
August 6, 1924 after the other participants ratified the Treaty.
By doing so, they recognized not only the TGNA as the sole
representative of Turkey but also Turkey as an independent
state.
35
Comprehend the features and the

LO 2 importance of the 1921 and 1924
Constitutions for ensuring the
national sovereignty in Turkey.
A constitution represents the basic principles and laws of a state.

The constitutions accepted in Turkey also determined the basic
principles which the country depended on. The first constitution
of Modern Turkey was the Law of Fundamental Organization
(Teşkilât-ı Esasiye Kanunu) accepted on January 20, 1921 in
Summary
the TGNA. This constitution was accepted at a time when

the Ottoman Sultanate still existed in Istanbul. The Ottoman
Constitution of 1876 was also in use. The 1921 Constitution
was adapted from the 1876 Ottoman Constitution with major
changes and the most important of them was the acceptance of
the national sovereignty which was stated in Article 1. Moreover,
with Article 2 of the Constitution, the Assembly was made the
sole and the real representative of of the country keeping the
executive and legislative powers.The national sovereignty was
secure. However, there was no mention of state presidency or
public rights because of the extraordinary circumstances. While
the 1921 Constitution was still in use, the Ottoman Sultanate
was abolished and the Republican Regime was accepted in
Turkey. After these radical changes in the country, the 1921
Constitution could not meet the needs of the state and the
society, and it was replaced by another one on April 20, 1924.
The 1924 Constitution (Teşkilât-ı Esasiye Kanunu) also assured
the national sovereignty with Article1 which read “Sovereignty
is vested in the nation without condition. The Governmental
system is based on the principle of self-determination and
government by people.” The executive and legislative powers
were concentrated in the hands of the TGNA. The deputies
representing the whole nation as elected members of the TGNA
had the responsibility for decision making, treaty signing and
promulgating and amending and abrogating all laws. Moreover,
according to Article 7 of the 1924 Constitution, the President
of the Republic was to be elected by the TGNA and was to
accept the rule of the country via the Cabinet chosen by the
President and endorsed by the Assembly. Moreover, with this
article, the Assembly was given power to audit “the acts of the
government and may at any time withdraw power from it.”
36
Explain the historical background of the Republican

LO 3 Regime in Turkey as well as its materialization after the
abolition of the Sultanate and the role of the Republican
People’s Party in preserving this regime in Turkey.
The Ottoman Sultanate represented by the House of Osman was

a monarchy who ruled considerably large territories including
Anatolia about 600 years. The monarchy was one-man rule and
not related to national sovereignty. The decisions in the country
were taken by the Sultan although Ottoman sultans consulted
Summary
councils formed by the statesmen. The national sovereignty was
not part of the system although a constitution was accepted in
1876. This constitution was implemented in the empire until
the abolition of the sultanate in 1922 with intervals between
1880 and 1908; however, the decision making was in the
hands of the sultan even during the Constitutional Periods.
The disadvantage of this system was seen well when the country
was occupied following World War I. The Ottoman Sultan
Vahidettin (by name Mehmet VI) ignored the warnings from
the patriotic people in Anatolia and cooperated instead with the
occupiers against their advice. The Turkish War of Independence
started with the initiative taken by the nationalist people in
Anatolia. The sultan condemned the nationalist as traitors and
accepted the Independence War as a rebellion. Despite the
Sultan’s opposition, the TGNA was opened in 1920 and the
1921 Constitution accepted the national sovereignty as the
main principle of rule. When the Turkish War of Independence
ended with victory, the sultan and his government ignored
this victory and insisted on continuing to rule the country.
However, this was not welcomed by the TGNA. When the
Allied Powers invited both Istanbul and Ankara governments
to the Lausanne Peace Conference, the TGNA abolished the
Ottoman Sultanate on November 1, 1922. The TGNA was
accepted as the sole representative of Turkey and this fact was
recognized internationally with the Lausanne Peace Treaty.
Meanwhile, the Defense of Rights Group in the TGNA
evolved into the Republican People’s Party (RPP), which was
officially founded on September 11, 1923 by Mustafa Kemal
(Atatürk) embracing people’s sovereignty as the main principle.
This principle became a reality after the signing of the Peace
Treaty and with the promulgation of the Republican Regime
by the majority of the deputies who were the RPP members
on October 29, 1923 during the Second term of the TGNA.
With this regime, a democratic system was adopted. Because,
the republican regime was the best system to ensure the national
sovereignty which was protected until 1923 by the TGNA
and the 1921 Constitution. The RPP ruled Turkey until 1950
without making concessions on the basic principles of the party
including national sovereignty and took important decisions
such as the abolition of the Caliphate and the establishment of a
nation state that would be equal to contemporary states.
37
List the multi-party experiences

LO 4 in Turkey during the lifetime of
Atatürk.
Political groups appeared in the TGNA after it was opened. There were deputies
with different ideological backgrounds and interests in the Assembly. There were
pro-Sultanists, Islamists conservatives, hard line communists, westernists, and some
more. What brought them together was the aim to relieve Anatolia from the Allied
occupation. However, when the bills passed in the Assembly determining the future
position of the TGNA as the sole representative of the country representing national
Summary
sovereignty and the TGNA Armies as the national army, different political groups were
formed in the Assembly. There were even differences in the ideas and policies among
the leading commanders of the Turkish War of Independence as well as those of the
supporters of Mustafa Kemal. These divisions became more prominent especially when
the Sultanate and the Cliphate were abolished, the republican regime was declared, and
the army commanders were asked to choose between being in the army and serving as
deputies. Mustafa Kemal Pasha’s preference for the members of the Council of Ministers
caused discontent and resentment among his old friends and former supporters such
as Rauf (Orbay), Refet (Bele) and Kazım (Karabekir) Pashas. The differences in ideas,
ideologies as well as expectations gave birth to new political parties. The first political
party which appeared during the First term of the TGNA was the Communist Party
of Turkey (Türkiye Komünist Fırkası). It was established with the initiative taken by
Mustafa Kemal on October 18, 1920 with the people close to him to counter the
leftist group supporting the Islamist-socialist program of the Green Army. Afterwards,
in November 1920, the leftists within the Defense Group established the People’s
Communist Party (Halk İştirakiyun Fırkası) which had a connection with the Green
Army. None of these parties survived long, and they were closed before 1922. The
People’s Party was established on September 11, 1923. This party had evolved from the
Defense of Rights Group in September 1923. The word Republican was added to the
Party title soon as the Republican regime was accepted. The Republican People’s Party
(RPP) was going to be the long surviving party, while there were short lived parties
established both on the right and on the left wing after 1923. One such party was
the Terakkiperver Cumhuriyet Fırkası (Progressive Republican Party, PRP) established
on November 17, 1924. The founders and leaders of the PRP were the former RPP
members who were Mustafa Kemal’s close friends: mainly Kâzım (Karabekir) Pasha,
Ali Fuat (Cebesoy) Pasha, Refet Pasha, Hüseyin Rauf (Orbay), Adnan (Adıvar), and
İsmail (Canbulat) Bey. This party was established based on the following principles:
supporting republicanism and democracy, reducing state power, sharing state lands
equally, respecting religious beliefs. The party founders advocated for the separation of
power within the government and stressed this point at different times. However, this
party was closed in 1925 with the accusation that it was somehow connected to the
Sheikh Sait Rebellion, a rebellion that had a religious and Kurdish nationalist nature
that started in Eastern Anatolia on February 11, 1925. Although the party founders
had nothing to do with this rebellion and even supported the RPP the government
policies against the rebellion, the PRP was closed on June 5, 1925 with a decision taken
by the Eastern Independence Tribunal (Şark İstiklal Mahkemesi). Thus, the first multi-
party experience in Turkey came to an end in a short period of time. There was another
political party named Serbest Cumhuriyet Fırkası (Free Republican Party, FRP)
founded on August 12, 1930 by Fethi Bey, another close friend of Mustafa Kemal’s. To
show his support to this party, Mustafa Kemal had enlisted his sister Makbule Hanım
and some of his closest friends as members. The FRP had a party program of 11 articles
about private initiatives, state investments, a single election system, and suffrage rights
for women, all of which Mustafa Kemal advocated for a liberal policy. The FRP came
with a promising agenda and attracted many people who were against the economic
policies of the RPP. The party also found support among the reactionaries who still
were in the hope of having back the sultanate and the Caliphate. However, when
the FRP meetings turned into government protests and increased tension between
the supporters of the RPP and the FRP Fethi Bey decided to dissolve the party on
November 17, 1930, and with this decision, the second multi-party experience of the
early Republican era ended. The RPP remained as the sole party in the TGNA until
1945.
38
1 Which of the following legitimized the 6 Which of the following is one of the most
TGNA? important reasons why Ankara was elected as the
capital city of Turkey?
A. allied occupations of Anatolia
B. deputies elected by the people A. People in Ankara were warmer to the
Test Yourself
C. the acceptance of the Law of Fundamental Representative Committee members more
Organization than those in other cities
D. the participation of the President of the B. Ankara had a cosmopolitan structure like the
Ottoman Chamber of Deputies in the TGNA Ottoman capital city Istanbul
E. the formation of the political groups in the TGNA C. Ankara is connected to all parts of Anatolia by
roads and the railroads network
D. It was easy to shape Ankara according to
2 Which of the following symbolizes the end modern urbanism
of the traditional rule of authority of the Ottoman
Dynasty? E. Ankara is a historical city
A. the opening of the TGNA 7 To confront the conservative opposition

B. the Law of Fundamental Organization of the old order after the proclamation of the
C. the abolition of the Sultanate republican regime…….?
D. the establishment of the Republic
Which of the following sentences completes the
E. the abolition of the Caliphate sentence above?
3 Which of the following was not among the A. Ankara was elected as the capital city of Turkey.
actions of the TGNA? B. the Caliphate was abolished.
C. the Sultanate was abolished.
A. the acceptance of the High Treason Law
D. the 1924 Constitution was accepted.
B. the foundation of the Independence Tribunals
E. the Republican People’s Party was established.
C. Formulating the National Pact
D. Law on Deserters 8 In order to neutralize the power of the
E. the acceptance of Turkish National Anthem army in the politics and a counter-revolutionary
threat, Mustafa Kemal had the TGNA pass a law
4 Which of the following events annihilated ………….?
the Treaty of Sevres?
Which of the following sentences completes the
A. the opening of the Turkish Grand National sentence above?
Assembly
A. not to let the officers return to their military
B. the defeat of the Allied Powers by the Turkish
commands.
National Army
B. to reward the officers with money.
C. the abolition of the Sultanate
C. to let the officers continue to serve both in the
D. the Acceptance of the 1921 Constitution
army and in the assembly.
E. the Declaration of the Republican Regime
D. to develop the welfare of reserve officers.
E. to oblige officers to resign their military
5 Which of the following issues was not included commissions if they wanted to be in politics.
in the negotiations at the Lausanne Peace Conference?
A. Mosul and the Sandjak of Alexandretta
B. the Straits and the Orthodox Patriarchate
C. the status of Armenian and Kurds in Turkey
D. war compensation and the Ottoman Debts
E. the capitulations
39
9 Which of the following event caused the 10 Which of the following events finally ended
insertion of the article into the High Treason Law the activities of the members of the Committee
to ban the “use of religion as a means of political of Union and Progress after the Turkish War of
instrumentation”? Independence?
A. the demand of the caliph to increase the A. the opening of the TGNA.
caliphate budget. B. the signing of the Lausanne Peace Treaty
Test Yourself
B. the Sheikh Sait Rebellion. C. Enver Paşa’s travel to Bukhara

C. the Establishment of the Progressive Republican D. the assassination attempt planned against
Party. Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) in Izmir
D. the Abolition of the Caliphate. E. the foundation of the Republican Progressive
E. Reactions to the abolition of the Sultanate. Party.
40
If your answer is wrong, please review section

1. B If your answer is wrong, please review section 6. C
“Ankara: The Capital City of the Turkish
“Abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate.”
Republic.”
Answer Key for “Test Yourself”

2. C If your answer is wrong, please review section 7. B If your answer is wrong, please review section
“Abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate.” “Proclamation of the Republican Regime.”
If your answer is wrong, please review section If your answer is wrong, please review
3. C 8. E
“Abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate” and “1921 section “Multi-Party Experiences in the Early
Constitution (Teşkilât-ı Esasiye Kanunu).” Republican Era (1924-1930).”
If your answer is wrong, please review If your answer is wrong, please review
4. B 9. B
section “The Peace Treaty of Lausanne and section “Multi-Party Experiences in the Early
its Consequences.” Republican Era (1924-1930).”
If your answer is wrong, please review If your answer is wrong, please review section
5. C section “First Phase of the Lausanne Peace
10. D
“An Assassination Attempt against Mustafa
Conference.” Kemal in İzmir.”
Suggested answers for “Your turn”

What might be the outcomes of the Lausanne Peace
Treaty for Turkey?
There were political, social and economic outcomes of the Lausanne Peace
Treaty for Turkey. First, the Treaty accepted the Turkish victory at the National
War of Independence and granted international recognition to Turkey after
all participants of the Lausanne Peace Conference ratified it. Second, World
War I ended officially for Turkey. Third, Turkish borders were recognized
most of which were determined by the National Pact. The border in Western
Thrace was accepted as set out by the Armistice of Mudanya, but Mosul-
Kirkuk, which were included in the National Pact was lost to Iraq, and the
your turn 1 Straits would be under the rule of an international commission. However,
Turkey gained the right to control of the Straits in 1936. The Islands in the
Aegean Sea which were important for the security of the Turkish borders at sea
were given to Turkey. Fourth, Turkey did not have to pay war compensation;
instead, Karaağaç (a town in Thrace) later was given to Turkey by Greece as
a war compensation to make reparation for the damage caused in Anatolia
by Greece. Fifth, Turkey had to share the Ottoman debts, but she forced the
abolition of the capitulations. Sixth, the non-Muslim minorities in Turkey
were accepted as Turkish citizens, and this prevented any foreign intervention
in the internal affairs of Turkey.
41
What were the main differences between the 1921 and

the 1924 Constitutions?
The 1921 and 1924 constitutions had different features though some basic principles
such as the national sovereignty, were shared by both. The 1921 Constitution
was adapted from the 1876 Ottoman Constitution with major changes. This
constitution had 23 Articles. It was a revolutionary constitution set in extraordinary
circumstances, but it did not include any sections on fundamental rights, freedoms,
and the judicial system. Article 1 of the 1921 Constitution ensured the national
sovereignty, and Article 2 gave the legislative and executive power to the TGNA.
your turn 2 The rest of the articles of this constitution were about the elections and the rule of
the provinces. Unlike the 1921, the 1924 Constitution was a detailed one including
fundamental rights, freedoms and the judicial system. The 1924 Constitution had
six sections and 105 articles. It was based on the principles of “national sovereignty”,
“one parliament”, “ unity of forces” and “supremacy of parliament”. Moreover, the
1924 Constitution embraced the ideals of republicanism and nationalism and has
been the determinant of the general characteristics and basic principles of the state.
What might be the importance of the republican regime

for Turkey?
The republican regime is the most suitable political regime to ensure people’s sovereignty
that was one of the main reasons for the Turkish War of Independence in Anatolia. after
the Allied occupation of Anatolia, the Ottoman Sultan Vahidettin (Mehmed VI) and his
government in İstanbul took every action to prevent the Turkish War of Independence
thinking that the occupation would be temporary, and the War of Independence would
anger the Allied Powers and prolong their occupation. The Sultan did not consult the
people while making this decision since he was the sole decision maker and reserved
all executive power. The Istanbul government was not formed by the people but was
appointed by the Sultan. For this reason, Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk), who was the
Head of the Representative Council formed by the members of the Society Defense of
Rights of Anatolia and Rumelia in Sivas had forced the Sultan and his government to
hold general elections and convene the Ottoman Parliament. However, although the
Parliament was opened on January 10, 1920 and many nationalist deputies participated
in this Parliament, it could not last long since all the Ottoman official buildings in
your turn 3 Istanbul were occupied and controlled by the Allied forces on March 16, 1920. The
deputies dissolved the Parliament to protest the occupation. Thus, Mustafa Kemal
called people and declared that a National Assembly would convene in Ankara after
the general elections held in Anatolia. The Grand National Assembly was opened on
April 23, 1920. From the first day it was opened, the main task of the Assembly was
to ensure the national sovereignty via the deputies elected by the people of Anatolia.
Both 1921 and 1924 Constitutions were also designed to preserve national sovereignty,
which, in fact, was the basic rule in a democratic Republican regime. In this regime,
the rule of the country became possible with the participation of her citizens, and the
rule in this regime was found by election not by inheritance. In this regime, the people
choose their representatives via general elections for a limited period of time to govern
themselves, that is, to use their sovereignty for their own sake. In Turkey a democratic
republican regime became possible after the Turkish War of Independence ended with
victory, and the Ottoman Sultanate was abolished on November 1, 1922. Finally, the
republican regime was promulgated in Turkey on October 19, 1923 and this regime has
been maintained up to this day since it is the best form of government suitable to limit
the politicians not to act against the constitution. It also ensures that laws are passed to
serve the people of the country and not individual.
42
What were the main similarities and differences between the

Republican People’s Party and the opponent parties such as the
Progressive Republican Party and the Free Republican Party?

The main similarities between the Republican People’s Party (hereafter
RPP) and the opponent parties the Progressive Republican Party (hereafter
PRP) and the Free Republican Party (hereafter FRP) were their support of
republicanism and democracy and their preservation of the constitution based
on national sovereignty. The RPP and the FRP both supported the principles
of republicanism, nationalism, and secularism as well as state investments. As
for PRP and FRP, there was one similarity between them and this was their
proposal for a single election system.
The differences remained in their political positions and ideologies with rightist
or leftist tendencies. For example, the RPP depended on Populism which
advocated equality in political and legal sense. The RPP supported a classless
society in solidarity without a class conflict. In the early party program based
on nine articles, it promised not to discuss the idea of bringing the sultanate
back and to introduce necessary changes in many fields including agriculture,
manufacture, justice, education, general health, railways, financial institutions,
social rights of citizens, ranks and duties of civil officials, military service,
welfare of reserve officers, etc. These improvements would be realized by state
investments. Moreover, the RPP supported secularism and revolutionary
your turn 4 changes. Its first practice was the promulgation of the republican regime, and
the second one was the abolition of the Caliphate.
The PRP, however, offered a party program which included the reduction of
state power, a single election system, judicial independence, a non-partisan
president, autonomy in provincial administration, sharing of the state lands
equally and respect for the religious beliefs. The Party was politically on the
right. The PRP founders were against the unity of all forces in the National
Assembly thinking that it may create an authoritarian administration. The
party founders were against radical changes in the country and favored
changes in due time after getting people’s opinion. For this reason, the PRP
founders had previously resisted the proclamation of a republican regime
thinking that it was too early for this change. They also resisted the abolition
of the Caliphate thinking that this would deprive Turkey of its place in the
World of Islam.
The FRP was a leftist party that came with an 11-article party program.
Most of these articles proposed a program different from the ones proposed
by those of the RPP and the PRP. They included, private initiative, suffrage
rights for women, cutting government expenses, removing harbor monopoly,
low-interest-rate loans for villagers and farmers, less bureaucracy, and more
cooperation with the League of Nations.
43
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45
Economic Developments in
the Republican People’s Party
Chapter 2 Era, 1923-1950
describe the economic legacy inherited
Learning Outcomes
demonstrate the importance of economic from the Ottoman Empire and the economic
1 2
independence for the founders of the Turkish developments from 1923 to 1929 in the light
Republic as illustrated in the course of the of the constraints brought by the Treaty of
Turkish War of Independence, Lausanne,
3 4
describe the general characteristics of the
explain the circumstances in which the gradual ètatist policy and the economic development it
adoption of an ètatist economic policy took place, yielded,
5
explain the economic developments during
World War II and the modification of étatism in
the aftermath of the war.
Chapter Outline Key Terms

Introduction Economic Independence
Economic Goals as Stated during the Turkish War İzmir Economic Congress
of Independence Capitulations
Economic Developments from 1923 to1929 The Treaty of Lausanne
The Great Depression and the Rise of Ètatism National Economy
War Economy and the fall of Ètatism Law for the Encouragement of Industry
Great Depression
Ètatism
First-Five Year Plan
Industrialization
The National Protection Law
The Marshall Plan
46
INTRODUCTION as the new economic policy in the Congress of

Mustafa Kemal [Atatürk] and his close the Republican People’s Party. The first five-year
associates emphasized the importance of economic industrial development plan was introduced
independence as early as the beginning of the with the contribution of Soviet experts in 1933.
Turkish War of Independence. In the resolutions of Its implementation began in 1934. Until 1939,
the Sivas Congress, as well as those of the National industrial enterprises ranging from textiles to
Pact, economic independence was clearly stated iron and steel, paper, etc. conformed to this plan.
as the principle means of economic development. Ètatism continued to be the official economic
Leaders of the Turkish national movement stressed policy during World War II. However, in that case,
their readiness to welcome scientific, industrial and it did not serve to widen the industrial base of the
economic assistance of the Western powers on the country but to finance the mobilization of the army
condition that they respected the independence of for war. Implementations of war economy caused
Turkey. the rise of great discontent in different groups of
the society against the government during and
Immediately after the end of the after the war. The étatist economic policy received
War of Independence, the importance of heavy criticism from domestic business circles who
economicdevelopment was once again stressedin had accumulated capital to invest during the war.
the convention of the İzmir Economy Congress Turkey’s efforts to cultivate American military,
in February 1923. In this congress, Mustafa political and financial support after the WWII
Kemal [Atatürk] gave a speech about economic facilitated the search for a revision in the ètatist
independence to over a thousand delegates including policy. This policy was modified and redefined in
farmers, traders, farmers and industrialists who the 1945-1947 period and it was gradually replaced
met to discuss the policies needed to be followed by liberal economic policies based on agriculture.
for economic development. The resolutions of
the Congress provided an outline of the main
principles of future economic policies. ECONOMIC GOALS AS STATED
The Treaty of Lausanne, signed on July 24, 1923, DURING THE TURKISH WAR OF
put some constraints on the power of the leaders INDEPENDENCE
of the Turkish Republic in forming their economic The Turkish War of Independence was a self-
policies, specifically in determining the customs defense reaction made against the partition of
tariffs, until 1929. Nevertheless, this treaty removed Ottoman territories, their cession to various Allied
the capitulations that had been the hallmark of the countries by the support of some ethnic groups
economic dependence of the Ottoman Empire. who formerly had been under Ottoman rule. The
This was one of the most crucial steps in getting major goals of this war were to secure the territorial
economic independence. Within the constraints of integrity of what remained of the territories of
Lausanne, the leadership of the Turkish Republic the Ottoman Empire and defend the rights and
followed a relatively liberal economic policy from independence of Muslim/Turkish elements against
1923 to 1929. State intervention in economy the Allied occupation. In the course of the war, the
was restricted to only major investments. At the leaders of the Turkish national movement, especially
same time, the government attempted to develop Mustafa Kemal [Atatürk], frequently underlined
a financial infrastructure and revive agricultural that until complete independence was secured,
production that had been drastically affected from the struggle would continue. Independence was
constant wars in Anatolia. understood in terms not only of political but also
The economic crisis of 1929 -known as the of economic underpinnings.
Great Depression- affected Turkey like many The resolutions of both the Erzurum Congress
other countries in the world. As the constraints (July 23-August 7, 1919) and the Sivas Congress
imposed in the Treaty of Lausanne ended the same (4-11 September 1919) defined the principles
year, the Turkish government began to search for of economic equality and independence. The
a policy that would lessen the negative impacts of resolutions stated that the scientific, industrial and
the crisis. In 1931, ètatism was officially adopted economic assistance of every state would be accepted
47
Economic Developments in the Republican People’s Party Era, 1923-1950
if that state did not nurture imperialistic ambitions

towards the country and respected the principles
The Lausanne Conference began on November
of nationality to the extent that the internal and
21, 1922. Except for territorial matters, there
external independence of the people and the state
was no progress for neither the resolution
as well as the territorial integrity of the country
of economic and financial matters nor the
was preserved. In other words, the Turkish nation
position of foreigners and minorities. The
was ready to welcome scientific, industrial and
negotiations were deadlocked. As a result,
economic assistance which did not have imperialist
the talks were broken on February 4, 1923.
ambitions but would respect the independence of
Later, resumed on April 23, 1923.
the country. The National Pact strongly reflected
this understanding in the official statement of the
goals of the Turkish National Struggle (January 28,
1920). It stated, “like every country, in order to secure It was the first attempt at laying down the
a more effective and well-ordered administration which principles for economic development by reaching
will enable us to develop our political, judicial, and an understanding between the government and
financial affairs, we also need complete independence traders, landowners, industrialists, and workers.
and sovereignty as a fundamental condition of our Eight delegates from each district were selected on
life and continued existence. Therefore, we oppose the basis of their occupation and class to participate
restrictions that are harmful to our political, judicial, in the congress. As a result, over a thousand
and financial development. The conditions of the delegates represented their occupational groups
settlement of our debts shall be determined likewise, in and discussed economic policies to be followed.
a manner not contrary to these principles” (Shaw and The congress opened by a long speech given by
Shaw, 1977, pp. 347-348). Contrary to the defined Mustafa Kemal [Atatürk]. In his speech, Mustafa
goals of the Turkish War of Independence, the so called Kemal [Atatürk] criticized the Ottoman sultans
peace treaty that was reached between the Allied for their dream of conquest as they had caused the
Powers and the Ottoman State; namely the Treaty subject populations in the occupied lands to receive
of Sèvres (August 10, 1920), came to mean complete privileges under the name of ‘Capitulations’. As a
economic dependence for Turkey. According to this result, foreigners could constitute an economic
treaty, Capitulations and foreign concessions were to force within the Empire with separate identity in
be restored. A Financial Commission consisting of the long term. He further criticized the Ottoman
France, Great Britain, and Italy were to be formed practice of negotiating foreign loans which had
to control the financial affairs of the Ottoman led the Empire to bankruptcy. He stated that
State, its budgets and financial laws, its currency the Turkish nation had saved the country from
and its economic resources (Hershlag, 1968, p. 12). the dissolution it faced at the end of World War
Like other provisions of the Treaty of Sèvres, these I by firmly defending the National Pact (Misâk-ı
economic provisions were rejected and were not Millî). He also stated, that the nation still had
implemented because of the fact that the TGNA enemies and that in order to fight against them,
Army in its fight against the occupying powers it would be necessary for her to arm economically
during Turkish War of Independence managed to as she had armed militarily in the immediate past
defeat and drove hostile forces from Anatolia. (Finefrock, 1981, p. 378; İnan, 1989, pp. 57-
69). Mustafa Kemal [Atatürk] emphasized that
they did not oppose to foreign investment on the
The Economic Congress of Izmir
condition that the foreign investors complied with
The most noteworthy development which the laws of the country and that they did not seek
demonstrated the extent to which the leaders preferential treatment. He maintained that they
of the Turkish War of Independence realized the were ready to give the required assurance to foreign
importance of economic issues was the convention capital investors (Tezel, 2002, p. 149). Mahmut
of the ‘First Turkish Economic Congress’ in İzmir, Esat [Bozkurt], the Minister of Economics, made
February 17-March 4, 1923, which took place the following speech to support Mustafa Kemal’s.
during the interval between the two sessions of the Then, the official steering committee of the
Lausanne Peace Conference.
48
congress was elected and the delegates were divided and economic independence of Turkey, the Grand
into four sections to discuss the economic policies National Assembly of Turkey rejected their proposal.
regarding business, industry, agriculture and labor. The Assembly also authorized the Government
At the end of the congress, a document called to sign a treaty which, would establish complete
the Economic Pact (Misâk-ıİktisadi) was adopted. national independence in the field of public
finance, economy and administration (Hershlag,
attention
1968, p. 17). The Western Powers insisted on the
continuation of economic and judicial concessions
even after the peace negotiations resumed in April
The final document of the Conference was 1923. An agreement was finally reached in July.
named the National Pact (Misâk-ı Millî)
According to the provisions of the Treaty
in order to demonstrate that economic
of Lausanne, the regime of capitulations was
independence was equally important as
completely abolished. Yet, Turkey had to agree
political independence.
to the foreign concessions, originating from the
capitulatory agreements and rights, until 1929.
Turkey could not freely change its customs tariffs
The document drew upon what the until that year. In other words, Turkey would not be
Turkish nation had at its disposal for economic able to impose customs duties on the goods of the
development. Among the factors listed were the signatory countries as it saw fit in terms of the needs
rich natural resources; her attempts to produce of the country. Additionally, many of the foreign
the goods necessary for consumption, fervent companies with commercial privileges continued
support of Turks for enlightenment and science, to have them in the 1920s. Such restrictions didnot
their willingness to work free and their resistance allow Turkey to develop a coherent, systematic
to monopolies in business (Hershlag, 1968, p. 15). economic policy that would enable her to develop
Theft, lie, hypocrisy and laziness were the enemy of its industrial infrastructure in the 1920s. In other
the nation. Regarding foreign capital and investors, words, the government could not implement
the document stated that the Turks were not against extensive development schemes. Nevertheless, there
foreign capital; nevertheless, they would not have were efforts at creating a national economy and
relations with institutions that did not adapt to the strengthening the national bourgeoisie through the
language and the laws in the country (Finefrock, available means at its disposal.
1981, p. 389). Some of the resolutions of the
Economic Pact were later incorporated into the
attention
program of the Republican People’s Party called the
Nine Principles (Dokuz Umde) and formed the basis
of the economic policies of the party as well as the Creating a national economy and
government programs in the 1920s. strengthening the national bourgeoisie had
been the major goals of the economic policy
of the Committee of Union and Progress
The Constraints of the Treaty of during World War I.
Lausanne
The peace negotiations in Lausanne discussed
the economic and financial issues under separate Another provision of the Treaty of Lausanne
headings. The Ottoman debt and war reparations which, would negatively affect economic
were among the economic and financial issues. development was related to the Ottoman debts.
The most critical talks on the development of These debts were divided between Turkey and
an independent economic policy concentrated the other countries separated from the Ottoman
on the concessions held by foreign companies; Empire. Turkey’s share was two-thirds of the total
namely, the regime of capitulations. The Western debt (84,597,495 Turkish gold pounds). Payments
Powers, mainly Britain and France, demanded the were to be made annually. First installment was to
continuation of the concessions in order to reach be paid in 1929.
an agreement. As this would harm the financial
49
by encouraging and supporting private enterprise

rather than state intervention in the 1920s.
1
The constraints brought by the Treaty of Lausanne
prevented Turkey from developing an independent
Which fundamental principle was the economic
policy for industrialization as explained above.
development of the country (meant to be) based
Specifically, the Turkish state could not raise import
on? To what extent did the Treaty of Lausanne, the
tariffs which, in return, prevented it from developing
founding treaty of Turkey, allow the fulfillment of
protective measures and adopting influential foreign
this principle?
trade policy that would enable the expansion of
the industrial sector. Nevertheless, the government
attempted to develop the industrial base of the country
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS by supporting the private sector. Some measures were
FROM 1923 TO 1929 taken along with the principles of the industrial
The new Turkish Republic inherited an activity which had been laid down in the Economic
overwhelmingly agricultural economy from the Congress in İzmir in 1923. These principles included
Ottoman Empire. Industrial investments were promoting legislation for the encouragement of
few, estimated around 255. They were mostly in the industry, creating better credit facilities for the
İstanbul and its surroundings. Both agricultural industry, and providing instruction, education and
and industrial sectors had been severely affected training for the engineers in the industry (Hershlag,
from the incessant wars since 1912 (the Balkan 1968, p. 52). Accordingly, the government enacted
Wars, the First World War and the Turkish War of a law in April 1924, which exempted raw materials
Independence, respectively). Mobilization for war, for export industries from customs duties. The most
recruitment of manpower and their loss in battles, notable development in the efforts for industrialization
starvation and disease, Greek invasion of Anatolia, was the enactment of the Law for the Encouragement
all hindered economic development. Agricultural of Industry (Teşvik-i Sanayi Kanunu) in May 1927.
production decreased because of the destruction This law provided tax exemptions and privileges
of railways and bridges, houses, some villages and for industrial firms. According to the provisions of
urban centers, especially in western Anatolia. The the Law, industrial establishments approved by the
wheat production estimated to decrease by 47 %, Government and recommended by the Ministry of
tobacco 51 %, raisin 54 % and nut 65 % (Boratav, Commerce would be granted land up to 10 hectares
2016, p. 34). On the other hand, emigration of the free of charge; decrees would be issued to exempt
Greeks and Armenians came to mean the exodus of enterprises from telegraph or telephone charges and
the large majority of entrepreneurs and managers. from immovable property tax, land tax, profit tax. In
With them, industrial and commercial expertise addition, the materials needed for the construction
was lost, too (Zürcher, 1993, p. 172). of the enterprises would not be subject to customs
duties if they were not obtainable in the country.
The governments of the 1920s had three major
Government institutions, municipalities, companies
economic goals for economic development under
and enterprises benefiting from the Law were bound
these circumstances. First, they aimed at the
to purchase the products of the encouraged enterprises
industrialization of the country through which
rather than foreign products, even if the price of the
they would strengthen the national economy
local product was up to 10% higher (Hershlag, 1968,
and bourgeoisie. Secondly, they aimed to ensure
pp. 54-55).
a rapid increase in agricultural production.
This would improve the living conditions of the Secondly, the government spent its efforts to
agricultural population as well as increase the share stimulate agricultural development and increase
of agriculture in industrial development. Finally, agricultural output in the 1920s. Agricultural
they aimed to develop transportation and financial productivity was most mal-affected from the wars
(banking) infrastructure. This would enable the which had incessantly continued from 1912 to
growth of domestic market and, thus, stimulate 1922. One of the most crucial steps taken in this
the industrial and agricultural production (Tezel, regard was the abolition of the agricultural tithe
2002, p. 154-155). These goals could be reached (aşar) in 1925.
50
Tithe was replaced by a land-income tax, which lessened

the tax burden of the peasantry. Some legislative measures were
Tithe, one tenth of the annual produce, It
taken for the extension of irrigation, the distribution of plants
was the symbol of peasant exploitation in the
and seeds, and the encouragement of the production of certain
Ottoman Empire.
items such as hazelnuts, lemons, mandarins, and tea. There were
also attempts to develop rural education and training. In 1927,
high schools for agriculture and veterinary science opened in Ankara. In addition, agricultural schools were built
in different cities, cooperative stores were established, and regional advisory offices were organized in order to
assist peasants in the improvement of their seeds. Finally, agricultural instructors and specialists were sent to
Europe and the USA to learn about the modern agricultural methods (Hershlag, 1968, pp. 47-50). Measures
to improve the agricultural sector proved to be effective as agricultural production increased considerably (90 %
according to some estimations) between 1923 and 1926.
Figure 2.1 The first Headquarters of Business Bank (İş Bankası), Bank for Industry and Mining
Source: http://www.boyutpedia.com, https://isteataturk.com/
Lack of inadequate capital was the most important handicap before industrial and agricultural
development. The early Republican governments attempted to improve the financial infrastructure and
extend credit facilities to industrial enterprises and agricultural producers. In 1924, Business Bank (İş
Bankası) was established. Among its tasks were making investments in industry, mines and commerce,
providing credit facilities to private entrepreneurs and taking initiative in the organization of export
activities. In 1925, the Bank for Industry and Mining (Sanayi ve Maadin Bankası) was founded. This bank
took over four industrial enterprises (the shoe factory at Beykoz, two wool mills at Hereke and Feshane,
and a cotton weaving mill at Bakırköy) which,
belonged to the Ottoman state with the purpose
of transferring them to the private sector under
favorable conditions. It also aimed to support
private industrial and mining enterprises trough
credit. In order to expand credit facilities for the
agricultural sector, the government reorganized
the Agricultural Bank (Ziraat Bankası) which
had been founded in 1888. Its central office
was transferred from İstanbul to Ankara and
its nominal capital was raised. Its tasks were
redefined as ‘granting of loans, purchase and
sale of agricultural produce, dealing in materials
needed by the peasant, purchase of land and its Figure 2.2 The first headquarters of Agricultural Bank in
improvement, participation in companies interested Ankara
in agriculture, and normal banking activities’
Source: http://lcivelekoglu.blogspot.com/2015/11/152-yil-
(Hershlag, 1968, pp. 48-49).
once-bugun-ziraat-bankasinin.html
51
Regarding the development of transportation

infrastructure, the state undertook the
Monopolies on some commercial items
investment in this sector since the private
had been in control of the Public Debt
enterprise was not strong. The state took on
Administration in return of the foreign debt
building railways and nationalizing some lines
of the Ottoman Empire. As the Public Debt
to this day. From 1923 to 1929, eight hundred
Administration was liquidated by the Treaty
km of railroad tracks were laid. Another eight
of Lausanne and the Ottoman Debt issue was
hundred were under construction in 1929.
rearranged, foreign companies continued to
In 1924, the government decided to remove
have monopoly rights on specific items.
the foreign capital from the railway lines. As a
result, it began to nationalize the foreign-owned
railway companies. It nationalized Haydarpaşa
port, Haydarpaşa-Ankara, Eskişehir-Konya, In the 1920s, the impact of the attempts made
and Arifiye-Adapazarı lines in the first instance. to increase agricultural production and industrial
Later, in 1928, nationalization extended into activities yielded good results and improvements.
Mersin-Tarsus-Adana railway line. By 1930, Nevertheless, economic development was
three thousand kilometers of track were inadequate in terms of creating a strong industrial
nationalized. The remaining two thousand four base as a solid foundation of the national economy
hundred kilometers would be nationalized in the in this decade. In 1929, the constraints of the
1930s (Zürcher, 1993, p. 204; Boratav, 2016, Treaty of Lausanne, which proved the main obstacle
pp. 46-47). Nationalization also extended into before developing an independent policy for
foreign owned companies in other sectors. In industrialization, ended. Before developing an
1925, for example, the government nationalized independent economic policy, however, the Turkish
the Ottoman tobacco monopoly, which had government had to deal with a worldwide economic
been in existence since 1884. It was bought crisis which had severe effects on its economy
out and turned it into a state monopoly. Some similar to the ones suffered by the world’s nations.
other sectors such as alcohol and spirits, salt,
sugar, matches, oil, gasoline and explosives were
integrated into it. In 1926, coastal shipping
(cabotage) was nationalized and foreign 2
companies were removed from this field of
Explain the major goals of the policies for the
activity.
economic development in the 1920s and the
means employed to these ends.
THE GREAT DEPRESSION AND

THE RISE OF ÈTATISM
The 1929 economic crisis began when the stock
market in the United States crashed in October.
Although the United States was the main center,
the crisis disseminated to all industrialized countries
in a very short time. Industrial production declined
sharply and immediately in the United States,
Germany, France and Britain, the main industrialized
countries. As the production capacity of these
Figure 2.3 Inauguration of a new railroad line countries deteriorated, both commodity prices and
Source: ahiska.org.tr the prices for agricultural items fell because demand
on items decreased. This crisis also adversely affected
non-industrial countries, manufacturing/agricultural
countries. In order to overcome the severe effects
52
of this economic crisis, industrialized and non- Initial Responses to the Great
industrialized countries came up with protectionist Depression
policies as an economic instrument. The impact of The immediate measures that Turkey took to
the crisis would last a decade. Globally, it would cause lessen the negative impact of the crisis included the
unemployment, decrease in governments’ revenues establishment of a firm control on foreign trade aiming
and drop in international trade in an unprecedented to restrict imports and a cut down on government
manner. Several countries were hit hard by the decline expenditures. As the constraints on customs tariffs
in the prices of their primary products. stipulated by the Treaty of Lausanne came to end, it
introduced new tariff regulations which would make
the development of a sovereign policy in foreign trade
possible in June 1929. The new customs tariffs provided
a much higher protection compared to the previous
tariffs (46 % to 13 %). Thus, Turkey managed to control
its foreign trade. Under new tariffs, foreign goods would
not overrun its market. The newly adopted protectionist
tariffs policy seemed to be an inevitable instrument in
ensuring the balance of trade (Barlas, 1998, p. 82).
In developing defensive instruments against
the crisis, the state increasingly intervened in
the situation, adopted a protectionist policy and
Figure 2.4 The market crash of 1929 import-substitution; that is, it attempted to replace
Source: infogram.com some of the imported goods by local production.
In order to stabilize the budget and increase the
attention
value of Turkish Lira, the Law on Foreign Exchange
Markets (Menkul Kıymetler ve Kambiyo Borsaları
Social consequences of the crisis, especially Kanunu) was enacted (December 1929) and the
unemployment and the weakening of the Law on the Protection of the Value of Turkish
middle class in industrialized countries, Lira (Türk Parasının Kıymetini Koruma Hakkında
formed the ground for the empowerment Kanun) was introduced in February 1930. These
of authoritarian/fascist political regimes in laws enabled the government with instruments ‘to
Europe. Germany was the typical example. purchase, sell, and export gold and foreign and local
currency’. According to İsmet [İnönü], then the
Turkey was no exception. The immediate effect Prime Minister, Turkish Lira devalued because of
of the crisis on Turkey was the sharp decline in the the reasons listed below. First, the country was
prices of agricultural goods. Agriculture was the not saving; rather, there was a high demand for
main source of income and agricultural goods were imported goods. Secondly, the state budget was
the main items of export. The prices of wheat and running a deficit due to the Ottoman debts;
other cereals, tobacco, raisin, hazelnut, cotton fell and, finally, there was no national institution
considerably (more than 50 %) in a few years. This controlling credit and monetary transactions.
fall affected mostly the commercialized regions; the As a remedy to the first cause, the government
regions that accommodated the world economy led the establishment of the Society of National
through their agricultural products; namely, Economy and Savings (Millî İktisat ve Tasarruf
western Anatolia, the eastern Black Sea coast and Cemiyeti) in December 1929. Its aim was to reduce
Adana (Pamuk, 2008, p. 277). In addition to the the demand for imported goods by changing the
worldwide economic crisis, Turkey’s economy consumption trends of the people in Turkey. As
confronted monetary crisis in 1929 because of the described in its regulations, the Society was to
decrease in the rate of the Turkish Lira and the start teach the nation how to save; to enable the nation
of the payments of the Ottoman debt installations. to understand and use local products; to increase
As a result, the balance of trade deteriorated further. the quantity and the quality of local products
and to develop the rapid sale of these products.
53
To this end, the Society organized meetings and addition to these measures, a law mandating the
seminars, and introduced Savings and Local government to have quantitative controls and set
Products Week (Tasarruf ve Yerli Mallar Haftası). quotas on imports was accepted in 1931. This law
Regarding the Ottoman Debt which brought a prohibited the importation of goods that could be
heavy burden on the state budget, the Turkish produced in Turkey. Importation was restricted
government attempted to reach an agreement to the goods which were indispensable to the
with the Ottoman Debt Council as the economic country. Processed food, alcoholic beverages,
crisis increased its financial problems. In 1932, perfume, clothes and shoes were not allowed to be
an agreement was reached which reduced the imported. The importing of cement was subject
Ottoman Debt considerably. In order to control to a quota while raw materials and machines used
credit and monetary operations, the Central in agricultural and industrial production were
Bank (Türkiye Cumhuriyet Merkez Bankası) was categorized as importable. Similarly, medical
founded in June 1930. This bank was designed goods and materials were excluded from any
to fix the discount rates, regulate the monetary quotas (Barlas, 1998, p. 82-89).
market and direct the movement of currency. In
Figure 2.5 Central Bank of Turkey established in 1930

Source: http://www.brtk.net/tc-merkez-bankasi
All were to serve as mechanisms and tools for the The Free Republican Party and its
protectionist economic model. The state intervened Criticism of Economic Policies
mainly in the external economic relations; internal The defensive measures taken to respond to and
market was free of state intervention in the 1929- decrease the mal-effects of the Great Depression,
31 period. The dramatic fall of imports because of however, seemed to be insufficient by the end of
these measures generated a positive trade balance the 1930 as socio-economic disturbances arose
for Turkey for the first time since the establishment in country. Following the crisis, the economic
of the Republic (Boratav, 2006, p. 171-172). conditions of low-income population, particularly,
that of the peasantry, deteriorated further. As the
prices of agricultural products fell drastically,
farmers faced difficulty in paying their taxes on
land and animals or their debts to moneylenders.
Socio-economic discontent surfaced with the
3
establishment of the Free Republican Party
What did the instruments developed as initial (Serbest Cumhuriyet Fırkası) in August 1930. Its
responses to the Great Depression aim? foundation was actually instigated by Mustafa
Kemal [Atatürk], who was well aware of the
discontent and who aimed to control it as it
54
could undermine the very foundation of the

Republican regime. The new party met with
The gold standard is a monetary system in
widespread support in various regions of the
which the value of the currency of a country is
country, especially, in the rich farming areas of
directly linked to gold. The country that uses
Western Anatolia and in some coastal towns,
the gold standard sets a fixed price for gold. It
such as Samsun and İzmir; that is, in regions
buys and sells gold at that price. The fixed price
severely affected from the crisis. Fethi [Okyar],
determines the value of the currency. The use
the leader of the Free Republican Party, criticized
of the gold standard was widespread from the
the economic policies of the Republican People’s
1870s to 1914. The outbreak of the World War
Party, especially the policies related to railroads,
I ended its use. However, in 1920s, it was again
taxes, and monetary control. He claimed that
in use; yet, it collapsed in the 1930s under the
spending a good share of the budget on railway
impact of the Great Depression.
construction was one of the main causes of the
financial problems.
He maintained that foreign capital would be
available only on the condition that monetary
The Republican regime gave utmost
system was stabilized (Barlas, 1998, pp. 100-
importance to railroads for strategic and
102). The Free Republican Party defended little
economic reasons. In the early years of the
state intervention in economy and labeled itself as
republic, the railway network was mostly
‘Liberal’ when the Republican Party leaned toward
under foreign control, serving external
an ètatist policy although it had not officially
markets. In order to develop the domestic
adopted it yet.
market, the new regime began to construct
new lines and nationalized the existing ones.
After mid-1920s, a good share of the budget
was allotted to building railways (Barlas, Ètatism was stated as a policy by İsmet
1998, p. 89). [İnönü] for the first time in August 1930.
On the opening of the Sivas railroad, the
first successful example of state led enterprise
He was opposed to government’s collecting in economy, he defined the railway policy as
taxes for the construction of railroads from farmers, ètatist.
traders, and merchants; and by implication,
he accused the government of protecting some
interest groups. He argued that construction of Over disagreement with Mustafa Kemal
railroads should not be one of the primary policies [Atatürk], the party’s leader, Fethi [Okyar],
of the state. Actually, contrary to the government, dissolved the party in November 1930. Yet, the
he believed that state should not be active in all party’s short existence proved to Mustafa Kemal
domains. He favored a liberal approach in economy [Atatürk] the extent of the social and economic
where the state would remain within its boundaries problems of the population which needed to be
economically. Individuals would initiate economic addressed and dealt with.
activities which would constitute their domain. In addition to protectionism, the need for the
Regarding monetary policy, he argued that adoption of an economic policy that which respond
stabilizing the Turkish Lira and balancing the more effectively to the negative impact of the crisis
budget should be the main concerns of the was felt in the last months of 1930. During and
government. He claimed that stabilization of the after a long tour in the country between November
Lira was possible by fixing it to the gold standard. 1930 and March 1931 through which he observed
the economic hardships faced by people, Mustafa
Kemal [Atatürk] discussed the observed problems
and strategic alternatives with experts who
accompanied him in the tour.
55
era. It directly or indirectly followed the support

policy for a number of agricultural goods. The
The tour comprised Central Anatolia, the
Agricultural Bank regulated the prices. The prices
Black Sea Coast, Thrace, the Aegean Coast
of the industrial goods were also under its control.
and Southern Anatolia.
Yet, the most distinctive characteristic of the étatist
economic policies was “the emergence of the state as
the major productive and investing agent” (Boratav,
Ètatism was promoted as the solution to the 2006, pp. 174-175). The crisis demonstrated,
existing situation. In May 1931, ètatism was once more, to the ruling elite of Turkey that the
officially adopted as the principle on which the country’s industrial development was insufficient.
economic policy would be rested in the Third It was dependent on the developed countries for
Congress of the Republican People’s Party. In the both industrial commodities and their market to
Congress, a program calling active intervention of export its agricultural raw materials. Therefore, the
the state in agriculture, commerce, and industry major goal of the ètatist policies had to be be the
was accepted. Yet, the full implementation of the creation of an indigenous industry.
economic policy along with étatism was to take The state intervention in economy increasingly
place from mid-1932 onwards. became frequent, and the states’s domination
came along the official adoption of ètatism. The
attention
implemented policies were, in turn, accompanied
by a debate on the position of private enterprise as
There were two main conflicting currents in well as the nature and limits of state intervention.
the government about the economic policies. In the official documents of the Republican
While the Prime Minister İnönü viewed People’s Party, private enterprise was not rejected;
ètatism as a permanent remedy to the existing yet, the active involvement of the state in matters,
situation, Celâl [Bayar], the president of the especially the economic ones, relating to the general
Business Bank, saw it as a transitory stage. and vital interests of the nation and the country
The friction between these viewpoints was was accepted as a fundamental necessity. The state
visible. (Zürcher, 1993, p. 206) was to be an actual builder in economic matters.
It was also to encourage private enterprises. In this
regard, there was confusion about the definition of
Ètatism and Economic Development ètatism; e.g., whether it was a socialist or a liberal
between 1932 and 1939 way of development.
Ètatism, not clearly defined by the government
in its initial phase, came to mean the state’s The Views of the Cadre Movement on
responsibility for investing in industry, creating Ètatism
and running industries that the private sector Early attempts at formulating a definition of
could not due to lack of sufficient capital, and ètatism came from a group of intellectuals/writers
supervising the production in these industries. In who gathered around the Kadro (Cadre) journal.
other words, the state was going to be the leading
actor in economic development as an investor and
a producer. During the étatist period, protective
measures which were adopted in the aftermath Şevket Süreyya Aydemir, İsmail Hüsrev Tekin,
of the Great Depression to control the foreign Vedat Nedim Tör, and Burhan Belge were the
trade were maintained. The nationalization of main figures of the Kadro movement. Their
foreign investments, especially in the areas of principal aim was to develop an ideology for
public utilities, mining and railways, continued. the Turkish Revolution.
Some further restrictions and controls were put
on the foreign capital. Remarkably different from
the preceding years, the government tightened its
control of the internal markets during the étatist
56
The journal was published for two years, from

1932 to 1934, when the ètatist policy was in its
formation stage. They were fervent supporters of
the policy of étatism and advocated state planning
not only in economy but also in social and cultural
life. In their view, étatism was neither socialism
nor liberalism/capitalism. It was a ‘third way’
which would transform the Turkish society from ‘a
colonized economy to a national economy’. They
defended that the private enterprise should work in
industry and/or commerce on the condition that it
was productive. They claimed that this was possible Figure 2.6 Early attempts in industrialization
under state control (Barlas, 1998, pp. 50-52). Source: https://ulusalhaber-ulusalajans.blogspot.com
The implementations of étatism by the
government, including state planning, were
Industrialization Attempts within
limited to the economic field. The leading political
figures of the 1930s including Mustafa Kemal Ètatism
had mostly a pragmatic approach to étatism. In 1932, two state-led institutions, Industrial
They did not consider it in terms of a theoretical/ Credit Bank of Turkey (Türkiye Sanayi
ideological meaning. They did not view it as a Kredi Bankası) and State Office for Industry
sort of socialist/communist or liberal system; but (Devlet Sanayi Ofisi) were founded to initiate
rather as, the only way to overcome the severe industrialization. The former was to provide credit
effects of the economic crisis and as the only means to state or private industrial establishments. The
to create a strong industrial foundation under latter was responsible for
existing circumstances. Viewed in this way, ètatism • the foundation of the government industrial
was a system specific to Turkey which originated enterprises,
from the principles of private enterprises. Yet, • the management of factories hitherto led by
it placed a great role on the state in developing the Bank of Industry and Mines,
the national economy. Therefore, it was neither
• the management of all existing factories
socialist nor liberal (Barlas, 1998, p. 63). Ètatism
and/or the factories to be established as full
was incorporated into the Constitution in 1937
or partial state enterprises, and
and became one of the six principles on which the
ideology of the state rested on. • the administration of financial matters
related to all the above-stated projects
attention (Hershlag, 1968, p. 77).
However, these institutions were reorganized
Ètatism did not object to private property because of the change of the Minister of Economy
and, in the last analysis, aimed to provide in the same year. The new minister was Celâl
private capital accumulation. In that, it is [Bayar], who defended the inclusion of the private
defined as state capitalism. enterprize in the industrialization process. As a
result, Business Bank (İş Bankası) began to finance
the industries organized by the state in return
for shares from the capital of these industries. In
addition, Sümerbank replaced Turkish Industrial
Credit Bank and State Office for Industry in July
1933. The functions of the new bank were
• running the factories transferred to it by the
State Office for Industry;
• preparing projects for new factories,
establishing and operating them;
57
• participating in or supporting financially • giving credit to industrial establishments

the creation or the enlargement of the and performing general banking functions;
industrial establishments that were • studying the measures for the development
beneficial to the national economy; of national industry and advising the
• establishing schools for the training of the Minister of Economy on these measures
personnel and offering scholarships for when requested to do so (Barlas, 1998, pp.
industrial training in Turkey or abroad; 95-96: Göymen, 1976, pp. 99).
Figure 2.7 First advertisements for Sümerbank-in textile and banking sector, Samples of textile products from
Sümerbank
Source: istihbaratveanaliz.wordpress.com, http://sumerbank.blogspot.com/2013/
Sümerbank would be the main institution in materializing the first five-year plan, which would be
implemented from 1934 to 1939. In developing the first five-year plan, Turkey took a page from the Soviet
Union industrialization. In the development of the Soviet industry, planning was important. After it successfully
completed its first state led plan in 1932, the Soviet Union began to implement the second one. The main
decision maker in economy and other fields was the state in the Soviet Union. Unlike the capitalist countries, the
Soviet Union, as a socialist economy, was not affected from the worldwide crisis. Thus, it became an attractive
model for Turkey who was in search of a strong industrial foundation that would enable her to act independently
from the industrialized Western powers. However, Turkey was under the influence of the state-led economic
development in the Soviet Union rather than the ideological form of this development.
İsmet [İnönü], the Prime Minister, and Tevfik Rüştü [Aras], the Minister of Foreign Affairs, made
an official visit to the Soviet Union in 1932. Impressed by its economic achievements, they decided to
adopt the Soviet model for industrial development. Soon, the Turkish government invited Soviet experts
to Turkey to research and make recommendations on the establishment of the industries. These experts
presented a report to the government at the end of their stay. Most of the report concentrated on the
development of a textile industry, specifically cotton and hemp. Chemical and iron industries were also
analyzed in the report. The overall conclusion of the report stressed the necessity of the development of the
Turkish industry (Barlas, 1998, pp. 96-97).
The first Five-year plan was drawn up in 1933 and approved by the government in January 1934. Its
implementation began in May 1934. The main targets of the first plan were:
• basing the industry mainly on local raw materials;
• the dispersal of the industrial centers for strategic and economic reasons;
• to take industry to rural sectors in order to provide alternative employment to farmers;
• the extensive development of the textile industry, characteristic of the initial stages of industrial
development, in order to meet the local demand, save foreign currency, and export;
• the production of consumer goods (Hershlag, 1968, p. 81)
58
In short, the production of the goods necessary several state factories. Initially, it was to establish
for local consumption (consumer goods) in peace textile mills in Kütahya, Kayseri and Nazilli;
or war and the establishment of industries which paper mills inİzmir; ceramics in Kütahya; artificial
would use local raw materials were the basic aims of silk in Gemlik; and superphosphates in İzmit.
the first five-year plan. For the fulfillment of these It also operated a number of mines such as coal
aims, the following industries were established in in Zonguldak, sulphur in Keçiborlu and copper
different regions of Turkey: in Ergani. It worked on a number of electricity
1. Chemical industry producing artificial silk, production projects as well. In 1935, its mining and
semicoke, attar of roses, sulphuric acid, and power industry responsibilities were transferred to
superphosphates, a newly founded institution; namely, Etibank, the
second largest state economic enterprise. This bank
2. Earthenware industry; producing ceramics,
was initially responsible for operating all mines that
glass and bottles, cement,
had previously been given as concessions to foreign
3. Iron industry, states and nationalized by the Republican regime. Yet,
4. Paper and cellulose industry, its primary mission was to develop the mining and
5. Sulphur industry, electric industries. To this end, Etibankwas authorized
6. Sponge industry, • to trade in minerals and mining equipment;
7. Cotton textiles industry, • to exploit mines, quarries and oilfields;
8. Worsted industry, • to generate and distribute electricity, and to
9. Hemp industry. manufacture and sell electrical equipment;
Most of the industries were founded by • to provide all kinds of banking services.
Sümerbank. Its tasks covered the establishment of
Figure 2.8 Medal made for Etibank established in 1935, Commemoration of the first iron from Karabük
Source: www.bilgeturksam.com/images, http://www.karorsan.org.tr/s/ilimiz-53.html
In its efforts, Etibank was assisted by the Institute for Research and Exploration of Minerals (Maden
Tetkik ve Arama Enstitüsü) founded in 1935 (Göymen, 1976, p. 100).
The first five-year plan was largely implemented. The Soviet Union provided the required professional
instruction, financial aid and equipment in its implementation (Hershlag, 1968, p. 81). The industries
that produced consumer goods had been almost completed by 1938. In this year, 19 factories had already
been founded; mostly, by Sümerbank. The projection in the plan was 25. As a result, industrial production
increased 80 % from 1929 to 1938 (Barlas, 1998, pp. 98-99).The implementation of the first Five-year
plan led to a steady increase in the GDP (Gross Domestic Product). By the end of 1930s, state economic
enterprises had emerged as the main producers in a number of key sectors such as textiles, sugar, iron and
steel, glass work, cement, utilities and mining (Pamuk, 2008, p. 277). In order to maintain the industrial
development, a committee of experts and technicians drafted the second Five-year plan. In this plan, nine
major sectors were defined as the important targets for industrialization. They were:
59
1. mining, Imports also decreased considerably. This effected

2. coal mining, local production negatively. Decrease in taxes
created difficulties in financing expenditures.
3. regional electricity plants,
Among the measures taken for financing the
4. home fuels industry and trade, expenditures, the government adopted monetary
5. earthenware industry, expansion, or in other words, printing money,
6. foodstuffs industry, which encouraged inflation. The prices of
7. chemical industry, foodstuffs rose sharply; the official consumer
price index went from 100 in 1938 to 459 in
8. engineering industry,
1944 (Timur, 1991, p. 19). Thus, high inflation,
9. marine transportation. shortage of commercial and agricultural items
The focal point of the second five-year plan was and provisioning of the army and urban centers
technically and economically different from the emerged as the most important problems that
first as it mainly aimed at the development and wartime government had to cope with. In order
production of capital goods rather than consumer to feed and equip the army and to provision
goods. Sümerbank, Etibankand the newly founded the urban areas, the government had to take
Denizbank(Marine Bank) were to implement emergency measures in economy. Thus, although
the second-five year plan (Göymen, 1976, pp. state intervention in the economy continued,
108-111). Over a hundred new factories were it could not lead to further investments, only,
established in order to fulfill the second year plan. financing expenditures of war mobilization.
The government approved this plan in September In other words, ètatism in the sense of state
1938. Yet, the break out of the Second World War led investment would remain on paper during
interrupted its implementation (Hershlag, 1968, World War II.
pp. 82-84).
The National Protection Law (Millî
Korunma Kanunu)
The most noteworthy development about the
4 measures that the government took as a remedy
Write the main characteristics of the ètatist for the ensuing problems was the enactment of
economic policy. the National Protection Law in January 1940. It
mandated the Council of Ministers to take over
control of the economy in case of extraordinary
circumstances that were defined as
WAR ECONOMY AND THE FALL
OF ÈTATISM • general or partial mobilization,
After the outbreak of World War II and • entry to the war and,
during the course of the war, Turkey spent all • outbreak of a war which would directly
its efforts to stay out of the war. It managed affect Turkey.
to do that; yet, as a precaution, it maintained According to the provisions of the Law, the
a full-scale mobilization during the war. It government could determine the amount of
increased its army to over a million strength. products in the industries; it could impose the
The maintenance of such an army placed severe items that enterprises could produce. If they
strains on its economy. While defense spending did not, the government would appropriate
increased sharply, agricultural production, the industrial establishments. Similarly, the
specifically wheat production, decreased by 50 government could impose which agricultural
%. Shortage of labor in rural areas that emerged items were to be cultivated by farmers. Secondly,
due to mobilization was one of the causes of this the government had the right to fix the prices of
decrease. As a result, provisioning of the army both industrial and agricultural products in the
and urban centers appeared as one of the most market. Finally, the government had full authority
vital problems of the government during the war. to regulate labor; to supply private enterprises with
60
labor if required, and to transfer laborers from one The war caused the rise of great discontent among
investment to another to facilitate the production different classes of society. As a result of the
of the required amount of products. In short, this decline in production, lower standards of living
law gave the government extensive emergency and increasing inequalities in the distribution of
rights to control production and prices in order income, most of the urban and rural population
to supply the market with goods as well as using turned against the Republican People’s Party which
forced labor in order to maintain production. It had been in power since 1923 (Pamuk, 2008, p.
was also a means to buy agricultural products in 280). In addition, the commercial class and big
prices below the market value by the government. landowners were disturbed by the introduction
and implementation of the Wealth Tax and Tax for
attention
Agricultural Produce, respectively. The social base
of the Republican People’s Party had been largely
formed by the military-civil bureaucracy and these
The government got the control over two economically strong interest groups (i.e.,
production, distribution, and labor by this law. the commercial class and big landowners) in the
early Turkish Republic. Disturbed by the wartime
policies of the Republican People’s Party, though
The implementation of the National Protection they profited much in this period, they would quest
Law, especially fixing prices at low values, led to the rise for a change in power under the new circumstances
of a black market economy. Big farmers, merchants the World War II.
and even some officials who were in a position to
exploit the large degree of government intervention in
economy made great fortunes. While the big farmers Redefinition of Ètatism
gained enormously from the rise in agricultural Wartime discontent that arose because of the
prices, the merchants benefited much from having economic developments and the end of the World
the permit of importing some necessary items that War II with the victory of Western Liberal states
they could sell at high prices. The fortunes that both formed the major factors in the transformation
sectors gained were exempt from taxation or control of Turkey politically and economically in the
by the government. As the government needed more aftermath of the War. The Republican People’s
income to meet its expenditures, it decided to impose Party officially maintained its attachment to ètatism
extraordinary taxes through which it would tax such in the 1930s. However, the party would change its
fortunes. The first extraordinary tax in case was the attitude toward this policy as domestic business
Wealth Tax (Varlık Vergisi). It was approved by the circles and the United States, which claimed the
Grand National Assembly on November 11, 1942 and leadership of the liberal/capitalist states against the
came into force the next day. In its implementation, state-led socialist economies in the aftermath of the
there were no standards. Consequently, the tax was war, began to heavily criticize it. Business groups
mostly paid by merchants in Istanbul, notably by had accumulated capital during the war and
non-Muslims who were subjected to rates higher sought economic security to invest it after the war
than those of the Muslims (Zürcher 1993, p. 208). ended. According to them, étatist understanding in
In June 1943, the government introduced taxes economy, seemed as a hindrance for their efforts
for agriculture products. It aimed to tax especially in furthering their interests. They considered that
farmers who accumulated considerable wealth ‘ètatism had secured economic independence, had
because of the tremendous increase in the prices of established the basis for a national economy, and had
agricultural products. However, the government was provided protection for the development of a native
not successful in collecting the taxes, especially from industry.’ Thus, étatism had achieved its historical
big landowners who were able to avoid government mission and, now, it was an obstacle for further
control. economic development (Karpat, 1959, pp. 295-
The wartime economic developments 297). On the other hand, the United States had
concerning the political development in Turkey after emerged as the dominant world power at the
World War II ended are specifically noteworthy. end of the war. It would favor a/n open/liberal
economic model and would extend political and
61
economic aids to the countries that were under the

Soviet Union threat. To this end, in March 1947,
This doctrine signified the commitment of
President Truman launched a doctrine named after
the United States to support anti-communist
him: the Truman Doctrine. It declared military and
regimes throughout the world.
financial aid to Greece and Turkey.
Figure 2.9 The New York Times newspaper

Source: https://apprend.io/apush/apush-dbq-breakdown/
Soon after the promulgation of the Truman Turkey viewed its political, military and
doctrine, Marshall Plan was put into action. The economic interests in approaching the United States
Marshall Plan envisaged financial support to the after World War II. Consequently, in order to get
European countries to provide them with assistance the support of the United States, Turkey gradually
in their efforts to substantiate their economies. This conformed its political and economic ideals which
plan also aimed, besides helping the Europeans, to were for democracy and free enterprise. The single
create lucrative markets for the industrial products party political regime became a multi-party political
of the United States and to remove poverty as a regime immediately after the end of the war (see
breeding ground for communist ideology (Zürcher, Chapter VII). Criticisms against ètatism as an
1993, p. 218). economic policy arose about the same time, more
specifically before the establishment of opposition
parties. The parties founded were, namely, the
National Development Party (Millî Kalkınma
Partisi, 1945) and the Democrat Party (Demokrat
Parti, 1946). The former party did not gain much
support however, the latter would seriously challenge
the Republican People’s Party as soon as it was
founded. In that, Democratic Party became the voice
for the criticisms of ètatism that came from business
circles. The Democrats, in general, advocated a
revised role for the state in economy. Instead of direct
intervention, the state needed to coordinate and
support the private enterprise. According to them,
the private enterprise had to have priority. They
thought that state intervention was necessary only if
the private enterprise failed or did not have enough
capital for a particular investment (Zürcher, 1993, p.
225; Karpat, 1959, pp. 300-301).
The unfavorable economic conditions caused
Figure 2.10 A poster for the Marshall Plan mainly by war mobilization sparked the debate on
Source: https://www.marshallfoundation.org economic policy within the Republican People’s Party
62
as well. In an effort to respond to the challenge from Through these decisions, they attempted to
the Democratic Party domestically and as a way liberalize the Turkish economy and integrate
of developing a close relationship with the United it into world economy. In November, the
States, the majority in the Republican People’s Party Republican People’s Party Congress accepted the
favored a departure from ètatism to adopt a more new development plan and, as a result, made full
liberal economic policy. In 1947, the declaration of commitment to liberal economic policies. In its new
the Truman Doctrine and the following Marshall Aid program, the Republican People’s Party limited the
Program gave impetus to the economic liberalization scope of ètatism in favor of the private enterprise
of Turkey. The American economic missions who and the private capital. The state’s economic
came to Turkey mostly recommended the government responsibilities were redefined. One of these was
to curtail ètatism and favor free enterprise. In their to intervene in the economy when the the private
reports, they stated that this was a prerequisite for the capital was not sufficiently strong to launch some
American aid to Turkey (Ahmad, 1977, p. 124). new enterprises needed for economic development
or in operations that were not profitable for the
private enterprise (Karpat, 1959, pp. 302-303).
The most noteworthy of these reports was
the one prepared by an industrialist, Max
Thornburg, for the World Bank. His report
came out in 1949 and it became influential
in government circles in Turkey and the 5
United States. Explain the factors that caused the fall of ètatism as
a strategy for the economic development in Turkey.
A new Turkish Development Plan reflecting
the interests of the Istanbul executives and the As a result, mainstream political parties that
economic views of the Democratic Party was were in competition for political power after 1945;
adopted. This plan emphasized free enterprise, the mainly, the Republican People’s Party and the
the development of agriculture and agriculturally Democratic Party, adopted liberal views and aimed
based industry as opposed to industrial industry, for agriculture-based economic development
roads instead of railways and the development of under domestic and international influences.
the energy sector (Zürcher, 1993, p. 225). The plan Early implementations of this approach began as
was a direct contradiction to the goals of the ètatist early as 1947. Trade deficit was the immediate
economic policies of the 1930s. In the meantime, result of the new policies due to the specifically
the government took the ‘7 September Decisions’ fast-rising import of machinery for agricultural
in 1947 in order to qualify for the membership of development (Zürcher, 1993, 225-226). Yet,
the International Monetary Fund (IMF). the full implementation of the this fundamental
change would be seen following the change of
power in the 1950 elections when the Democratic
The foundations of a liberal world economic order Party took over the government.
were laid down as World War II ended. Initial debates
to this end had taken place in a conference convened
in Breton Woods in 1944. The encouragement of
free trade, the support of international trade and the
control of international capital transactions were set as
the main goals of the new order. A fixed rate system
based on the United States dollar was created. The
International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World
Bank were to have centrally important functions in the
new order. Both were created through the discussions
made at Breton Woods Conference in 1944. (Pamuk,
2014, pp. 223-224).
63
Demonstrate the importance of economic

LO 1 independence for the founders of the Turkish Republic
as illustrated in the course of the War of Independence
Beginning from the early months of the Turkish War of Independence, its leaders began to emphasize
economic independence as one of the fundamental principles to conclude the peace treaty with the Allied
Powers. The resolutions of the Congresses convened in Erzurum and Sivas, and later the National Pact,
clearly stated that complete independence and sovereignty was fundamental to the life and existence of the
nation. Restrictions that were harmful to the political, judicial and financial development of the country
Summary
would not be accepted. Scientific, industrial and economic assistance of every state was acceptable on the
condition that they did not nurture imperialist ambitions. This understanding prevailed during the course
of the Turkish Independence War. It was maintained in the İzmir Economic Congress convened after the
end of the war.
Describe the economic legacy inherited from the Ottoman

LO 2 Empire and the economic development from 1923 to 1929 in
the light of the constraints brought by the Treaty of Lausanne.
The financial and economic provisions of the Treaty of Lausanne restricted the new Turkish state in
developing a coherent and an independent economic policy until 1929. Probably, the most noteworthy
stipulation in this regard was the one on customs tariffs. Until 1929, the relatively more liberal Ottoman
tariffs would continue to be observed, which meant less protectionism for Turkey. As a result, the Turkish
economy would be open to foreign capital and goods during this period. The economic structure inherited
from the Ottoman Empire was dominantly agricultural. This sector was the most severely affected from
constant wars since 1912. The agricultural production fell drastically until 1922. With such handicaps,
the leaders of the new Turkish state aimed to develop a national economy by employing the means at
their disposal. Industrialization and recovery in the agricultural production were the primary goals in
the 1920s. They also tried to develop the transportation and financial infrastructure. The Law for the
Encouragement of Industry, the abolition of tithe, the nationalization and construction of railway lines
and the establishment of the Business Bank were the illustrative cases demonstrating the extent of the
efforts made to materialize the economic development in the 1920s.
Explain the circumstances in which

LO 3 the gradual adoption of an ètatist
economic policy took place.
Turkey began to search for a fundamental change in its economic policy in 1929. There were two important
factors that accelerated the process namely, the Great Depression and the end of the constraints brought by
the Treaty of Lausanne. The Great Depression caused a sharp decline in the prices of agricultural goods. This
meant loss of income for Turkey. The end of the constraints of the Treaty of Lausanne, on the other hand,
made it possible for Turkey to regulate its customs tariffs. As the Turkish state faced a monetary crisis in the
same year, it swiftly acted to intervene in the foreign trade. The new customs tariffs provided protection
against foreign goods. There was also a decision made to produce some of the imported goods locally. Yet,
these initial responses to the Great Depression were not sufficient in lessening or removing the economic
problems. In 1930, the social and political discontent became more apparent, especially in the regions
which had business transactions with the outside world. The Free Republican Party’s meetings illustrated
this discontent. Under these circumstances, étatism was officially adopted as the economic policy. Since the
private sector could not meet the demands and were weak to provide support for economic development,
the state would take the initiative in agriculture, commerce and, especially, industry from 1932 onwards.
64
Describe the general characteristics

LO 4 of the ètatist policy and the economic
development it yielded.
Ètatism, as understood from the implementations in the 1930s, meant state’s responsibility for the
investments in industry, for the establishment and management of new industries the private sector could
not ensure, and for the supervision of the production in these industries. In short, state emerged as the
investor and producer in this economic policy. Its overall aim, in the first place, was to create an indigenous
industry that would provide self-sufficiency in basic consumer goods. Ètatism can be placed somewhere
Summary
between the liberal and socialist economic development policies and an alternative to both. However,
it seems more convenient to assess étatism within the framework of state capitalism as the investment,
management and production processes carried the capitalist rationality and the private property continued
to be the basis of the economic system. Central planning was key to étatism. Economic decisions and
investments were made through a five-year development plan. The Soviet Union supported Turkey in
developing its first five-year plan. Soviet experts came to Turkey, researched, and made recommendations
on the establishment of industries. In materializing the first five-year plan, the Soviet Union also offered
financial, material and technical aid. Sümerbank was the main institution behind the creation of the
new industries. The first five-year plan was largely implemented. Out of the 25 planned establishments,
19 were founded. Industrial production increased considerably which also led to a steady increase in the
Gross Domestic Product. The state economic enterprises founded by the ètatist policy became the major
producers in key sectors for decades in Turkey.
Explain the economic developments

LO 5 during World War II and the modification
of ètatism in the aftermath of the war.
Turkey’s main goal during World War II was not to be belligerent. It was successful in that. Nevertheless,
it had to mobilize a large army during the war. This mobilization was economically costly. As a result,
investments came to a halt. The major economic concerns were about how to finance mobilization and
how to provision the urban centers. Emergency measures were taken immediately. The first step was the
enactment of the National Protection Law in 1940. It gave extensive authority to the government to control
industrial and agricultural production, regulate the market, and impose forced labor. At the same time, as a
means of financing the expenditure, the government printed money that resulted in high inflation. Under
these circumstances, profiteering through black market became a very lucrative business, especially for traders
and big landowners. The government introduced two extraordinary taxes in order to fine excessive profits
through profiteering. The first one was the Wealth Tax. It was to be collected from the traders. The second
one was the Tax for Agricultural Produce. It was to be collected from the big landowners. The government
could not collect the expected amount from these taxes. While the Wealth Tax was mostly collected only
from the non-Muslims, the big landowners evaded the payments of the agricultural tax. These two groups
would emerge as the most ardent opponents of ètatism as the war ended. They would seek for change in the
political and economic structure. The discontent of the population would further amend their cause. The
demand for change accelerated as a result of the rise of the United States as the leader of the liberal world
order in the aftermath of the war. Turkey’s efforts concentrated on getting the American support as the Soviet
Union took a hostile attitude against it. Within these circumstances, Turkey began to undergo a political
and economic transformation. Economically, ètatism became the target of not only domestic executives who
viewed it as an obstacle for economic development but also of some American missions who advised Turkey
to adopt liberal measures for development. American financial and economic aid within the framework of
the Marshall Plan was somehow conditioned to the adoption of these measures. As a result, ètatism was
redefined. It came to mean state support of the private enterprise when needed rather than an investor and
producer state aiming to create an indigenous industry.
65
1 In many statements of the goals of the Turkish 4 Which of the following was not among the
National Struggle, it was pointed out that scientific, measures that the governments adopted to foster
industrial and economic assistance of every state, the national economy through supporting the
which had not imperialistic ambitions towards the private sector in the 1920s?
country and respect the principles of nationality,
Test Yourself
A. The establishment of Sümerbank

was welcome. Independence of the people and the
state and the territorial integrity of the country were B. The enactment of the Law for the
the conditions for the acceptance of such assistance. Encouragement of Industry
C. The Establishment of the Business Bank
Which conclusion cannot be drawn from the D. The Establishment of the Bank for Industry
above statement? and Mining
A. The leadership of the Turkish National Struggle E. The nationalization of coastal shipping
was not open to the assistance and support of
states having imperialist ambitions. 5 Which of the following was not among
B. The leaders of the Turkish National Struggle the factors that compelled the government to
were expecting respect to territorial integrity. search for a change in its approach to economic
C. The leaders of the Turkish National Struggle development by 1929?
were against any form of foreign investment. A. The end of the financial and economic
D. The leaders of the Turkish National Struggle constraints brought by the Treaty of Lausanne
opposed all privileges harming national B. The Great Depression
sovereignty. C. Deterioration in the balance of trade
E. The leaders of the Turkish National Struggle D. Decline in the prices of the agricultural
aimed at complete economic independence. products
E. Liberalization of the international trade
2 Which of the following had no influence in
the formation of the economic policies in the 1920s? 6 Which of the following was not among the
A. The resolutions of the İzmir Economic Congress measures that the government took as an immediate
response to the severe effects of the Great Depression?
B. The provisions of Treaty of Sèvres
C. The economic and financial constraints brought A. Control of foreign trade
by the Treaty of Lausanne B. Substitution for imported goods
D. The economic legacy inherited from the C. Nationalization of monopolies and taking
Ottoman Empire them under state control
E. The compulsory adoption of Customs Tariffs D. Establishment of the Society of National
that had been implemented in the late Ottoman Economy and Savings
Empire E. Introduction of quotas for imported goods
3 Which of the following was not among the 7 Which of the following is true about the Free
aims of the economic policies in the 1920s? Republican Party?
A. Industrialization A. It took widespread support in the regions where

commercialized agriculture was intensive.
B. Agricultural recovery
B. It criticized the Republican People’s Party for
C. Development of the financial infrastructure not having increased state intervention to
D. Nationalization and extension of railway lines economy as a response to the Great Depression.
as a means of developing transportation C. It advocated a third way between state
E. Creation of self-sufficient economy intervention and liberalism in economic matters.
D. It was in firm support of the government’s
railroad policy.
E. It opposed foreign capital.
66
8 Which of the following was a direct result of 10 Which of the following was specifically
the adoption of ètatism as a development strategy established for materializing state-run
in the 1930s? industrialization within the framework of the first
A. Tightening control of the domestic market by five-year plan?
the state
Test Yourself
A. Industrial Credit Bank of Turkey
B. Nationalization of the foreign investments B. Sümerbank
C. Restriction of the foreign trade C. State Office for Industry
D. Nationalization of the railways D. Bank for Industry and Mining
E. Taking measures to protect the value of Turkish E. State Planning Organization
Lira
9 “They were fervent supporters of ètatism and

they advocated state planning not only in economy
but also in social and cultural life. In their view;
ètatism was neither socialism nor liberalism; a
‘third way’ that would transform the Turkish
society from ‘a colonized economy to a national
economy.”
Which of the following defines the movement
described in the above quotation?
A. Turkish Hearths
B. People’s Houses
C. People’s Chambers
D. Cadre Movement
E. People’s Party
67
If your answer is wrong, please review

1. C 6. C If your answer is wrong, please review section
section “Economic Goals as Stated during
“Initial Responses to Great Depression.”
the Turkish War of Independence.”
If your answer is wrong, please review section If your answer is wrong, please review section
2. D 7. A
“Economic Goals as Stated during the “The Free Republican Party and Its Critics of
Turkish War of Independence and Economic Economic Policy.”
Developments from 1923 to 1929.”
If your answer is wrong, please review section If your answer is wrong, please review section
3. E 8. A
“Economic Developments from 1923 to “Ètatism and Economic Development 1932-
1929.” 1939.”
If your answer is wrong, please review section If your answer is wrong, please review
4. A 9. D
“Economic Developments from 1923 to section “The Views of the Cadre Movement
1929.” on Ètatism.”

5. E section “The Great Depression and the Rise
10. B If your answer is wrong, please review section
“Industrialization Attempts within Ètatism.”
of Ètatism.”
Which fundamental principle was the economic development of the

country (meant to be) based on? To what extent did the Treaty of
Lausanne, the founding treaty of Turkey, allow the fulfillment of this
principle?
The leadership of the Turkish National Struggle completely aimed at economic

independence besides a political one. They were aware that without economic
your turn 1 independence a political one could not be maintained. The Ottoman experience
was there for them to see as an example. For this reason, beginning with the
Erzurum Congress and later the Sivas Congress and the National Pact, they
began to adopt the resolutions emphasizing that peace terms could be accepted
only after/upon the recognition of the nation’s independence and sovereignty.
This did not necessarily mean that they opposed to every kind of foreign
investment and capital in economic development. Rather, they frequently
stressed that they welcomed scientific, industrial, and economic assistance of
the states that did not have imperialist ambitions over Turkey. The Treaty of
Lausanne limitedly provided the fulfillment of these principles. Nevertheless,
the treaty also brought some constraints that prevented Turkey from developing
an independent economic policy until 1929. Yet, the removal of Capitulations
should be noted as one of the most important success in this regard.
68
Explain the major goals of the policies for the

economic development in the 1920s and the
means employed to these ends.

There were three major goals of the policies for the economic development in
the 1920s: the industrialization of the country, the recovery of the agricultural
your turn 2 production and the development of the transportation and financial infrastructure.
Creating an indigenous economy and entrepreneurial class had been a major goal
since World War I. The industrialization process was to serve to this end and and
it eventually, led to the economic independence of the country. Agriculture was
the sector most severely affected from incessant wars since 1912. The decrease
in the production of the main agricultural items was sharp from 1912 to 1922.
Recovery in agriculture was a must in order to improve the living standard of the
population who were mostly agricultural and export agricultural items to raise state
income. For industrial and agricultural development, transportation and finance
were crucial. As a result, several measures were taken to fulfill these goals such as
the following: the Law for the Encouragement of Industry, the reorganization of
the Agricultural Bank, founding the Business Bank and Bank for Industry and
Mining, the construction of railroads, and the nationalization of railroad lines.
What did the instruments developed as initial

responses to the Great Depression aim?
The initial responses to the Great Depression aimed to protect the domestic
markets by reducing the demand for imported goods. Therefore, a decrease in
your turn 3 imports, in return, would improve the balance of trade and make the budget
more stable. As imports decreased, the government encouraged increase in
local production. It attempted to increase the items that could be locally
produced.
Write the main characteristics of the ètatist

economic policy?
In the ètatist economic policy, the state emerged as a productive and investing
agent. This policy was shaped because of the Great Depression. Viewing the
your turn 4 insufficiency of the industrial base of the country, the ruling elite of Turkey
aimed at the creation of an indigenous industry through ètatist instruments.
Although private enterprise was not rejected within ètatism, state intervention
seemed limitless. Seen in this way, it opposed liberalism as an idea; yet, it
was not a socialist way of economic development either. It was a third way
between socialism and liberalism. Private property continued to be guaranteed
by law. Central state planning was the main instrument in formulating
industrialization projects. In this regard, Turkey was under the influence
of the Soviet experience. In developing its first five-year development plan,
the Soviet Union assisted Turkey. The first five-year plan was implemented
by state institutions. The State economic enterprises that emerged after the
materialization of the plan became the major producers in key sectors.
69
Explain the factors that caused the fall for

the ètatism as a strategy for the economic
development in Turkey.
There were mainly two factors -domestic and external- caused the fall of
étatism. The domestic factors arose because of the socio-economic change
your turn 5 that resulted from the implementations of war economy. As the government
took extraordinary measures to finance war mobilization and to meet the
fundamental needs of the population in the war, economic problems which
caused the discontent of various classes of the society ensued. Inflation, black
market, and profiteering were widespread. The measures that the government
took to end these resulted in the imposition of two extraordinary taxes,
which targeted the commercial class and big landowners. Disturbed by these
implementations, these two groups would be significant enough to force a
change in the economic policies after the war. There were also external factors
related to the rise of a liberal economic order and attempts made by Turkey to
accommodate that in the aftermath of the war. In the circumstances shaped by
the rise of a bipolar world, Turkey sought for the political and military support
of the United States against the Soviet Union. This, in return, brought about
the demand for integration into the liberal economic order. As a result, Turkey
increasingly adopted liberalism as its policy for economic development.
References
Ahmad, F. (1977). The Turkish experiment in democracy İnan, A. (1989). İzmir İktisat Kongresi. Ankara: Türk
1950-1975. London: C. Hurst & Company. Tarih Kurumu Basımevi.
Boratav, K. (1981). Kemalist economic policies and Karpat, K. H. (1959). Turkey’s politics the transition
ètatism. In A. Kazancıgil and E. Özbudun (Eds.), to a multi-party system. Princeton: Princeton
Atatürk Founder of a Modern State (pp. 165-190). University Press
London: C. Hurst & Company.
Pamuk, Ş. (2014). Türkiye’nin 200 yıllık iktisadi tarihi.
Boratav, K. (1982). Türkiye’de devletçilik. Ankara: İstanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları.
Savaş Yayınları.
Pamuk, Ş. (2008). Economic change in twentieth
Barlas, D. (1998). Etatism and diplomacy in Turkey. century Turkey-is the glass more than half full? In
Leiden: Brill. R. Kasaba (Ed.), The Cambridge history of Turkey,
Vol. IV: Turkey in the modern world (pp. 266-300).
Boratav, K. (2016). Türkiye iktisat tarihi (22nd ed.).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press..
Ankara: İmge Yayınevi.
Shaw, S. J. and Shaw E., K. (1977). History of the
Finefrock, M., M. (1981). Laissez-faire, the 1923
Ottoman Empire and modern Turkey Vol. II.
Izmir Economic Congress and early Turkish
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
developmental policy in political perspective.
Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 375- Tezel, Y. S. (2002). Cumhuriyet Döneminin İktisadi
392. Tarihi ( 5th Ed.). İstanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt
Yayınları.
Göymen, K. (1976). Stages of etatist development in
Turkey: The interaction of single-party politics Timur, T. (1991). Türkiye’de çok partili hayata geçiş.
and economic policy in the ‘etatist decade,’ 1930- İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları.
1939. Orta Doğu Teknik Üniversitesi Gelişme
Zürcher, E. J. (1993). Turkey a modern history.
Dergisi, No. 10, pp. 89-113.
London: I. B. Tauris & Co. Ltd Publishers.
Hershlag, Z. Y. (1968). Turkey the challenge of growth.
Leiden: E. J. Brill.
70
Reforms and Nation-Building
Chapter 3 in the Early Turkish Republic
Learning Outcomes
1
outline the framework of the 1920s and the comprehend the rise of Turkish cultural
2
1930s and assess the goals motivating the nationalism and develop a grasp of the
reform activities, mechanisms that created and disseminated
its components,
3 pinpoint the developments in the field of

education, 4 identify the place of women in the reform
activity and their role in the new system.
5 distinguish the basic shifts in the transition

to the 1940.
Chapter Outline
• Early Turkish Republic
Introduction: Defining characteristics of the 1920s and • 1920s, 1930s
the 1930s • Reforms
Significant Reforms and Changes in the Turkish Republic • Nation-building
Nation-building Efforts and Collective Identity Formation: • Cultural Nationalism
Cultural Nationalism during the 1930s • Identity Formation
Public Education: Raising the Youth for the Nation • Turkish Nationalism
Women and Nation-building in the Early Turkish Republic • Education
Passage to the 1940s: Modification and Adjustment • History Textbooks
• Women, 1940s
Key Terms
72
3
INTRODUCTION: DEFINING to create a collective political identity based on the

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ideology of Turkish nationalism that focused on a
state-defined understanding of common culture
1920S AND THE 1930S
stood in the foreground. The second characteristic
The 1920s and the 1930s are the formative years of the decade was the shift to protectionist-statist
of the Turkish Republic in several respects. The industrialization policies. The crisis of the world
implementation of radical reforms and the nation- capitalist economy generated the first period of
building process hold a significant place in these industrialization in the Turkish Republic. The
two decades, respectively. Two major endeavors government shut the economy out to external
characterized the 1920s. The first one was the influences as much as possible and embarked on a
systematic effort of founding a new structure state-initiated and driven national industrialization
through extensive reforms which generated radical process of statism (etatism). Such tendencies had
shifts and which were geared towards establishing appeared before, but the systematic and consistent
and strengthening the new system until the end implementation of it as a model of a protectionist-
of the decade. The reform activity presented statist industrialization policy was the phenomenon
a “revolutionary” mentality on the part of the of the 1930s. This constitutes a drastic break from
ruling elite, which meant a rapid, drastic, and the economic policies of the late Ottoman Empire
comprehensive change. The direction pointed to and the Republic of the 1920s.
an urgent wholesale transformation which was
This unit will deal with the first characteristic
supposed to alter the existing system completely
in each decade, namely the reforms and the
by replacing it with what was deemed modern in
nation-building efforts. The structural framework
every possible field. The second marker was the
established through reforms in the 1920s
elimination and/or suppression of the opposition
was ideologically saturated by nationalization
or any perceived threat, especially as of 1925
endeavors during the 1930s. These two decades
after the Sheikh Sait Rebellion (Şeyh Sait İsyanı)
consecutively determined the early Republican
and the issuing of the Law for the Maintenance
canon and its formation. During this period, the
of Order (Takrir-i Sükun Kanunu) that gave the
country experienced a profound transformation
government extraordinary rights. The ruling elite
that was consistent with the international socio-
benefitted from this situation and carried out its
political norms of the era in the transition from an
envisioned program without serious obstacles. This
empire to a nation-state.
effort ranged from the removal of the Caliphal
office to dissolving rival political parties and from
the suppression of the press and organizations to
the elimination of the opposition within.
The ensuing 1930s witnessed two other The ruling elite is the segment of a given
priorities that characterized the decade. The first society who, by virtue of position, education
marker was the drive to secure and safeguard the or tradition, exercises power in political
newly established structure under a single party decision-making processes and oversees
rule. There was immense effort on the part of the the implementation of the policies devised
state to generate confidence in the new system and by them. Appointment holders in the
to engender loyalty to it. This mission was closely government exercise that power directly
linked to ideological and cultural dimensions, which while some social groups outside of the state
appeared in order to serve this purpose. Inevitably, structure might also be influential.
generating allegiance was integrally related to, even
embedded in, identity issues. Hence, the endeavor
73
3
Reforms and Nation-Building in The Early Turkish Republic
SIGNIFICANT REFORMS AND implemented by the power holders of the time

CHANGES IN THE TURKISH who envisaged a wholesale transformation in all
possible aspects through wide-ranging reforms and
REPUBLIC
far-reaching changes and regulations.
The early Turkish Republican modernization
The Overall Target of Reforms and project stood on the twin pillars of secularization
Changes: 1920s and 1930s and the nation-state model. Secularization was
Even a cursory look at the major reforms and not understood as pure secularism in the sense of
changes during the period in question demonstrates the separation of state and religion where the two
that almost no field remained untouched. The did not interfere in the realms of the other. Turkey
transformation addressed all possible spheres such adopted the French term laicism for its secularization
as political, economic, social, legal, educational, policies, which denoted in the Turkish practice an
ideological, and cultural domains. The totality arrangement in which religion would not be a
of all these reforms were geared towards one determining or contributing factor in the issues
fundamental all-encompassing goal, namely the related to the public domain. Additionally, Turkish
establishment of the envisioned system according to laicism in the early years of the Republic regarded it
the ruling elite’s understanding of what modernity necessary to establish control over religion in order
and modernization were. Since the nineteenth to prevent it from becoming a possible obstacle
century, modernization had meant westernization in the process of modernization. Turkish laicism
in a non-western context. The ruling elite in such therefore propagated an officially sanctioned
non-western geographies mostly regarded this interpretation of Islam, which was considered the
process – willingly or grudgingly – as the key to true version of that religion and aimed to further
solving the problems in their states and societies. national solidarity with it in order to attain the
The late Ottoman Empire and the subsequent larger goal of wholesale transformation. In other
Turkish Republic were no exceptions in this words, the early Turkish Republic attempted to
respect. Although there seemed to be a consensus nationalize or ethicize religion.
on the name of the formula, how to fill in the The nation-state paradigm had become the norm
equation showed great varieties not only between of the era to a large extent. After the declaration
to different geographies, but also within one of the Republic, Turkish socio-political structure
country. In other words, how to westernize and was organized in line with this configuration.
what to import from the West remained a matter In addition to structural factors, the process of
of heated debate leading to several different models nation-state formation had integral ideological
of Westernization. In this sense, the reforms and components. This meant in essence nation-building
changes in the early Turkish Republic provide the efforts and national identity construction to adapt
picture of the ruling elite’s version of Westernization to the age of nationalism. As opposed to empires,
and its constituents. The new system would be which thrive on the diversity of identities, the idea
built on its norms and lift Turkey up to the “level of of homogeneity is essential in the nation-state and
contemporary civilization.” It should be noted that the creation of one identity that supersedes all
along with structural determinants, ideological and other identities becomes indispensable. Hence, the
cultural factors were also part of the westernization term Turk became the titular name of the whole
process and complemented each other. Generally nation as well as the primary political identity
speaking, the former received attention more the state sought for its citizens to identify with.
in the 1920s, whereas the latter was rather a This formulation of Turkish nationalism officially
preoccupation during the 1930s. In short, the defined the Turkish nation in territorial and
reforms and changes were the elements of the early cultural terms. In its citizenship practices, Turkish
modernization project of the Turkish Republic as nationalism presumed a voluntarist disposition
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for membership; however, on occasion, ethnically state. The second viewpoint considers it a religious
or religiously diverse elements were susceptible movement based on the fact that the leader was
to marginalization in the name of creating a an Islamic brotherhood sheikh and the rallying
homogenous nation. Especially, the advent of the cries in the upheaval asked for the re-institution
1930s witnessed a gradual shift to a concentration of the Sharia and the Caliphate. The third outlook
on the ethno-cultural elements as the core of the interprets the revolt as a movement geared toward
Turkish nation. This implied that despite officially keeping the status quo. The social texture of
denying Islam a role of any relevance in the new the region was predominantly based on tribal
Turkish nation-state and identity, it still implicitly understandings and the leaders were anxious that
determined the fundamental constituents of the modernizing policies of the Republic would
the Turkish nation. The early Turkish Republic dissolve this fabric and leave them at a disadvantage.
adopted this evolving Turkish nationalism as the Regardless of the exact nature of the rebellion,
official ideology and sought to spread it among the insurgence constituted a resistance to the
the masses. The spread of the official ideology was political center’s policies by the periphery’s defiance.
carried out through a number of vehicles with In order to carry out its modernization program
the goal of creating a homogenous nation and a and continue with the reforms to establish a new
nation-state. In the same decade, the foundation system, the government passed the Law for the
and framework of the Turkish nation-state came Maintenance of Order (Takrir-i Sükun Kanunu)
to be known as Kemalism. The main principles which enabled the state to act authoritatively.
of Kemalism were defined by the well-known six At the same time, two Independence Tribunals
arrows: republicanism, nationalism, populism, (İstiklal Mahkemeleri) were formed: one for
reformism, statism (etatism), and secularism the eastern provinces and one for the rest of the
(laicism). These were regarded as the fundamental country. In the framework of law enforcement,
and unchanging principles guiding the Republic, Sheikh Sait was caught and executed along with
and were eventually written into the Constitution. the leading figures of the rebellion. The political
Thus, the early Turkish Republic expected opposition and the press were silenced. The already
significant shifts in structure and identities to dominant People’s Republican Party established a
realize its overarching goal of modernization: from monopoly in government and used that authority
an imperial structure to a nation-sate and from to continue the modernization program with new
Ottoman identities to a Turkish identity rooted in waves of reforms.
Turkish nationalism based on a common culture
and a shared past in the official rhetoric.
Major Reforms and Decisive
Changes
Obstacles to Reform
The 1920s and the 1930s brought a considerable
The implementation of reforms has not been number of changes into the lives of the Turkish
a smooth and an uneventful process. Shortly after people. After the successful end of the War of
the abolishing of the Caliphate, a rebellion broke Independence, Mustafa Kemal and his colleagues
out in the South Eastern region of Turkey on launched a series of transformative changes to
February 13, 1925. A Kurdish Naqshbandi leader reconstruct and modernize the country. Improving
by the name of Sheikh Sait headed the uprising. the lives of the common people and raising their
Three different perspectives exist in historiography standards was part of that project. The state made
regarding the nature of the rebellion. The first several political, administrative, cultural and social
approach regards it as the manifestation of Kurdish decisions to achieve these goals. Some of the
nationalism, which hoped for autonomy within important decisions in either category are listed
the newly established Unitarian Turkish nation- below.
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Year Day Reform / Change

1922 November 1 The office of the Ottoman Sultanate was abolished.
1923 July 24 The Treaty of Lausanne was secured, Capitulations were abolished.
The People’s Party was founded. As of November 10, 1924, it was renamed the
August 9
Republican People’s Party.
October 29 The proclamation of the Republic of Turkey with its capital in Ankara.
1924 March 1 Members of the Ottoman dynasty were expelled.
Offıce of the Caliphate was abolished along with the Sheikh-ul Islamate. The
March 3
General Directorate of Religious Affairs was formed under the Prime Ministry.
The Law for the Unification of Education passed. All educational institutions were
March 3, 11
brought under one administrative roof. Traditional religious schools were closed.
March 6 Ministries of Agriculture and Trade were established.
April 8 Islamic law Sharia was abolished and its courts were eliminated.
April 20 The new Constitution was adopted. (105 articles in six sections).
The first Turkish bank, Türkiye İş Bankası, was established.
1925 February 17 The tithe, the major tax collected from agricultural production, was abolished.
February 21 The parliamentary decision was taken for the translation of the Koran into Turkish.
The establishment of Atatürk Forest Farm in Ankara within the framework of
May 5
promoting agriculture and husbandry through model farms was started.
Changes were made in traditional headgear and attire: the Fez was banned
November
banned by the Hat Law, the turban was allowed only for the religious personnel,
25
Western clothing was encouraged for men and women.
N o v e m b e r Islamic brotherhoods and lodges were abolished and activities were were declared
30 illegal. Tombs of saints were closed to visitation.
D e c e m b e r The Islamic Calendar was abolished the International Time and Calendar system
26 were adopted (Gregorian Calendar and Western time zone).
1926 New bodies of laws and codes based on European models were adopted Civil
Feb 17- Oct 4
(Swiss), Penal (Italian), Obligation, Criminal, Family.
The first ritual prayer and Friday sermon was carried out fully in Turkish by
March 19
individual initiative at a mosque.
April 4 Turkish was declared the language of transaction required of all businesses.
1927 May 6 The first radio program was broadcasted.
May 31 The Turkish State Railways was established.
October 28 The first systematic census was carried out.
1928 January 1 The Turkish Education Association was established.
“Citizen, speak Turkish” campaign was launched. It died off after a few months,
January 13
revived in the 1930s.
The Turkish state was declared secular and the provision establishing Islam as the
April 10 official religion was removed from the Constitution. Religious expressions were
eliminated from official oaths.
May 24 The international numerical system of measures and digits was adopted.
A modified Latin script was adopted as the new Turkish alphabet. Nation schools
November 1 (Millet Mektepleri) were established. Printing in the Arabic script was to end in
one year. The school had to use only the new alphabet in education.
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1929 January 1 The first book in the Latinized Turkish alphabet was published.
September 1 Arabic and Persian language courses were removed from the curriculum.
1930 April 3 Women were given the right to vote and be nominated in municipal elections.
1931 March 26 The metric system was adopted.
April 10 The Turkish Hearths closed down and merged with the Republican People’s Party.
April 15 The Turkish History Society was founded.
1932 January 22 The first public reading of the Koran in Turkish was realized at Yerebatan Mosque
January 29 The first Islamic call to prayer performed in Turkish at Fatih Mosque
February 3 The first live radio broadcasting of the Koran in Turkish
February 5 The First Friday Serman was given out completely in Turkish at Süleymaniye Mosque.
February 19 The People’s Houses were established to replace the Turkish Hearths (Türk Ocakları).
July 2 The First Turkish History Congress convened –Turkish History Thesis
July 12 The Turkish Language Association was founded.
S e p te m b e r
The First Turkish Language Assembly convened
26
A law was passed barring non-Muslims from admission into certain professions
1933 Government order issued for all the Islamic calls to worship and the public readings
February 4
of the Koran to be in the Turkish language instead of Arabic.
May 31 The regulation and re-structuring of higher education started.
July 11 Sümerbank, a state bank serving the textile sector, was established.
August 1 The Darülfünun providing higher education was closed down.
November
The Darülfünun was re-opened as Istanbul University after having been re-structured.
18
December 1 The First Five Year Development Plan was announced.
1934 June 21 Law of Surnames was passed.
August 18 The Second Turkish Language Assembly comvened.
November 2 Broadcasting Turkish classical music on radio was temporarily suspended.
N o v e m b e r Titles and by-names were prohibited. The use of titles expressing Ottoman social
26 and official positions or noble lineage were also prohibited.
December 3 Wearing of religious attire in public was prohibited.
December 5 Women were given full political rights They had the to vote and hold office at all levels.
1935 May 27 Sunday was adopted as the legal weekly holiday instead of Friday
June 14 Etibank, a state bank financing mostly the energy sector, was established.
1936 August 21 The Third Turkish Language Assembly convened – Sun Language Theory
1937 January 20 The Second Five Year Plan was announced.
February 5 Six principles of Kemalism were written into the Constitution.
S e p te m b e r
The Second Turkish Historical Congress convened.
20
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News about the clothing reform, the last name reform, and the abolition of titles in the press of the
time
Source: http://www.uzumbaba.com/belgeseller/tarihi_gazeteler/1919-1937/tarihi_gazeteler_1919-1937.htm
What might be the fundamental discontinuities between the Ottoman Empire and the Turkish
Republic in terms of reform activities and their orientation?
NATION-BUILDING EFFORTS AND COLLECTIVE IDENTITY

FORMATION: CULTURAL NATIONALISM DURING THE 1930s
As described in the previous sections, one of the major goals of the 1930s was to create mass confidence
in the new system and generate loyalty to it. The endeavor to construct a collective political identity
stood at the crux of this venture, targeting homogenization and uniformization as a nation. Socially and
ideologically speaking, the 1930s witnessed the efforts to realize a shift from the Ottoman Empire’s multi-
religious, multi-lingual, multi-cultural configuration with multiple identities to a uniform composition
in all these fields. Enormous changes in the demographic structure after several wars and ensuing waves
of migration plus the drastic decrease in the number of non-Muslims in the population facilitated this
attempt.
Cultural nationalism resting on Turkishness gained paramount ascendency to accomplish these goals.
The official view as advocated by the ruling party’s programs pointed to a notion of an acquired culture,
which actually denoted the modern way of life woven around the ideals of the republican reforms. In
a way, the 1930s attempted to name its modernizing agenda. Turkish national culture and the regime
embarked on formulating it. This re-conceptualization entailed a degree of retreat from Ziya Gökalp’s
hitherto influential notion that civilization and culture are separate and introduced the idea that culture is
also a part of civilization. This use excluded the perception that culture is a solid structure of living customs
and values and regarded all such practices as embedded within the framework of civilization. The indicated
view made it easier to turn republican modernism based on westernization into an ideology. It is a fact that
the essence of everything national was reflected as being rooted in the Turkish culture that was represented
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by the “pure” Turkish peasant. However, in many sentiments of collective existence. Methods of
cases it was an understanding of culture reduced to language shaping such as standardization or
a rather folkloric interpretation. lexical modernization among others lead to a
The early Republican nation-building commonly shared language which in turn becomes
as part of its modernization project came to be an instrument in the creation of a homogenized
based on the creation of this new canon of Turkish national culture apt for a nation-state structure.
national culture. This new notion dissociated itself The Turkish Republican elite of the 1930s made
from the Ottoman and Islamic heritages in order to extensive use of these two fields by reforming the
create the new Turkish identity. The basic method Turkish language and recasting Turkish history in a
to realize the identity shift rested in the selective nationalist mold.
rejection of the Ottoman and Islamic pasts and
the placement of an emphasis on earlier historical History and the Rise of Turkish
periods with an accentuation of Turkishness. Along
Historical Thesis
with references to a whole set of various cultural
components, the key elements in this process were Creating a shared narrative of national history
Turkish history and language. became the cornerstone of early Republican
cultural nationalism and the formation of the new
Turkish identity. The cultural enhancement efforts
The use of History and Language of the 1930s opened up with the emergence of the
in Identity Formation Turkish History Thesis (Türk Tarih Tezi) developed
The two fields of history and language stand out by the Board for the Research of Turkish History
and have been inseparable as fundamental building (Türk Tarihi Tetkik Heyeti) operating under the
blocks of Turkish cultural nationalism and nation- Turkish Hearths (Türk Ocakları). The Thesis was
building efforts in the 1930s as they did in several materialized in a volume published for a limited
European and other nations’ implementations. audience entitled The Outline of Turkish History
Nationalist ideologies have not regarded nations (Türk Tarihinin Ana Hatları) and was presented
as modern constructs, but rather as primordial at the First Turkish History Congress. It offered a
entities existing since time immemorial. Within nationalist perspective on history as an alternative
that perspective, a common history becomes to the existing Ottoman legacy of history writing
conceivably of supreme importance for a sense which concentrated on an Islamic framework. In
of nationhood and the development of national this way, the narrative attempted to contribute to
identity. This implication usually leads to a re- the formation of the Turkish national identity by
shaping of history at the hands of the elite and the putting Turkishness at the center and it re-wrote
creation of a narrative according to which a nation history from that standpoint. At the same time the
presupposes a shared past in a certain way. Nation- text demonstrated a reaction against Eurocentric
building efforts and collective identity formation interpretations of history and European
attempts turn the preferred representation of perceptions of the Turks as an inferior people. The
the past and its dissemination into an ever more volume became the foremost reference point for
invaluable asset in generating legitimacy for and the Republic’s nation-building project.
loyalty to new political structures or even existing The underlying assertions and core arguments
systems. of the Turkish History Thesis are the following. The
The interdependency of history and language Thesis primarily attacked the idea that Turks were
becomes apparent at this point as historically incapable of creating a civilization by contesting,
language is possibly the most deep-rooted and on the contrary, that the very first human
enduring element in culture. It offers the perfect civilization was their achievement in Central Asia.
symbol of continuity, even proof for the existence All civilizations of the world had been derived
of an ever-present community of a nation within from this proto-civilization resulting from outward
the nationalist outlook. Therefore, language migrations from this area. Turks had moved to
also emerges as a major tool in nation-building China in the east, to India in the south, and to
and identity formation efforts since it reinforces Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, Anatolia, Greece, and
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Italy in the west. This radical new view presented characteristics. Finally, the Thesis opened up the
the Turks as an ancient nation, even as Urvolk way to linguistic nationalism as part of Turkish
(original, first people) who were inferior to no cultural nationalism. It maintained that Turks had
others and put them at the center of civilization. encountered a number of peoples, but the Turkish
The Thesis strongly argued for Turks to be a language had preserved all the elements necessary
brachycephalic people who belonged to the white for making the Turks a nation by providing a shared
race. This claim made them the ancestors of all memory and common cultural traits. In light of
such groups including the Indo-Europeans, whose the narrative, the definition of being a Turk came
origins would now go back to Central Asia. Since to rest on common language, culture, and ideals.
the Turks had created civilizations in all the lands This view opened the doorway to potential ethicist
they migrated to, consequently contemporary twists to the voluntarist and territorial definition of
Turks were heirs to the glories of ancient the Turkish nation.
Sumerians, Egyptians, and Greeks, among others.
In addition, they were the bearers of the earliest
Hittite civilization in Anatolia as the original,
indigenous inhabitants of the region. The Thesis The term brachycephalic from Greek and
argued for a continuous Turkish presence in Asia means ‘short-headed’ It’s a term invented
Minor since the Bronze Age and established this by the Swedish anthropologist Andreas
geography as the homeland of the Turks. By way Retzius to denote those skulls of which
of constructing a common genealogy, it claimed the width from side to side was little less
that all past and present inhabitants of Anatolia than the length from front to back. The
were ethnically Turkish and tried to instill pride in prevailing form of the head of civilized
the population and legitimize the existence of the races was classified as brachycephalic as
Turkish Republic on historical grounds as well. opposed to dolichocephalic (long-headed)
and mesocephalic (medium-headed). It was
The most nationalist understanding of
supposed that an ancient brachycephalic
history based itself on the paradigm of a long-
people with origins in Central Asia had
forgotten distant past paired with awakening
inhabited Europe in ancient times.
or remembering. This outlook usually entails a
rupture or dissociation from the comparatively
immediate past, which is de-emphasized or even
de-legitimized in favor of the currently preferred Language Reform and the
identity. In a similar vein, the Thesis treated Development of Sun Language
Ottoman and Islamic heritages with a reductionist Theory
attitude. In order to emphasize that Turkish history The stress on language in the Turkish History
was not limited to an Ottoman-Islamic framework Thesis flared up the issue of language reform and
it pointed to eighteen states Turks had established linguistic nationalism. The roots of language
prior to the Ottoman one and stressed the pre- reform lie in the late Ottoman period; and the
Ottoman and pre-Islamic Turkish identity. The debates of that era, mainly concentrating on
Ottoman rule was considered detrimental for the the alphabet followed by the simplification of
Turks and was minimized as a reference point in the language, were inevitably carried over to
matters related to Turkish political and cultural republican times. However, Republican language
identity. On the larger scope of Islamic past, the reforms went beyond the confines of literature and
Thesis claimed that Islam had been elevated into journalism and profoundly affected other aspects
prominence as a religion and ultimately as a of culture as well. Especially the fields of education
civilization owing to the accomplishments of the and religion along with everyday life deeply felt
Turks and accentuated their contributions to it the changes triggered by the reform movement,
at all possible levels. Both Ottoman and Islamic as it was an integral part of nationalization, hence
pasts were regarded as merely phases within the Turkification at large.
totality of Turkish history and as of secondary
importance in respect to its national and civilized
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The republican language reform started after of all languages spoken in the world. Thus, it
lengthy discussions from the early 1920s and attempted to establish Turkish as Ursprache
continued with the Latinization of the alphabet (parent language) and complemented the Turkish
in 1928. This constituted a major step within Historical Thesis, which declared Turks as Urvolk.
the larger framework of the purification and Just as all human beings had descended from the
simplification of the Turkish language. The extreme Turks, all languages, too, were derived from the
purism of purging loan words and structures Turkish language. Hence, the presence and usage
– particularly Arabic and Farsi vocabulary and of certain “foreign words” in the language became
forms – and the making of a national language permissible owing to this claim of common origin.
devoid of its non-Turkish elements was at the Consequently, during the 1930s, the alphabet
core of the early Republican project of cultural reform and later the efforts to purify and standardize
transformation and identity-building. The official language were part of the multiple, intertwined
cultural paradigm regarded the creation of a pure political goals of breaking with the Ottoman and
Turkish as part of eliminating the undesirable Islamic pasts, interpreting the present by cultural
vestiges of the past for the sake of progress. Various characteristics and thus forming a homogenous
measures – such as massive publicity, extensive national community with a common language.
renaming, encouragement, reshaping of habits in
the use of language and coercive legislation – were
actively employed to achieve broad acceptance or
compliance with the new language policy. The
“Citizen, speak Turkish!” (vatandaş, Türkçe konuş!)
campaign was most likely the highlight of those
measures and required “true” Turkish citizen to
speak Turkish. The spirit of the decade clearly
demonstrated that individuals who did not use that
language would appear foreign and face exclusion.
A philological confusion started to emerge
soon and halted the purists who attempted to
cultivate a Turkish language without any linguistic
borrowing. The impossibility or even inessentiality
of changing every word of foreign origin or Figure 3.1 1928, Kayseri – Mustafa Kemal in front
inventing a Turkish equivalent for it became clear. of the People’s Party building with İsmet Pasha,
Eventually by mid-1930s, the policy of extreme introducing the new alphabet
purism was abandoned and a temperate approach
tolerating a limited amount of pre-existing loan Source: https://sites.google.com/site/blackazu/1928-
words and structures became the official line. KayseriCumhuriyetHalkFrkasParti-medium.jpg
The new policy was justified at the Third Turkish
Language Convention with the presentation of
Creating Nation-building Tools and
the Sun Language Theory (Güneş Dil Teorisi),
which displayed a mirror reflection of the Turkish Institutions
History Thesis in the linguistic field. Just as the Along with the formulation of the new
Thesis aimed to prove the existence of the Turkish Turkish identity and its defining components, the
nation from time immemorial, the Theory aspired dissemination of it constituted the complementary
to demonstrate the continuity of Turkish culture step in the early Republican cultural nationalism.
through language since the conception of human The state permeated the cultural field deeper and
civilization. It contended that Turkish was the became the main actor in setting up institutions
oldest language that developed on earth. Following and devising mechanisms related to the national
from this argument, it was regarded as the source identity construction.
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Societies and Associations

The Turkish History Society (Türk Tarih Kurumu) and the Turkish Language Association (Türk Dil
Kurumu) were the leading institutions charged with working on the key components of the national
culture and acted as the backbone architects of the official ideology. These institutions took on the task of
creating an authorized national Turkish history and a standardized bona fide Turkish language to aid the
nation building efforts. The former researched the history of the Turks with a strong emphasis on the pre-
Islamic period and aimed at spreading the view that all the civilizations of the world stemmed from the
Turkish civilization rooted in Central Asia. The latter promoted a Turkish linguistic nationalism by trying
to purify the Turkish language and later propagating the idea that it was the parent of all languages. Their
work culminated in the formulations of the Turkish History Thesis and the Sun Language Theory, which,
despite their apparent distortions, were designed to give Turkish people a new identity – one they could
feel proud of and derive self-esteem from.
The Board for the Research of Turkish History operating under the Turkish Hearths was responsible
for developing the Turkish History Thesis. Shortly after the closing down of the Turkish Hearths, an heir
institution called Society for the Research of Turkish History (Türk Tarihi Tetkik Cemiyeti) was established
on April 15, 1931. Its name became Turkish History Society on October 3, 1935. The Turkish Language
Association underwent name changes as well. It was initially founded on July 12, 1932 under the title of
Society for the Research of Turkish Language (Türk Dili Tetkik Cemiyeti). In 1934, the Arabic words in the title
were replaced with their Turkish equivalents (Türk Dili Araştırma Kurumu). Finally, on August 21, 1936 the
Society took the name Turkish Language Association and presented the Sun Language Theory.
Figure 3.2 January 4, 1933 – Mustafa Kemal heading a meeting of the Turkish Language Association
Source: http://www.dildernegi.org.tr/Resim/1034,tdc-1933.png?0
Congresses and Assemblies

The Turkish History Society and the Turkish Language Association organized two history congresses and
three language assemblies throughout the 1930s. The history congresses convened in 1932 and 1937.
The majority of the auditors in the first one were secondary education teachers who were supposed to be
introduced to the Turkish History Thesis and most presentations in the congress concentrated on the main
tenets of its arguments. The second history congress posed more of an international stature and addressed
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the level of higher education by bringing academics together. The main subjects of discussion revolved
around archeology, linguistics, and anthropology to support the tenets of the Thesis.
Three language assemblies were assembled respectively in the years 1932, 1934 and 1936. The contention
that all languages derive from Turkish was presented at the first one and the third assembly established
the assertion as an official theory under the name Sun Language Theory. The congresses and assemblies
functioned as venues to prove the existence of the Turkish nation since antiquity as a civilization-builder
belonging to the white race and to validate the declaration of Turkish as the root paradigm of all languages
in the world.
Figure 3.3 July 19, 1931 – The First History Congress
Source: https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/turk-tarih-kurumu
Adult Education
In order to infuse the masses with a sense of patriotism and explain the meaning of the numerous
reforms to the average citizen, the early Republic embarked on an ambitious adult education program.
Between 1925 and 1928, education committees consisting of city and town teachers began visiting the
rural hinterland during their summer vacations in order to explain the revolution to the villagers while also
teaching them how to read and write.
After the alphabet reform in 1928, the Nation Schools (Millet Mektepleri) appeared on the scene. They
launched programs to teach the new Latinized Turkish alphabet and provided a political orientation to
the masses. Elementary school teachers formed the main cadres of this literacy program. The classes were
held either in the afternoons or in the evenings, lasted for four months, and covered numerous subjects
in addition to reading and writing. The curriculum included topics such as the Turkish flag, the borders
of the Republic and the Turkish Constitution. The Nation Schools’ contribution to literacy has been quite
remarkable as they practically doubled the rate of literacy in the decade after their establishment.
The People’s Houses (Halkevleri) proved to be the most outstanding vehicle for promoting the core
principles of the republican regime among the masses and had the mission of breathing life into the
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Turkish nation through their activities. As institutions organically tied to the ruling party, fourteen of
them were established in urban centers on February 19, 1932 and they became one of the most popular
vehicles attempting to create a monopoly on culture. Their numbers kept increasing and after 1939, the
scaled-down versions of the Houses were formed in villages and small towns under the name People’s
Rooms to serve the same functions. The People’s Houses embodied the project of replacing any autonomous
pre-existing intellectual and political associations such as the Turkish Hearths and became cultural and
political centers with multiple duties and goals.
Figure 3.4 1930s, Ankara People’s House – guests ready to watch a performance
Source: https://img-s2.onedio.com/id-5735b80c68941e8e1d55e559/rev-0/w-635/listing/f-jpg-webp/s-7307a4cf77d272e5
3e6b1eddcdfcf38857448692.jpg
The cultural dimension demanded foremost the establishment of an authentic national culture based on
Turkish folklore. This entailed extensive folkloristic and sociological research in villages where Turkish culture
had been assumed to be preserved unspoiled. Furthermore, eradicating illiteracy and devising the means of
raising people’s living standards, especially in rural communities, were among the tasks of these centers. Each
House was comprised of up to nine committees, including Language, Literature and History, Fine Arts (incl.
music), Drama, Sports, Social Assistance, Popular Education and Courses, Library and Publications, Village
Welfare and Development,and Museums and Exhibitions. Each subdivision organized several activities such
as basic adult education, field trips to the countryside, sports competitions, theatrical performances, national
holiday festivities, public lectures, and so forth. The main political goal of the Houses involved teaching the
principles of Kemalism to the population at large and introducing them to Republican reforms. They were also
supposed to guide the public in the process of acknowledging the state-defined Turkish culture as their national
essence and adopting Turkishness as the new political identity. The journal of the People’s Houses, The Cause
(Ülkü), was intended to aid these goals by providing a theoretical framework for the six arrows and popularizing
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them among the people. Socially, the Houses were expected to bridge the gap between the elite and the masses
by starting an interaction between the urban and the rural segments of society for the benefit of both parties.
Countryside visits would expose the city crowd to the unspoiled and “true” Turkish culture and help the villagers
to board the train of modernization by adopting the official ideology. To this end, the Houses also attempted
to mobilize the intelligentsia, who were, according to many contemporaries, unwilling to take on the task of
actively serving the principles of the revolution and the cause of transforming the country.
Figure 3.5 İzmir People’s House
Source: http://www.addizmir.com/userfiles/images/halkevi%201.jpg
Along with the Turkish History Society and the Novelties in the Field of Religion
Turkish Language Association, the People’s Houses The cultural nationalism of the 1930s demanded
symbolize the ruling elite’s efforts in the 1930s Turkification in all possible fields including the
to shape and monopolize a national culture that realm of religion. Since the concept and process
suited the ideology of Kemalism and its modernist of nationalization rested on culture as a social trait
endeavors. All played their part respectively in in which language constituted the fundamentally
formulating what constituted Turkish history, definitive element, instituting worship practices in
language, and culture. Additionally, the People’s Turkish became a crucial pursuit in that decade. In
Houses had the complementary mission of a way, the early Republic attempted to nationalize
disseminating the Republican principles and and appropriate Islam primarily through reflecting
the emerging official ideology during the 1930s the linguistic reform onto it and carrying out
among the masses. modernization in religion through language. In that
respect components of the faith such as the Koran,
the daily ritual prayers (namaz), the call to worship
(ezan), and the Friday sermons (hutbe) proved to be
The first 14 People’s Houses were the key factors. Some scattered personal initiatives
established in Afyon, Ankara, Aydın, Bolu, had existed before. However, the systematic
Bursa, Çanakkale, Denizli, Diyarbakır, implementation of the linguistically Turkified
Eminönü, Eskişehir, İzmir, Konya, Malatya, versions of these vital elements concentrated in the
and Samsun. By the end of the decade, their year 1932 during the month of Ramadan.
number had reached 373.
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Figure 3.7 1926, Bursa – After a concert performed by

Figure 3.6 February 5, 1932 - First Friday Sermon in
the İstanbul Municipal Conservatory (Dârülelhan)
Turkish at Süleymaniye Mosque, İstanbul
Source: https://sites.google.com/site/blackazu/1926Burs
Source:https://tarihnedio.com/wp-content/
adaDrlelhanstanbulBelediyeKo-medium.jpg
uploads/2018/02/turkcekuran.jpg
Other Channels and Mechanisms

PUBLIC EDUCATION: RAISING
THE YOUTH FOR THE NATION
The state’s permeation and configuration of
the cultural field manifested itself in setting up The formative years of the Republic sought
and maintaining institutions related to the arts to shape the society, rather than reflect it
such as the State Theatre, the State Opera, the for modernization purposes and the overall
State Conservatory, the State Fine Arts School, improvement of state and society. In this sense,
and the State Fine Arts Museum. Visual elements the era provided a dynamic and progressive
such as paintings and statues with national themes outlook instead of a stagnant understanding
started burgeoning during the 1930s. Architectural of preserving the status quo. Public education
designs also tried to establish a national style. was one of the fields in which these endeavors
Along with western tunes, compositions with became most visible. While adult education
national melodies interpreted in western musical targeted the masses, schooling addressed the
forms began proliferating. Public libraries and young generation. The official ideology regarded
publishing activities were other instruments for westernizing, modernization, and nationalist
shaping the cultural landscape of the population. socialization as complementary and converged the
The state radio proved to be another venue through twin drives for Western modernity and Turkish
which a cultural repertoire composed of a largely nationalism. This outlook had direct effects upon
western inventory in a national mold would be the Turkish education system, which became a
disseminated. An abundance of flags and official major instrument of engendering change. The
ceremonies in addition to rituals at schools became early Republic was keenly interested in spreading
common sights and practices. All were constitutive formal education throughout the country and
parts of the definition of a national culture and its strived to ensure that schooling communicated
dissemination, which were deemed instrumental the convictions of the Republican regime along
in providing a sense of common ideals and values with current and scientific information. Starting in
along with a sentiment of belonging to the citizens. the late 1920s and continuing during the 1930s
with intensified fervor, socio-politically charged
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nationalist messages increasingly permeated the curricular content and made education central to the
dissemination of the official ideology. Structurally speaking, the Law for the Unification of Education
(Tevhid-i Tedrisat Kanunu) passed in 1924, provided the backbone of the system and centralized all
educational activities under state supervision. Ideologically, the subsequent 1930s became instrumental
in the propagation of the endorsed perceptions through educational content that found its principal
reflection in new textbooks, especially in the subject of history. The chart below will depict the major
reforms and regulations in the field of education before going into these topics.
List of Major Reforms and Regulations in the Field of Education
Year Date Significant Reforms and Events during the 1920s and 1930s
1920 May 5 The Ankara government established its own Ministry of Education.
1921 July 16 The First Congress on Education convened.
S e p t e m b e r After the closing of Women’s University (İnas Darülfünunu), the Darülfünun Senate
16 voted in favor of admitting female students to the regular university.
1922 The Ministry of Education of the İstanbul government ended with the resignation
November 4
of the last Ottoman cabinet.
November 17 The Teachers Association held a congress in Ankara.
1923
The Teachers ’ schools and provincial secondary schools came under he direct control
April 8
of the Ministry of Education and elementary education was made compulsory.
July 15 The first convention of the Board of Education took place.
September 1 Primary schools came under the direct control of the Ministry of Education.
1924 February 7 All religious objects and symbols on foreign school buildings were banned.
March 3 The Law for the Unification of Education passed.
The traditional religious schools called madrasa were closed. Preacher schools and
March 11
Faculty of Divinity were established.
March 7 30 French and Italian schools were shut down.
April The second convention of the Board of Education convened.
August 16 John Dewey’s visit to Turkey started.
August 22 The Teacher’s Union Congress convened.
September Co-education started in primary schools.
September
The demands for the re-opening of madrasas were publicly refuted.
18
1925 March 1 The Ministry of Education started publishing the Journal of Education.
April 14 Education tax was instituted.
May 2 The General Assembly of the Teachers Association in Ankara convened.
December 27 The third convention of the Board of convened.
1926 March 22 The Law on the administrative structure of education passed.
April 24 The Ministry Ministry of Education received monopoly on printing textbooks by law.
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1927 May 7 The Faculty of Theology was established at the Darülfünun.

May 24 The Regulations regarding vocational schools went into effect.
September Co-education started in secondary schools.
1928 The American Girls’ School in Bursa shut down due to allegations of “propagating
January 29
Christianity.”
August All textbooks started being published with the new alphabet.
November 1 The new Turkish alphabet (modified Latin form) was adopted.
November 8 All state employees were required to take tests to prove proficiency in the new script.
1929 Nation Schools (Millet Mektepleri) were launched and the use of the Arabic
January 1
alphabet in printing was prohibited.
April 10 The law for sending students to Europe for education passed.
September 1 Arabic and Persian language classes in schools were discontinued.
In addition to French, the study of a second European language was made
October 8
compulsory in schools.
1930 September Preacher Schools were discontinued.
1931 The law requiring “Turkish” students to receive their primary education in Turkish
March 23
schools was passed.
October High school history textbooks based on the Turkish History Thesis went into use.
1932 January 16 Albert Malche’s visit to Turkey started.

1933 The Darülfünun was closed down and was renamed İstanbul University.
August 1
The restructuring of higher education started.
All levels of public education received the simplified versions of the high school
October
history textbooks.
1934 The terminology pertaining to various aspects of educational matters was Turkified.
New dictionaries were printed and distributed.
1935 Recep Peker - Secretary General of RPP – started lectures on the history of Turkish
Revolution.
1936 Special courses geared towards raising village teachers were introduced.
1939 July 17 The First Council of National Education convened.
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restructuring. With the end of the madrasas, the

state created the Preacher Schools (İmam-Hatip
Okulları) in accordance with the law to train the
religious personnel.
The law has been mostly interpreted as the
sudden and complete disappearance of religion
from public education instead of a drastic scaling
down and eventual phasing out. Arguments such
as public education being completely divorced
from religion, teaching of religion being
proscribed, and a fully secular school program
being substituted are common assertions. Such
interpretations are not entirely without basis;
Figure 3.8 February 1, 1931 – Mustafa Kemal observing however, they lack a nuanced approach to the
the mathematics class at the İzmir Boys’ High School educational history of the early Republic. Until
Source: http://www.materyaller.com/bilgibank/yazi/ almost the mid-1930s, religion was part of the
Izmir-Erkek-Lisesinde-Matematik-Dersinde.jpg Turkish curriculum in one way or another and
the law itself empowered the government to
create educational mechanisms for religious
The Law for the Unification of service or study in state institutions. It is not
Education and its Implications before the rise of the move towards cultural
The Law for the Unification of Education nationalism and transformation that these
(Tevhid-i Tedrisat Kanunu) virtually detached mechanisms eventually faded out in practice for
all educational institutions and planning from a brief period. The legal basis for their existence
the jurisdiction of religious authorities. It also remained intact and by the end of the 1940s
established strict state control by granting the they were gradually reinstated.
Turkish Ministry of Education an uncontested
monopoly over matters of education. It allowed the
government to centralize education and develop a The Infiltration of Rising Cultural
single curriculum under the auspices of the new and Ideological Formulations into
regime. This move provided the infrastructure for Curricula
gradually creating a monolithic national character Most theories on nationalism and education
fitting the template of the official idea of a modern have reserved a place for schooling in particular
citizen. and education in general as tools by which new
The content of this law and the ensuing sets of worldviews could be introduced to the
developments inevitably brought the issue of young members of a given society. The primacy
religion to the forefront since the legislation of curricular content and school textbooks
affected the religious education and the ulama become self-evident in this process as they
most profoundly. A week after the passing of the contain representative sets of values delivered
law, traditional religious schools called madrasa to students directly through formal education.
were permanently closed with the explanation that In particular, history as a school subject has
these seminaries were in conflict with the essence been acknowledged to play an essential role
of the act. The rationale centered on the idea that in instilling or reinforcing national identity,
unified education which constituted the core of national consciousness, and national values.
the law and the existing educational institutions Moreover, history textbooks predominantly
with different instructive goals could not co- transpire as the arena in which the ideology
exist within this framework. The abolishing of of the state is projected and therefore must be
traditional religious schools meant that the ulama evaluated as ideological tools as well.
and religious education as active constituents In the early Turkish Republican context,
had been eliminated from the project of social the establishment of a new education system
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constituted one of the prioritized plans; and the confines of the Ottoman Empire and Islam
an emphasis on its national character reigned with a strong emphasis on a Turkish existence
supreme. While structural issues were progressively that went far back beyond these. They depicted
settled, the curricular content of public education the new Republic as the epitome of all Turkish
appeared to have been erratic until the1930s. The accomplishments and thus functioned to justify
textbooks from the Ottoman period stayed in and legitimize the regime and its ideology. The
use with modifications until the alphabet reform. textbooks repetitively used nationalistic terms and
Especially from an ideological point of view, concepts; mentioned common denominators such
curricular materials remained fairly untouched in as shared language, culture and ideals; and seemed
terms of the propagation of Republican ideals. The to discard religious ties as a cementing factor.
deliberate effort to reflect them in course content The envisioned Turkish nation was presented as
as part of the nation-building project became a homogenous one without any sorts of conflicts
markedly visible after the rise of the Turkish History related to class, interest, culture, or identity. The
Thesis in the early 1930s and manifested itself most term civilization appeared almost in overuse in
evidently in the school subject of history for all these books. At some instances, they referred to
levels, especially in secondary education. merely technology or scientific achievements,
at others they denoted the complete culture of a
given society excluding or including its scientific-
Creation of New History Textbooks technological aspect. A positivistic outlook and a
The early 1930s witnessed the preparation and complete reverence for science were clearly visible
distribution of new history textbooks by the state. and automatically resulted in the rejection of any
They were first written for the high school level and “non-scientific” account. In this respect, religion,
then simplified or abridged accordingly for middle primarily Islam, became an easy target. Religious
and elementary schools within a few years. The basic faith was treated as a socio-cultural construct that
common source of these textbooks was The Outline could at best be a source of individual spiritual
of Turkish History in which the Turkish History Thesis fulfillment rather than a system able to provide
was developed. The Outline offered the proto-type of answers for worldly affairs. Paragraph-long high
an elite formulation of history first to be discussed in praises to the Republic filled the textbooks and
forums of such circles before a popular dissemination functioned to instill the idea that it was the pinnacle
and large-scale distribution of its assertions. Their of Turkish achievements. Their appearance in
popularization among the youth materialized with the text was completely independent of any
the preparation of new history textbooks that were kind of relevance in terms of the timeline or the
derivatives from the The Outline’s content. The subject matter. In accordance with the dominant
Society for the Research of Turkish History finished the historiographical trend of the time, the textbooks
high school versions for the 1931-32 school term characterized the politics of the era as a zero-sum
in a total of four volumes: History I – Pre-Historic game between the secular-modernist Kemalists in
and Ancient Times, History II – The Medieval Era, action and the religiously oriented anti-modernists
History III – Early Modern and Modern Times, in reaction. The textbooks also clearly reflected
History IV – The Republic of Turkey. In two years, the traumas of the recent decades and arrived at
the simplified versions for middle schools in three the conclusion that the Turks had no friends other
volumes and those for elementary schools in two than themselves. European powers were accused of
volumes appeared. Thus, by 1933, all levels of public having preyed on the Ottoman Empire for decades
education had the textbook version of The Outline and then having used the seemingly fair Wilson
in their hands and became familiar with the product principles as a tool to partition it. The text severely
of an ethno-linguistic Turkish nationalism. blamed Muslims, especially Arabs, for refusing
All these textbooks served to exalt the Turks to help in the Great War and vilified the non-
by presenting them as civilization-builders since Muslim elements of the Empire for either pursuing
time immemorial. The books underlined Turks’ nationalist separation movements or siding with
invaluable contributions to other civilizations and the enemy.
attempted to create a history of the Turks free from
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Figure 3.9 November 19, 1937 – Mustafa Kemal Atatürk participating in the history class at the Adana Girls’ Instititute
Source: http://www.materyaller.com/bilgibank/yazi/Tarih-Dersinde.jpg
Re-organization of Higher terminated. The Ministry of Education declared

Education the university to be a completely new institution,
which would develop its own tradition in time and
The reorganization of higher education, namely
had no relevance to the Darülfünun. In this way,
the Darülfünun, had been on the agenda since the
another discontinuity with the past was officially
1920s and proposals mostly rested on a wholesale
affirmed.
dismissal of faculty members deemed incompetent.
In the same decade a number of pressure groups It appears meaningful to consider the 1933
had already been formed especially in the media higher education reform as one of the postponed
and state institutions, who favored restructuring for extensions of Republican reforms that sought to
the improvement of the Darülfünun. The reform eliminate Ottoman institutions that were regarded
question returned to the agenda in the early 1930s as outdated. The method of handling this either
and Professor Albert Malche was invited from relied on complete replacement or required the
Switzerland to prepare a report on the institution implementation of drastic changes. Specifically, in
in 1932. He presented it a year later and the report the case of the Darülfünun, two major groups of
became the scientific justification for the full-scale opinion existed. Despite the institution’s assurances
execution of the reorganization plans. Two points to side with the Ankara government both before and
in Malche’s report were remarkably suitable for the after the declaration of the Republic, the first group
intentions of the government. First, he was against cast off the Darülfünun as an obsolete remnant
the principle of autonomy arguing that it should from Ottoman times. They argued against its
not be confused with scientific freedom. Second, autonomous status that prevented the government
Malche suggested that the academic staff of the from a direct intervention at will. The second
reformed institution should be appointed after group strongly refused any interference with the
a substantial discharge of the existing members. affairs of the establishment by politicians. Despite
The Darülfünun was closed down, was renamed the pressures of the first group, the second attitude
İstanbul University (İstanbul Üniversitesi), and managed to prevail until the end of the 1920s. With
officially started education on August 1, 1933. The the 1930s, the Darülfünun faced accusations of not
institution was stripped of the autonomy it had having lived up to the government’s expectations of
received in 1919 with a confirmation in 1924. In spreading the “spirit of the revolution” by providing
line with the report and the preference of pressure unconditional cooperation in the implementation
groups, a substantial portion of its faculty were of the reforms. The final blow came when the
relieved of their duties and their tenures were Darülfünun did not give support to the newly rising
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official formulations of identity from historical and was deemed the indispensable agent that broke
linguistic perspectives; and some faculty members down traditional norms, established a secularized
were highly critical about them. This background system, and provided the conditions through
greatly contributed to the approach in carrying out which this gender group could achieve the equality
the higher education reform. envisioned by the paradigm of a progressive society.
At the same time, it was considered instrumental
in the process of nation building and the shaping
of the new citizen. On the other hand, women’s
social position became one of the measuring sticks
in demonstrating the degree to which modernity
had been internalized. Additionally, the envisioned
modern women of the Republic became pillars and
vehicles in the nation-building process by their
attributed function of preserving and transmitting
national values.
Figure 3.10 November 18, 1933 – the very first day of

Judicial Framework
classes at the new higher education institution: İstanbul The adoption of the new Civil Code in 1926
University provided the legal backbone for the equality
between sexes and took the vital steps for the
Source:http://gazetemanifesto.com/wp-content/ improvement of the status of women. It rested on
uploads/2015/11/istanbulUniversitesi-1-11.jpg the premise that men and women are equal before
the law. The Civil Code outlawed polygamy and
marriage by proxy and granted equal rights to
WOMEN AND NATION- women in matters of divorce, child custody and
BUILDING IN THE EARLY inheritance. Additionally, equality in testimony in
TURKISH REPUBLIC courts was established. All educational institutions
Early Republican modernization efforts and became open to the enrollment of women except
nation-building endeavors designated a special for military academies. Women acquired political
role for women who were expected to symbolize a rights in 1930 and 1934 through enfranchisement.
greater socio-cultural project. As indicated before, Initially they were granted voting and nomination
differentiation and dissociation from the Ottoman rights in municipal elections and later at all
and Islamic pasts constituted one of the major levels including national general elections. By
methods of the early Republican regime’s nation- extending the vote to women, the early Turkish
building strategies and the pre-requisite for cultural Republic became one of the earliest countries in
nationalism. This notion of a historical rupture the world to fully apply the concept of universal
led to dichotomy depictions that highlighted suffrage which denotes the voting right of all adult
the virtues of the present while underlining citizens regardless of property ownership, income,
the deficiencies of the past and thus provided ethnicity, or gender.
justification and legitimization for the new
regime. One of such interpretations which became
an integral part of the official rhetoric and the Enfranchisement refers to the granting of a
reform activity was related to women. The regime right or privilege, especially suffrage which
emphasized a shift from a patriarchal society based is the right to vote in political elections.
on gender discrimination into a modern order
with emancipated women as full citizens who were
equal to men. The Republican elite interrelated
women’s social position with modernity in multi-
faceted functions. On the one hand, modernity
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The Representation and another effective venue for gender egalitarianism.

Visualization of Women by the Participation of young girls in parades on national
Regime holidays provided an emblematic image of the new
generation being raised as patriotic nationals and
The convergence of the drive for modernity and modern females. All such depictions fostered the
the aspiration for nation-building created the need idea and the practice of social mixing of genders.
to devise a socio-cultural image for the new modern
woman. The presence of women in almost all spheres
of life was one of the most visible differences the
Republic delivered to the public space. The foremost
expectation was to create educated, socially active
and preferably professional women who would serve
their state and nation with dedication and a sense of
mission. Hence, the state-conducted emancipation
of women was deeply embedded in the formation
and the consolidation of the nation-state with its
accompanying narratives and values. This new image
did by no means render their roles as wives and
mothers obsolete or de-emphasize that aspect. On
the contrary, domestic roles were still underlined as
part of women’s identity; and the early Republic did
not transform deep rooted patterns but it reinforced Figure 3.11 Keriman Halis - The first Turkish Woman to
and reproduced them in a new light equipped with be crowned Miss World in 1932
trimmings of what modernity necessitated. The
public visibility of women entailed the end to the Source: http://www.milliyet.com.tr/ilk--turk-dunya-guzeli-
longstanding practice of the segregation of sexes -vefat-etti-gundem-1495230/
and led to gender equality as interpreted by the
Republican elite which mostly focused on identical
citizenship and legal rights. The ideal type of the Urban – Rural Divide
new modern woman rested on these premises and The socio-cultural image for the new modern
their practical requirements. woman presented an inherently urban picture. The
ideal woman of the Turkish Republic evidently carried
the national mission of providing education and
Reflections of Public Visibility
enlightenment to rural parts of the country; however,
Representations and settings of public visibility her iconic visibility was symbolically set at the urban
found reflection in the cultural iconography of the center with the reforming male elites of the Republic.
time and served a vital function in the adoption This urban imagery implied the replacement of the
and propagation of new republican values as well initial glorification of the peasant woman in the very
as the promotion of ideal citizenship. The regime early days of the regime. The official iconography
portrayed women and young girls as participating started concentrating on the desired change in
in a multitude of activities in the public sphere. civilization and its markers that typically pointed to
The prime example was set in several official the urban nature of modernity and distanced itself
venues in the capital city Ankara including new from the image of the militant peasant woman in the
types of socializations such as the Republican Balls, post-World War I resistance movement as the icon
where women who dressed up in accordance with of womanhood. Additionally, the peasantry seemed
contemporary western fashion guidelines would less supportive of the ideals of a nation-state and its
mingle and dance with men. Other social rituals reforms. Within that framework, women in upper
of the early Republican period were tea parties or middle segments of socio-economic standing
and fashion shows at schools, communal events at with mostly an urban background became the prime
People’s Houses, and recreational activities at clubs. beneficiaries of the opportunities provided by the
The initiation of co-educational facilities offered early Republican reforms.
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equally.
Figure 3.12 Turkish women in the 1930s

Source: https://www.vintag.es/2017/02/44-vintage-portrait-
photos-of-turkish.html Figure 3.13 Sabiha Gökçen – the fırst Turkish female pilot
Source:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
Education and Professionalization
commons/2/2d/Sabiha_Gokcen_with_cap.jpg
Women’s new image and role primarily
necessitated the closing of the gender gap in
education since professionalization of women was Ethnic Roots and Nationalization
directly tied to schooling. Therefore, the regime set of Equality in the Official Rhetoric
education as the focal point in the making of the The early Republican regime did not present
modern Turkish women and strongly urged school equality only as a sign and requirement of
attendance at all levels. New vocational schools modernity, but in a way ethicized the roots of
were also set up to train women in a variety of expected gender roles as well. First, the political and
fields. They became increasingly active in the newly cultural elite drew a rigid distinction between the
allocated space in the public sphere and started oppression of the past and the emancipation of the
performing their new roles as professionals. Almost present for the new expectations of womanhood
all professions were open to women, but certain to thrive in the public sphere and in the collective
ones such as teaching or nursing were particularly imagination. The regime orientalized its own past
encouraged. Women were obliged to operate in by depicting Ottoman women in imagined harem-
a highly male-dominated world and to serve the like illustrations and set them against depictions
state and its national goals without abandoning in the present day, which would symbolize the
their identities as mothers. At the beginning of liberation of women. Second, life in Central Asia
the Republican era, a harmony in values and as portrayed by the Turkish History Thesis became
aspirations seemed to shape the norm for both the source for creating an iconography of equality
gender groups who had joined the cadres of the in the national subconscious. Allusions to a pre-
state-cultural elite thanks to shared socialization Islamic imagined past full of courage, heroism and
and cultural standing. Their attachment to the combat provided the shared cultural image for the
principles and targets of the new regime defined justification of gender equality. In that picture, men
their existence more than their gender in the public practiced monogamy, women rode horses, fought,
domain which in appearance seemed to treat them
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hunted, used weapons, did not veil or cover, and came to be depreciated and discouraged. Similarly,
participated directly in ruling decisions. Hence, traditional female fragility was disapproved and
the regime presented the novelties in patterns of this attitude redefined female beauty in new
gender relations as merely the revival of origins in light linking it with health and sports activities.
the communal psyche and legitimated them by way Disciplining women’s bodies and conduct did
of their historical roots. The Republican elite thus not necessarily reach the level of masculinization;
justified their policies with claims of re-discovery however, a degree of de-feminization became
and re-adoption of a noble legacy that had already necessary to partake in the public domain
existed in Turkish culture since ancient times made newly available to them. Thus, one of the
and were endemic to the national character. This conditions of women’s emancipation and visibility
semi-mythic archetype also neutralized notions of turned out to be contingent on abidance by the
individualism or feminism and concentrated on new socio-cultural codes of dress and conduct
a nationalist ethos as the framework of women’s dictated by the state that functioned as the prime
emancipation. modernizing agency. In a broader sense, equality
became grounded in a new morality prescribed by
the male elite.
The Greek philosopher Aristotle had
divided the modes of persuasion into three Limits of Emancipation
categories: ethos, pathos, and logos. Ethos
Women’s emancipation was part of a wider
is the Greek word for “character” and
political and cultural project of nation building
the word ethic is derived from it. Thus,
and modernization with a western orientation.
ethos is an appeal to ethics and a means of
Their new image merged cultural authenticity
convincing someone of the character or
and a civilized modern nation. The early Turkish
credibility of the persuader.
Republic presented a paternalistic sensitivity
towards women, but at the same time precluded
their independent political initiatives as part
Dress Code and Conduct of its macro control policy of suppressing any
The new dress code was supposed to prove autonomous organization. The authoritarian
the nation’s civilizational shift and western attire nature of the single party rule dismissed the
testified to a historical rupture and a symbolic possibility of women’s self-regulating organizations
break with the past. The political and cultural elite and movements: in cases such as the refusal to grant
attributed great importance to physical appearance official recognition to the Women’s People Party in
as it indicated, in their view, a sign of modernity and 1923 and the dissolution of the Turkish Women
ideological transformation. Women again played a Federation in 1935.
special role here. The regime did not legally ban Hence, the regime opened up an arena for
veiling except on official premises, but vigorous state-sponsored emancipation of women marked
campaigns discouraged wearing it and pressed for by public space participation and equality, but
modern styles in the western model. Additionally, simultaneously circumscribed and defined its
giving up the veil was regarded as integral part of parameters. The Republican regime wanted to
women’s emancipation and modernization and as a mobilize women, but only under state leadership
return to the roots of Turkish culture. and merely to the point reckoned permissible by the
It should be noted that the shift in attire male political-cultural elite acting as the engine of
did neither entail a laisser-faire concept in that the modernization process. The necessary support
category nor generate a complete liberation in for the transformation of women’s lives came from
conduct at large. Early Republican propaganda middle or upper class urban men who interpreted
geared towards women constantly emphasized and culturally defined the dynamics of gender
abstaining from excesses and exaggerations in equality and public visibility of women in the
dress or behavior in the public realm by stressing Turkish social imagination. In the long run, though,
minimalism and modesty. Explicit femininity early Turkish Republican socialization cultivated
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the seeds of women’s individualization and paved 1940s were not geared towards industrialization
the way to diverse contexts of emancipation along and development as in the 1930s. The efforts rather
with self-determining movements. aspired to alleviate the negative consequences of
the war to the possible extent. The state tried to
mitigate the shortage of goods, put a break on price
increases and inflation, combat the black market
2
and prevent war profiteering. A new regulation in
1940, the National Protection Law (Milli Koruma
Which categories might have been Kanunu), became the legal foothold of all wartime
more instrumental in the early Turkish economic measures. It gave the government
Republican modernization and nation- extensive and exclusive rights to regulate and
building endeavors? control all sectors of economic life ranging from
production to distribution and from consumption
to foreign trade. The government received the
TRANSITION TO THE authority to confiscate businesses that remained
1940s: MODIFICATION AND beneath the expected levels of production, buy
goods below value prices and distribute them
ADJUSTMENT
without profit. Fixed prices on commodities
With the transition to the 1940s, the Turkish were introduced in order to prevent uncontrolled
Republic experienced several modifications and increases that led to a pullout of several goods
adjustments in multiple fields. Economically, this from the market and created shortages. Some big
decade represented a period of interruption due cities had to start the commodity pass practice,
to wartime measures. Diplomatically, it signified which allowed purchasing certain products only
the breakpoint of abandoning neutrality in in specified amounts. The state also instituted two
international affairs because of World War II and temporary taxes for groups who had apparently
the pressures of the ensuing Cold War. Politically, profiteered from the new conditions. The Capital
the 1940s embodied an era of transition with the Tax of 1942 (Varlık Vergisi) was collected mostly
shift to multi-party politics and the end of single from city dwellers engaged in trade or industry and
party rule. Ideologically, it constituted a phase the levy ended up affecting predominantly non-
of moderation and some degree of compromise Muslim citizens. The Agricultural Products Tax
in which excessively radical ideas were levelled of 1944 (Toprak Mahsulleri Vergisi) targeted rural
and sharp edges were polished. Educationally, areas and was collected from peasants.
new experiences and attention to rural areas with
tailored institutions appeared on the agenda.
Diplomacy
Turkey found itself having to abandon its
Economy
internationally neutral stance and chose a side in
Although Turkey did not actively join World World War II and the ensuing Cold War. The country
War II, its economy experienced all the hardships tried to keep its nonalignment during the years of
that stemmed from the war. The country warfare and stayed out of conflict at all costs. Turkey
reserved a significant portion of its budget for formally declared war on Germany and Japan joining
possible war expenses and economic plans along the alliance of the Allied Powers only towards the end
with industrial investment programs had to be of the war when the defeat of the Axis Powers was
postponed. Production decreased substantially beyond doubt. Turkey was bound to choose a side in
since recruitments to the reserve army entailed the context of the bipolar Cold War climate, which
considerable drops in labor power. Imports and officially started in 1947 with the Truman Doctrine.
trade, which had already declined due to the 1929 The Doctrine denoted American foreign policy
world economic crisis, almost dropped to a half targeted to debilitate Soviet geopolitical expansion
and suffered even further when the Allied Powers during the Cold War and implied American support
forced Turkey to stop any mercantile activity with for other nations allegedly threatened by Soviet
Germany. Therefore, the economic policies of the
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communism. Turkey decided to become a party to Particularly the decreasing support of the public
the Western Bloc in this emerging new world order officials and the intellectuals proved significant.
and preferred the side that defined itself as the free They had constituted the core of the ruling party’s
world. The concord between Turkey and the USA is network in the socio-political fabric and losing
a phenomenon of this period and would markedly their backing undermined the Republican People’s
intensify during the 1950s. However, at that point, Party’s authority even further. In the arena of
the Western Bloc did not yet fully trust Turkey’s the new international world order, the Western
stance because of two reasons. It had entered the war bloc dictated adherence to its basic principles
at the last minute after the outcome was clear and its and demanded a democratic regime and system.
actions seemed to support Germany during war years. Turkey’s de facto single party structure and rather
Turkey also had signed a non-aggression pact with authoritarian rule seemed distant from the ideals of
Germany in 1941, which enabled German troops democracy and the maxim of a free world Within
to secure their southern front and attack Russia. that socio-political atmosphere, opposition parties
Additionally, she had continued selling chromium to started surfacing after 1945 and the Democrat
Germany until 1944 and had stopped the trade only Party (Demokrat Parti) was the most critical one.
with the intervention of the USA. During the 1950s, It was formed in 1946 by a group who separated
Turkey would attempt in several ways to alleviate any themselves from the ruling Republican People’s
doubts regarding her trustworthiness and loyalty to Party and managed to gather almost all opposition
the Western Bloc. under its roof. The party displayed a more liberal
stance, favored private enterprise in economy
and represented big landholders and industrial-
Politics commercial sectors in society. The party resorted to
Turkey experienced the end of the single party populist slogans but also utilized a more democratic
rule and the transition to multi-party politics in political rhetoric by emphasizing issues related to
1946. Two dynamics rested behind that shift: basic rights and freedoms. The Democrat Party
socio-economic unrest and foreign pressure. would come out of the 1950 general elections
Turkish society suffered a widespread and deep- with a landslide victory thanks to its promises of
seated discontentment in the 1940s. All social economic and political liberalization and change
segments in both rural and urban settings felt the composition and the nature of the ruling elite.
suffocated because of wartime economic measures.
Figure 3.14 Press coverage about the establishment of the Democrat Party
Source:http://www.larendem.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Demokrat-Parti%E2%80%99nin-69.-
Kurulu%C5%9F-Y%C4%B1l%C4%B1-2.jpg
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Ideology
With the formation of the new political parties and the opposition getting stronger, the ruling party
decided to soften some sharp edges in its policies, especially in ideological dispositions and practices.
Rough edges of the language and history reforms were polished and toned down by a comparatively more
tempered attitude. The ruling elite resorted to Western classical literature and humanism as a means of
creating a common cultural basis for the nation which would present a more moderate and inclusive
framework. Religion constituted a pivotal field in the process of this relative mitigation. In 1948, religion
became available as an elective course at the elementary level in education and the Preacher Schools training
Islamic religious personnel were re-opened along with the Koran courses. The Faculty of Theology was
established at Ankara University and religious lodges were allowed to resume their activities before the
1950 elections.
Figure 3.15 Students of the Village Institute at Çifteler Village, Eskişehir

Source: http://www.larendem.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/k%C3%B6yenstit%C3%BC.png
Education
In the 1940s, the Turkish Republic shifted its attention to the specific educational needs in rural areas.
This endeavor resulted in the creation of a multi-purpose, tailor-made institution, namely the Village
Institutes, which started out in 1940 and were fully terminated by 1954 by the Democrat Party regime.
The overarching motive behind the establishment of these new schools was to educate the provincial
population of a still predominantly agrarian society on the spot. This would develop, transform, modernize
villages and prevent domestic relocations by keeping the population content in their respective provinces.
From an educational perspective, the Institutes embodied a holistic approach and the basis of their program
rested on the school of “learning by doing” theory. They provided both academic and applied instruction
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to village students: the former was supposed to cultivate their minds and the latter improve their daily
lives and districts. Economically, the aim was to raise agricultural production thanks to the new techniques
taught in these schools. Ideologically, the Institutes were devised as a medium for teaching the principles
of the official ideology and making rural areas absorb its values and codes. Socially, they were expected to
gradually dissolve the existing traditional social structure in the provincial areas.
The short-term result and lingering legacy of this educational experience has been the rise of intellectuals
rooted in provincial regions for the first time. These new type of intellectuals added a new genre to Turkish
literature, namely the village novel. Mahmut Makal and Fakir Baykurt were early representatives of this
new literary genre as graduates of Village Institutes. Makal’s Our Village (Bizim Köy) which appeared
in 1950 touched on issues like economic hardships, land distribution, primitive agricultural methods,
communal solidarity and clashes between a traditional-religious outlook and a modern viewpoint as
represented by the village teacher. Baykurt’s The Vengeance of Snakes (Yılanların Öcü) narrated entrenched
socio-economic patterns of life and interest groups in a community by focusing on a land dispute. These
and other village novels shattered the romantic, idyllic and unreal image of a village and presented the hard
realities of rural life.
Figure 3.16 Students at Hasanoğlan Village Institute

Source: https://bilimvegelecek.com.tr/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/koy-enstituleri.jpg
What are the basic shifts in the passage from the 1930s to the 1940s in the early Turkish Republic?
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3
Outline the framework of the

LO 1 1920s & 1930s and assess the goals
motivating the reform activities.
The 1920s and the 1930s were the formative years of the
Turkish Republic. Two markers branded the 1920s: establishing
a new structure through sweeping reforms and pacifying the
opposition or any perceived threat to the regime. Two other
efforts characterized the 1930s: ideologically, generating
confidence in the new system and engendering loyalty to it;
Summary
economically, switching to protectionist-statist industrialization

policies labelled étatism. Both decades combined provided the
initial westernization journey of the young Turkish Republic
on the way to realizing its overarching goal of modernization.
Reforms and changes transformed all spheres of the state and
the society into a progressive modern structure. While the 1920s
rather dealt with structural issues, the 1930s concentrated on
matters of ideology and culture. The formulation and rise of
an officially interpreted Turkish nationalism, which defined
the Turkish nation in territorial and cultural terms, was also a
phenomenon of the 1930s. In the same decade, the founding
ideology and framework of the Turkish nation-state were
expressed in the principles of Kemalism, which provided
the fundamental and unchanging guidelines for the state. In
these two decades, the early Turkish Republic took vital steps
to realize the shift from an empire to a nation-state and from
entrenched former identities to a Turkish national identity
rooted in a common culture and a shared past.
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3
Comprehend the rise of Turkish

cultural nationalism and develop
LO 2 a grasp of the mechanisms that
created and disseminated its
components
The 1930s witnessed the efforts to realize a shift from the

Ottoman Empire’s multiple identities to a homogenous
composition as a nation. In this decade, Turkish nationalism
based on Turkish national culture dominated the ideological
Summary
realm, and the nation-building process as part of the early
Republican modernization project gained primacy. Turkish
cultural nationalism distanced itself from the Ottoman and
Islamic heritages and emphasized earlier historical periods with
an accent on Turkishness. The two fields of history and language
stood out as fundamental building blocks of Turkish cultural
nationalism and nation-building efforts. The formulations of
the Turkish History Thesis and the Sun Language Theory created
an official narrative of national history and a standardized
common language with minimum linguistic borrowing. Both
of them proved instrumental in the formation of the new
Turkish identity and the new Turkish citizen. The dissemination
of Turkish cultural nationalism and its components constituted
the complementary step in the early Republican policies. The
state started setting up institutions and devising mechanisms
for nationalization and for its propagation. The Turkish History
Society, the Turkish Language Association, and the People’s
Houses played their parts in formulating what constituted
Turkish history, language, and culture. The People’s Houses had
the additional responsibility of disseminating the Republican
principles among the masses. Novelties in the field of religion
such as the Turkification of the language of worship constituted
another venue for nationalization. State institutions related
to art, publishing activities, audio-visual elements, official
ceremonies and rituals also contributed to the nation-building
process. They all targeted providing a sense of common ideals
and values along with a sentiment of belonging to the citizens.
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3
Pinpoint the developments in the

LO 3 field of education
Public education was one of the prime fields in which a dynamic

and progressive outlook to modernize reigned. The official ideology
regarded westernizing modernization and nationalist socialization
as complementary necessities. The early Republic made every
effort to spread secular formal education and sought to ensure
that schooling communicated current scientific information
along with the principles of the Republican regime. The Law for
Summary
the Unification of Education, which passed in 1924, provided

the new structure of the system by centralizing all educational
activities under state supervision. A serious revision of curricular
content and textbooks followed at the beginning of the 1930s. The
subject of history was the most visible and striking component of
new textbook writing as part of nation-building efforts. The basic
common source of these textbooks was The Outline of Turkish
History in which the Turkish History Thesis was developed. The
same decade also witnessed the re-organization of higher education
as an extension of Republican reforms. The regime shut down the
Darülfünun inherited from the late Ottoman era and terminated
a significant portion of tenures. The remaining academics started
teaching at the newly established İstanbul University.
Identify the place of women in

LO 4 the reform activity and their role
in the new system
The early Turkish Republic introduced a paradigm shift in women’s

socio-legal position by combining the drive for modernity and the
aspiration for nation building in this category as well. The regime
presented the novelties in gender relation patterns not only as a
necessity of modernity, but also as an inherent national character, and
it legitimated the amendments as a re-adoption of ancient Turkish
cultural legacy. The new system endorsed gender equality, which
mostly focused on identical legal and citizenship rights. The new
Civil Code of 1926 provided the judicial warrant for it, and women
acquired complete political rights through enfranchisement by the
mid-1930s. The state cultivated an ideal type of a modern woman
who was educated, socially active, preferably a professional and dressed
in western attire. Additionally, this ideal woman would serve the state
and the nation with dedication and a sense of mission. The consequent
public visibility and active presence of women in almost all spheres
entailed the end to the longstanding practice of the segregation of sexes,
and urban women became the prime beneficiaries of early Republican
policies. In this newly available setting, women were encouraged to
abstain from excesses and exaggerations in dress or behavior and to
abide by the new socio-cultural codes targeting minimalism and
modesty. While the early Republican regime delivered a ground for
state-sponsored emancipation of women, it simultaneously delineated
and specified its parameters.
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3
Distinguish the basic shifts in the

LO 5 transition to the 1940s
During the 1940s, the Turkish Republic underwent various

modifications and adjustments in several categories.
Economically, the decade represented a period of interruption
due to wartime measures. The economic policies could not
target industrialization and development as in the 1930s, but
rather aspired to alleviate the negative consequences of the war
Summary
to the extent possible. Diplomatically, Turkey experienced the
breakpoint of abandoning neutrality in international affairs
because of World War II and the ensuing Cold War climate.
The country chose to become a party to the Western Bloc in the
newly emerging world order and started establishing increasingly
closer relations with the USA. Politically, the 1940s embodied
an era of transition with the shift to multi-party politics and
the end of single party rule. Domestic socio-economic unrest
due to wartime economic measures and foreign pressure
demanding pluralistic regimes were the main dynamics in the
process. The rise of the Democrat Party as the leading political
alternative marked the decade. The party’s rhetoric based on
promises of economic and political liberalization carried it to
power in 1950. Ideologically, the 1940s constituted a phase of
moderation and some degree of compromise. A more tempered
attitude toned down excessively radical ideas and levelled sharp
edges in policies. Educationally, rural areas received added
attention with institutions tailored for their specific needs.
The regime devised the multi-purpose Village Institutes to
modernize provincial areas by providing a holistic education
that targeted economic, social, and ideological transformation.
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3
1 Which of the following was not one of the 5 Which of the following institutions were
markers of the 1920s in the early Turkish Republic? charged with the double duty of working on
Turkish culture and its segments while at the same
A. The systematic effort of founding a new structure
time disseminating the Republican principles to
through extensive reform activity
the masses?
B. A revolutionary mentality in carrying out the
Test Yourself
reforms A. Turkish History Society

C. Intent to eliminate or suppress opposition B. Turkish Language Association
D. Shift to a state-initiated and driven national C. Board for the Research of Turkish History
industrialization process D. People’s Houses
E. The attempt to generate a wholesale E. Nation Schools
transformation
6 Which of the following statements related to
2 Which of the following was not one of the the field of education is false?
goals of the early Turkish Republican modernization
A. A dynamic and progressive outlook characterized
project?
the sphere of education.
A. Establishing a nation-state and secularization B. The Nation Schools did not contribute to the
B. Building a modern system through westernizing rise of literacy.
measures C. New history textbooks were prepared in the
C. Concentrating on certain fields for reform while early 1930s to popularize Turkish national
leaving others untouched history.
D. Creating a homogenous nation and a common D. The Law for the Unification of Education
national identity centralized education.
E. Nationalizing religion E. The twin drives for Western modernity and
Turkish nationalism converged in educational
goals.
3 The rise of Turkish cultural nationalism is a
phenomenon of the ........................................... . 7 Which of the following statements about
higher education is not a valid assertion?
Which of the following completeses the sentence
above? A. The re-organization of higher education took
place in the early 1930s.
A. 1920s B. 1930s
B. The higher education reform was one of the
C. 1940s D. 1930s and 1940s deferred extensions of Republican reforms.
E. 1920s and 1940s C. İstanbul University was established in place of
the older Darülfünun.
D. A significant portion of Darülfünun’s faculty
4 Which of the following was not one of the were relieved of their duties.
assertions of the Turkish History Thesis? E. The new university was declared a fully reformed
version of the existing institution.
A. The first human civilization was the achievement
of the Turks in Central Asia.
B. Turks were brachycephalic people.
C. Turks elevated Islam into prominence.
D. Asia Minor is a homeland to the Turks since
antiquity.
E. Urban culture preserved all the elements
necessary for making the Turks a nation.
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3
8 Which of the following sentences regarding 10 What was one of the lasting legacies of the
women’s emancipation is not a valid claim?
Village Institutes?
A. The official iconography concentrated on the
A. The rise of intellectuals in provincial regions
peasant woman as the icon of womanhood.
B. The increase in agricultural production
B. The early Republic tried to eliminate gender
C. The strengthening of social solidarity
Test Yourself
discrimination and the new Civil Code became
the legal assurance for the equality between D. The permanent implantation of tailored
sexes. education for rural areas
C. Turkish women were one of the earliest groups E. Prevention of internal migrations
to receive enfranchisement in the world.
D. Early Republican policies opened up the
public space for women and encouraged their
education and professionalization.
E. The official rhetoric claimed that gender equality
was an integral part of Turkish culture.
9 Which of the following is not true for the

1940s in the early Turkish Republic?
A. Politically, an era of transition with the shift to
multi-party politics
B. Economically, an interval of interruption
because of wartime measures
C. Diplomatically, a period of continuity in
international affairs and policies
D. Ideologically, a phase of moderation and
adjustment due to levelling of sharp ideas
E. Educationally, a stage of experimentation with
new institutions
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3
If your answer is not correct, review If your answer is not correct, review “Public
1. D 6. B
“Introduction.” Education: Raising the Youth for the Nation.”
If your answer is not correct, review “The If your answer is not correct, review “Re-
2. C Overall Target of Reforms and Changes: 1920s 7. E
organization of Higher Education.”

and 1930s.”
If your answer is not correct, review “Nation-
If your answer is not correct, review “Women and
3. B building Efforts and Collective Identity Formation: 8. A
Cultural Nationalism during the 1930s.”
Nation-building in the Early Turkish Republic.”
If your answer is not correct, review “History If your answer is not correct, review “Passage
4. E 9. C
and the Rise of Turkish Historical Thesis.” to the 1940s: Modification and Adjustment.”
If your answer is not correct, review “Adult If your answer is not correct, review
5. D 10. A
“Education.” “Education.”
What might be the fundamental discontinuities between

the Ottoman Empire and the Turkish Republic in terms of

modernizing reform activities and their orientation?
Ottoman reform activities operated in an imperial framework with a dynastic

regime, which became a constitutional structure in its last decades. On
the other hand, Turkish Republican reforms functioned within a nation-
state configuration based on parliamentary rule. Ottoman modernization
efforts remained mostly state-oriented as they ultimately aspired to save the
empire from disintegration through the creation of a revised structure and
the formation of new cadres to run the updated machinery. In that respect,
early Republican modernization endeavors presented a much wider scope
since they targeted a complete socio-political transformation. Reforms in the
your turn 1
Ottoman Empire inevitably brought degree of secularization as a byproduct
but not as a goal. On the contrary, the early Turkish Republic directly aimed at
secularization as an objective and made it even one of its founding principles.
In terms of collective identity formation, both entities resorted to nationalism
as a new form of allegiance. Ottomanism attempted to turn all subjects of the
empire into a nation, but it was able to appeal only to a limited portion of the
society. The Turkish Republic focused the center of national collective identity
on a culturally and territorially defined Turkishness.
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3
Which categories might have been more instrumental in

the early Turkish Republican modernization and nation-
building endeavors?

Changes in the judicial field, the educational arena, and gender relation
patterns seem to constitute outstanding categories in early Turkish Republican
modernization and nation-building efforts. Establishing a completely new
and secular legal framework provided the foothold for the regime’s policies
and gave the administration enforcement power. Public education served to
raise the new generation with scientific learning and Republican principles,
your turn 2 thus providing a significant element in the survival and the reproduction of
the system. Adult education functioned to disseminate the official ideology
among the masses and helped the citizens to adapt to structural changes as well.
Changes in gender relation patterns created an emancipated woman who was
educated and active in the public space. These new mothers equipped with the
trimmings of modernity would be responsible for bringing up the youth of
the country and propagating the Republican vision of a contemporary society.
What were the basic shifts in the transition from the

1930s to the 1940s in the early Turkish Republic?
The passage to the 1940s signified changes in multiple categories. The

immediately preceding World War II and the ensuing new international
world order had substantial influence on these shifts. Turkey suffered all
possible hardships of war economy although it did not actively join the war.
The statist industrial development policies of the 1930s came to a halt and
economic strategies inevitably concentrated on managing the negative effects
of the war. With the end of the armed conflict and the rising bi-polar world
your turn 3 system defined as the Cold War, Turkey had to chance its hitherto neutral
international stance and joined the Western bloc. The domestic discontent
mostly caused by economic suffering led to the formation of opposition
parties and the passage to multi-party rule. The ruling party tried to alleviate
some of the social discontent through ideological measures and by softening
its grip on some matters in the religious affairs. In the field of education, rural
areas received intensified attention with the Village Institutes.
107
3
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Chapter 4 Atatürk: His Life, Ideas, and Ideals
Learning Outcomes
1 2
learn and understand Mustafa Kemal Atatürk’s
learn about the founder and the first president ideas and ideals by providing examples from
of modern Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, The Speech (Nutuk),
3 4
understand the meanings of his Principles/Six understand Mustafa Kemal Atatürk’s legacy
Arrows that also became the main tenets of the and his place in the world and the present-day
Turkish Republic, Turkey.

Introduction • Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
Atatürk’s Background • The Speech (Nutuk)
The Speech (Nutuk) • Principles/Six Arrows
Principles • Republicanism
Legacy • Secularism
• Nationalism
• Statism
• Populism
• Revolutionism
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4
INTRODUCTION ATATÜRK’S BACKGROUND

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881-1938) is the
founder and the first president of the Turkish Childhood
Republic, which was born from the ashes of the
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was born in 1881
Ottoman Empire and of the Ottoman dynasty
in Salonika (Selanik), an important economic
reigning over six centuries that was effectively put
and cultural center in the Ottoman Balkans
to an end by World War I.
(in current-day Greece). At that time, Salonika
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk is one of the great was a cosmopolitan port city of almost 100,000
leaders of history, who achieved so much in a inhabitants. Almost half of the population
short period of time. As the hero of the battle at was composed of Sephardic Jews. Some of its
the Dardanelles in 1915, he established himself as inhabitants were known as dönme, who were the
a legitimate leader and a triumphant commander followers of a false messiah Shabbatai Zevi, who
who saved his country from foreign invasion. had challenged the rabbinical authority in the
Starting in 1919, he restored the defeated Ottoman Ottoman lands and in Europe in the 17th century.
army at World War I and organized the fragmented Additionally, there were Greeks, Muslims as well
national resistance movement. Thus, Mustafa as other nationals who were called the foreigners
Kemal emerged as a charismatic leader, who also (they lived outside the city walls). Mustafa Kemal
led the Turkish War of Independence (1919-1922),
was born into a Turkish-Muslim family. He was
known as the first major modern war of liberation
given a Muslim name, Mustafa, an epithet of
of the twentieth century, which has inspired other
Prophet Mohammed.
national liberation movements.
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was the main force
behind the establishment of the new Turkish
Republic based on national sovereignty, as well as
a full-fledged reform program in political, social,
legal, economic, and cultural areas. He sought to
mold the new Republic into the new century by
many reform acts that meant to put the nation on
the world map. His sweeping reforms were secular.
Some of them included abolishing the Caliphate,
religious convents and titles; introducing a civil
code; giving equal rights to women; changing the
alphabet from Arabic script to Latin script (veya
Latinizing the alphabet); making changes in attire;
and reforming the educational system. He also made
sure that there were great advancements in arts and
sciences as well and in agriculture and industry.
Figure 4.1 Ottoman Salonika, late nineteenth century
This chapter is composed of four sections.
Source: http://eng.travelogues.gr/item.php?view=52512
The first section will give an account of Mustafa
Kemal Atatürk’s life story from his childhood to
his death. To clarify and exemplify his ideas and Mustafa Kemal’s father was Ali Rıza Efendi
ideals, it will then move on to his Speech (Nutuk), and his mother was Zübeyde Hanım. His parents’
delivered in 1927. The following section will families, known as Turcomans (Yürük Türkmeni),
explore his ideas which he defined in six principles, came to the Balkans from Anatolia. Ali Rıza Efendi
widely known as “Six Arrows” (Altı Ok), under the and Zübeyde Hanım married in 1871. The couple
People’s Party later the Republican People’s Party had six children. Mustafa Kemal was the fourth
(Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi-CHP). These principles child. He had an elder sister Fatma, and elder
were Republicanism, Nationalism, Secularism brothers Ahmet and Ömer, who died in childhood.
Populism, Statism, and Revolutionism. Finally, the His little sister Naciye died after the father’s death.
last part will lay emphasis on his legacy. Therefore, Mustafa Kemal and his other sister, (older
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4
Atatürk: His Life, Ideas, and Ideals
than Naciye) Makbule, remained the only surviving After staying four or five months in Langaza,
children of the family that reached adulthood. Mustafa Kemal returned to Salonika. There, in
1893, he entered the Salonika Civil Middle School
important
(Selânik Mülkiye Rüştiyesi). He left this school when
he was beaten by a teacher nicknamed Kaymak
Mustafa Kemal did not know his exact birthday Hafız; he had used force with other students, too. As
since only one’s birth year was recorded in those he was fascinated with the army officers around him,
days. Therefore, Mustafa Kemal chose May 19 Mustafa Kemal decided to enter the military school.
as his birthday on his official birth certificate, Although his mother objected to his becoming a
the day he landed at Samsun. Since this was soldier, he secretly took the entrance exams, and in
the starting date of the War of Independence, it 1893, at the age of 12, he entered Salonika Military
was started to be celebrated annually under the Preparatory School (Selânik Askerî Rüştiyesi).
name the May 19 Commemoration of Atatürk
and Youth and Sports Day (19 Mayıs Atatürk’ü important
Anma ve Gençlik ve Spor Bayramı). Recently,
scholars have concluded that Mustafa Kemal There are different stories as to how Kemal
must have been born between January 1 and was added to his name Mustafa According
March 12, 1881 based on his mother’s report to a well-known one, during his Military
on January 4, 1881 (Yalçın & Güler, 2000, pp. Preparatory School years, as Mustafa was good
47-8). at mathematics, his mathematics teacher,
Mustafa Efendi his namesake, gave him the
Mustafa Kemal’s father Ali Rıza Bey earned his name Kemal meaning maturity and perfection
life as a customs officer. He later started a joint From then on, he used the name Mustafa
enterprise with a timber merchant. In 1887, the Kemal In the mid-1930s, instead of Kemâl
timber business declined. Then he entered the salt he preferred Kamâl as it was Turkish in origin
trade. Ali Rıza Bey died in 1893 when he was 54 and meant castle/fortification and army army.
years old. At that time, Mustafa Kemal was 12 Mustafa Kemal took Atatürk meaning Father
years old (Yalçın & Güler, 2000, p. 25). Turk as a surname in 1934.
Education
When Mustafa Kemal reached school age, his
parents had disagreements over his education.
His mother Zübeyde Hanım wanted her son to
attend a local traditional Muslim school (mahalle
mektebi) while Ali Rıza Efendi wanted him to
receive a modern education. To fulfill his mother’s
wishes, Mustafa Kemal first went to the religious
school. After a while, he enrolled Şemsi Efendi’s
private school, where where he received a western
education and was introduced to critical thinking.
Mustafa Kemal’s education was interrupted with his
father’s death; therefore, the family went to live with Figure 4.2 Atatürk’s ID card, 1934. As seen, he did not
Zübeyde Hanım’s brother at his farm in Langaza, use Mustafa on his ID card.
some twenty miles outside Salonika. There, Zübeyde
Source: https://isteataturk.com/Kronolojik/Tarih/1934/11
Hanım had Mustafa Kemal take private lessons. As
he did not find his teachers good enough, Mustafa
Kemal was sent to Salonika to stay with an aunt In 1895, Mustafa Kemal entered the Monastir
from the mother’ s side -according to some, with the Military High School (Manastır Askerî İdadîsi) in
grandmother from the mother’ s side. Monastir, a military town where the headquarters
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4
of the Ottoman Third Army located. There, he Mustafa Kemal became a nationalist during his
studied many subjects such as mathematics, history, time in Monastir since gangs of Serbs and Bulgarians
science, and French. He found mathematics raided the Turkish villages and there was also the
too easy and loved history because of his history ongoing Ottoman-Greek war in 1897; indeed, he
teacher, Mehmed Tevfik. However, he had some was eager to join the Turkish volunteers to fight
difficulties in learning French. During the three- against the Greeks. He was also under the influence
month summer holidays, he took private lessons of nationalist poets, such as Namık Kemal.
to improve his French as he had the belief that a After his graduation from the Monastir
staff officer had to know a foreign language. One Military High School in 1898, Mustafa Kemal
of his school friends, Ömer Naci, who was an went to Istanbul. There, in 1899, he entered the
excellent speaker and poet, had great influence on War College (Harp Okulu Piyade Sınıfı). In 1902,
Mustafa Kemal. Another friend from the school he went to the War Academy (Harp Akademisi).
was Ali Fethi (Okyar), who later founded the Free During the Academy years, he, together with his
Republican Party in 1930. friends, released a newspaper called Minber. Like
many other patriots of the time, he seemed to be
important convinced that the problems of the shrinking empire
could be solved by throwing the authoritarian rule
At the military school in Monastir, his of the palace and restoration of the Constitution
composition teacher Mehmet Asım Efendi of 1876.
told him: “My boy, drop the poetry and Mustafa Kemal graduated from the War
literature. You’ve got to be a good soldier. Your Academy as a staff captain (kurmay yüzbaşı) in
other teachers agree with me. Pay no attention 1905, when he was 24 years old. Following his
to Naci. He’s a dreamer. He may turn out to graduation from the War Academy, Mustafa Kemal
be a fine poet and a writer, but he’ll never was imprisoned because of his opposing activities
be a good soldier” (Atay, 1982, p.17). This and thoughts on the Sultan and his authoritarian
was what happened later on. Mustafa Kemal rule. After his short period of imprisonment, he
became a good soldier while Ömer Naci never was sent to Syria. Thereon, he entered an active
succeeded in having a military career. military life.
Figure 4.3 Mustafa Kemal (front row, second on the left ) Istanbul, 1900, 1901; Mustafa Kemal (in the middle),
Istanbul, 1905; Mustafa Kemal (front row, first on the left ), Damascus, 1906
Source: https://mustafakemalim.com/1881-1910-ataturk-fotograflari/
Military Career
From 1905 until 1907, Mustafa Kemal was an intern at the 30th Cavalry Regiment of the Fifth Army
in Damascus. While in Damascus, he continued engaging in political activities. With the aid of some of his
colleagues and friends, including Dr. Mustafa (Cantekin) and Müfit (Özdeş), he secretly founded the Society
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of Homeland and Freedom (Vatan ve Hürriyet From June1908 to January 1909, he was
Cemiyeti) to fight against Sultan Abdülhamid II’s appointed the Railways Inspector General of the
despotism. This Society became active in Beirut, Eastern Rumelia Region. He was in the Redif
Jaffa, and Jerusalem. Mustafa Kemal secretly went Division of the Third Army in 1909. As the chief of
to Salonika to open a branch office of the Society, staff (kurmay subayı) in the first rank of the Action
and he, then, returned to Jaffa and Damascus to Army, Mustafa Kemal took part in suppressing the
complete his internship, after which he became a revolt known as the March 31 Incident in Istanbul,
full-fledged army officer (kolağası). which appeared to be a religious revolt but turned
In 1907, he was promoted to Adjutant- out to be a counter revolution. This resulted in
Major and sent to the Third Army at Salonika. the deposition of Sultan Abdülhamid II. After
There, the Society of Homeland and Freedom completing his mission, Mustafa Kemal went back
merged with the Ottoman Society of Freedom to Salonika and became the commander of the
(Osmanlı Hürriyet Cemiyeti) and the latter joined Third Army and later of the 38th Infantry Regiment.
the Ottoman Committee of Union and Progress In 1909, Mustafa Kemal attended the second
(CUP) (Osmanlı İttihat ve Terakki Cemiyeti), CUP congress as a delegate from Tripoli and
which forcefully persuaded Sultan Abdülhamid II continued to criticize the army’s involvement into
to restore the constitution of 1876 and open the politics; at that time, this idea of Mustafa Kemal’s
parliament. The second constitution was declared was not shared by the upper echelons of the CUP.
in 1908 first in Monastir and then in other cities As a result of this difference of opinion, Mustafa
in Rumelia on the same day. When the news Kemal decided to occupy himself with military
reached Istanbul, Abdülhamid II was compelled to duties; he and his colleagues, for example, went
declare the constitution of 1876. During this time, on to suppress the rebellion in Albania under the
Mustafa Kemal was still in Salonika. He was one of command of the minister of war, Mahmud Şevket
the supporters of the Revolution of 1908, but he Pasha. In 1910, Mustafa Kemal became the chief
suggested more radical reforms. of staff for the military operations in Albania.
In 1908, in Salonika, Mustafa Kemal In 1912, the Ottoman Assembly (Meclis-i

translated and published General Litzmann’s Mebusan) passed the law that banned
book, The Combat Drill of the Platoon, soldiers’ political activities. This was what
which was about military battle practices. Mustafa Kemal had proposed at the congress
Its second edition came out in Istanbul in held in 1909 by the Committee of Union
1912. In 1909, he published The Military and Progress.
Encampment of Cumalı and in 1918, A
Friendly Talk With the Officer and the
Commander. Later, he published his Speech, Mustafa Kemal went on to participate in the
which he delivered in 1927. During the late maneuvers in France in 1910. In 1911, he was
1930s, Mustafa Kemal published a geometry transferred to Istanbul and was promoted to Major
book in which he coined a new terminology (binbaşı). In 1912, he directed the Tobruk offensive
for a confusing list of geometric names. He in Tripoli. In addition to assuming other duties,
also wrote a civics manual. His memoirs Mustafa Kemal became a military attaché in Sofia
of his days in Karlsbad, where he stayed in 1913 and in early 1914 in Belgrade and Çetine.
in a sanatorium; other notes, speeches, When WWI broke out, he asked to take an active
declarations, telegrams, correspondences, role on the military front.
memoirs, private letters, and conversations In 1914, Mustafa Kemal was promoted to
have also been published under the name lieutenant colonel (yarbay). In 1915, after he formed
Collected Works of Atatürk. the 19th Division in Tekirdağ, he went to Maydos in
Gallipoli. He stopped Winston Churchill’s attempt
to take Gallipoli and break through the Straits.
Mustafa Kemal demonstrated an outstanding
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skills as a soldier and commander at the battle of Prince Vahdettin, who in 1918 replaced Sultan
the Dardanelles in 1915. The Allied military forces Mehmet V. On May 25, 1918 he went to Karlsbad
that landed at Arıburnu (Anzac Cove) were also (now in Czech Republic) to receive treatment for
stopped by Mustafa Kemal. In the same year, he his kidney problems.
became colonel (albay) and then the commander
of the Anafartalar Group. Later, he was promoted
to brigadier general (tuğgeneral). He liberated cities While in Karlsbad, Mustafa Kemal wrote
of Bitlis and Muş from the Russians. The next year, in his diary that he expressed his wish for
he became the commander of the Second Army in everyone to feel the same taste of freedom:
Diyarbakır, then of the Seventh Army in Aleppo. “(… ) After spending so many years acquiring
After stopping the British advance in the north of higher education, enquiring into civilized
Aleppo, he returned to Istanbul. He had made his social life and getting a taste for freedom, why
name as a talented, able, and courageous military should I descend to the level of common people?
leader throughout these campaigns. Rather, I should raise them to my level...”
(Mango, 2002, p. 192).
important
While in Sofia, Mustafa Kemal wrote letters to He returned to Istanbul in August and was
a friend. In one of these letters, he stated that appointed as the Commander of the Seventh
he had great ambitions which were not about Army in Syria-Palestine for the second time. On
making big money in life and holding a higher August 28, he went to Nablus and took command.
status. He also mentioned that he was searching On September 9, the British Army, under the
for something that would yield great benefits command of General Allenby, attacked the
for the fatherland and that, if realized, would Palestinian-Syrian front. On October 26, Mustafa
make him feel satisfied about fulfilling his Kemal stopped the British-Arab forces in the north
duty. He continued that he had made this his of Aleppo. In his own words, he drew a “border
life’s mission at a very young age and he would with Turkish bayonets.”
cherish it until the end of his life. (http://atam. Just after the Mudros Armistice was signed
gov.tr/wp-content/uploads/KAYNAKÇALI- between Ottomans and Britain in October 1918,
ATATÜRK-GÜNLÜĞÜ1.pdf, pp.27-8). Mustafa Kemal replaced Liman von Sanders as the
commander of the Yıldırım (Thunderbolt) Army
Group, which was soon dissolved, and thus he
From December 15, 2017 to January 4, 1918, again returned to Istanbul.
Mustafa Kemal also visited Germany with Crown
Figure 4.4 Mustafa Kemal at the Dardanelles, WWI, 1915 (on the left), https://ataturktoday.com/AtaturkGunlugu/
MartMarch/18.htm; Mustafa Kemal as the commander of the Yıldırım (Thunderbolt) Army Group, 1918 (in the
middle) https://mustafakemalim.com/1916-1920-ataturk-fotograflari/screenshot-2017-10-6-ataturk_albumu_1-
pdf9-3/; Medals received by Mustafa Kemal (on the right) https://ataturktoday.com/MuzeKoleksiyon.htm
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In 1918, after the Ottoman Empire signed the Mudros Armistice, the Allied fleets entered Istanbul,
and this led to the dissolution of the Ottoman Parliament. In April 1919, Mustafa Kemal was appointed as
the Nineth (later Third) Army Inspector in Anatolia with the approval of the British, who at that moment
were advising the Sultan on the matters of the state. His assignment was the implementation of the terms
of the Mudros Armistice as well as demobilizing the armed forces that were still intact. On May 15, 1919,
the Greeks occupied İzmir, which led to massive disturbances. This was a traumatic event in the history of
the Ottomans and modern Turkey. Under such circumstances, Mustafa Kemal left Istanbul for Samsun on
May 16, and arrived in the city on May 19, 1919.
Mustafa Kemal and the War of Independence
Figure 4.5 Mustafa Kemal, before landing at Samsun, 1918 (on the left) http://www.eglencelitarih.com/?pnum=167;
Mustafa Kemal at Sivas Congress, 1919 https://mustafakemalim.com/devlet-nasil-kurulur/sivas43/
As the Nineth Army Inspector, instead of disarming the troops, Mustafa Kemal immediately began to
organize resistance against the occupations and the Armistice. In those days, there were many Defense of
Rights Associations formed to resist the occupying forces and keep the Ottoman lands intact in different
regions. In Amasya, with the like-minded army officers, he declared the need for unity and national
resistance against the foreign invasion. The Palace once heard of his activities and ordered his immediate
arrest. On July 9, 1919, Mustafa Kemal decided to resign from all of his official duties, and he declared
himself a civilian since he realized that he could not go on with his liberation activities as an Ottoman
officer. Even though he was a civilian after that date, the high ranking commanders of the Ottoman army
such as Kazım (Karabekir) Pasha, who was the highest ranking officer in the region as the commander to
the armed forces in Erzurum, supported him in his endeavors.
In those days, a representative committee was formed and Mustafa Kemal became its president. He
convened the Sivas Congress, where all the Defense of Rights Associations united under his leadership.
After signing of the Amasya Protocol between Istanbul government and the Representative Committee,
a new Parliament was elected in Istanbul with a nationalist representation. Mustafa Kemal was elected
as deputy from Erzurum, but he did not go to Istanbul. Instead, he established the headquarters of the
resistance movement in Ankara with the Representative Committee.
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Amasya Erzurum Sivas
Figure 4.6 Mustafa Kemal, organizing the national movement in Anatolia, 1919
Source: https://mustafakemalim.com/1916-1920-ataturk-fotograflari/
In January 1920, the National Pact (Misak-ı Milli), which came out of the decisions reached at two
congresses, Erzurum and Sivas, was adopted by the Ottoman parliament as well. Its goal was to have national
independence, territorial integrity, and armed resistance to foreign occupation. In March 1920, Istanbul
was occupied by the Allied powers, which Mustafa Kemal protested. As the last Ottoman parliament was
dissolved in March 1920 and Istanbul fell under the British occupation, Mustafa Kemal and his supporters
opened the first Turkish Grand National Assembly (TGNA) in Ankara on April 23, 1920. Mustafa Kemal
became its president. Although he was condemned to death by the Sultan, Mustafa Kemal went further
and he endeavored to make the TGNA as the sole and true representative of the nation; from this point of
time, the TGNA exercised the nation’s sovereign rights on behalf of the nation. In 1920, the Greek army
advanced into Anatolia. The Treaty of Sevres was signed between the Istanbul government and the Allied
powers, it was but never ratified. On the other hand, the Treaty of Gümrü was signed between the Ankara
government and Armenia. This created more duality over the legitimacy of the executive power in the
country: the Istanbul Government or the Turkish Grand National Assembly.
important
April 23 became a national holiday celebrated

under the name “the April 23 National Atatürk did not have children but he was very
Sovereignty and Children’s Day.” It was on fond of children. In the late 1920s, he started
April 23, 1929, after Atatürk’s proposal that the to adopt children; they were Afet, Sabiha,
Grand National Assembly of Turkey dedicated Nebile, Rukiye, Zehra, Ülkü, Abdürrahim
this day to children. From then on, Turkey (Tuncak), and Mustafa (Demir). Ülkü, the
became the first country in the world that youngest of the adopted children, was by his
officially celebrated a day dedicated to children. side during his final days.
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4
Figure 4.7 Mustafa Kemal and İsmet İnönü’s son, Ömer, at the ball given in the name of children, Ankara, 1929
http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/23-nisan-iste-boyle-ilan-edildi-40092328; Mustafa Kemal with his adopted
daughter, Ülkü, 1937 http://www.isteataturk.com/eski/haber/22/okuma-yazma-ogrettigi-cocuk-manevi-kizi-ulku-
adatepedir-10071937
Figure 4.8 Mustafa Kemal and Nebile at Nebile’s wedding, 1929 (on the left) https://mustafakemalim.com/ataturk-
manevi-kizi-nebilenin-dugununde/; Mustafa Kemal with Afet İnan, 1936 (in the middle); Atatürk with Sabiha Gökçen,
1937 (on the right) https://www.ntv.com.tr/galeri/turkiye/ataturkun-hayatindan-kareler,5FL9PF-5v0C-jYbIWz-5Lg/
KpPSD6yX0WMGm3CgaY3TQ
In 1921, the War of Independence continued, the TGNA in Ankara adopted the Constitution Act -it was
the first Act that described and defined the position, rights, formation and make-up of the Assembly and
the National Government (Atatürk, 2005, pp. 469-70). Additionally, the Treaty of Moscow between Ankara
government and the Soviet Union was signed, augmenting the authority of the the Ankara government.
Throughout these political events, the struggle against the Greek forces continued; the Greek army was
stopped at the Second Battle of İnönü during the summer of 1921. However, after the Greek army broke
through and occupied Afyonkarahisar-Kütahya line and the important railroad junction of Eskişehir, the
TGNA asked Mustafa Kemal to lead the army. Mustafa Kemal accepted on the condition that all powers
of the assembly needed to be vested on him for three months. Then, the army under him took up positions
along the Sakarya River. The epic battle ended with the Turkish victory in September 1921. Mustafa Kemal
was given the rank of marshal and Gazi (a veteran of an important battle). In 1921, the Ankara government
signed the Treaty of Kars with Transcaucasian Soviet Republics and the Treaty of Ankara with France, which
signified the French acceptance of the Ankara government. The Sakarya battle marked a both military and
diplomatic victory. Mustafa Kemal expressed his feelings on the Sakarya battle in 1927:
“The great battle of the Sakarya, which lasted from 23 August to 13 September, both days included,
continued without interruption for twenty-two days and twenty-two nights and continued, a unique
example of a battle of the widest extent, not alone in the historical records of the new Turkish State but also
in the pages of the world’s history” (Atatürk, 2005, p. 514).
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After the battle of Sakarya, for almost a year, the Greek occupation remained at the Afyon-Karahisar–
Eskişehir line. Finally, after a year of preparation and planning, on August 26, 1922, Mustafa Kemal gave
his order to his troops, “Soldiers, your goal is the Mediterranean! March Forward!” Within a few days, he
defeated the Greek army at the final battle of the National Struggle–The Grand Offense (Başkomutanlık
Meydan Muharebesi) in Afyon. The victorious Turkish army entered İzmir on Septemter 9, 1922. Thereafter,
his army advanced onto Istanbul and the Dardanelles. This decisive offense signaled the final defeat of the
Greek forces. On October 11, 1922, an armistice was signed at Mudanya between the representatives of
the Ankara government and the Allied powers, resulting in Turkey’s complete military and diplomatic
victory. At the end of August, Turkey was liberated from all occupying powers. The 30th of August has
been celebrated as a national holiday to commemorate this grand victory.
Figure 4.9 Mustafa Kemal, watching battles at Duatepe, 1921 (on the left) https://ataturktoday.
com/AtaturkGunlugu/EylulSeptember/10.htm; Mustafa Kemal, before the final battle of the War of
Independence, 1922 (in the middle) https://www.ntv.com.tr/galeri/turkiye/buyuk-taarruz-buyuk-zafer-30-
agustos,ATAG876G6Uu5E5Ocx9c2vw/lkNucmY9GE-ejSPN7oduPg; Mustafa Kemal with Fevzi Çakmak going to
İzmir after Turkey gained its independence, 1922 (on the right) https://mustafakemalim.com/1921-1925-ataturk-
fotograflari/#jp-carousel-4968
important
A famous Turkish poet, Nazım Hikmet, beautifully portrayed Mustafa Kemal during the final battle of the
Turkish War of Independence:
Dağlarda tek tek ateşler yanıyordu Fires burned on the mountains single and collected
Ve yıldızlar öyle ışıltılı, öyle ferahtılar ki And the stars… so far away …so brilliant… so comforting…
şayak kalpaklı adam The man in the serge kalpak believed
nasıl ve ne zaman geleceğini bilmeden Without knowing when they would come or how they would
güzel, rahat günlere inanıyordu come
ve gülen bıyıklarıyla duruyordu ki mavzerinin yanında To the days of bliss and comfort
birdenbire beş adım sağında onu gördü. He was there, next to his rifle with eyes that smiled
Paşalar onun arkasındaydılar. Suddenly he saw Him, five steps away
O, saati sordu. Standing on his right
Paşalar: “Üç” dediler, Pashas behind him
Sarışın bir kurda benziyordu. He asked the time
Ve mavi gözleri çakmak çakmaktı. The pashas said: “Three.”
Yürüdü uçurumun başına kadar, He looked like a fair wolf
eğildi, durdu. And his blue eyes, they were ablaze
Bıraksalar… He walked to the edge
İnce, uzun bacakları üstünde yaylanarak Stopped and looked down
ve karanlıkta akan bir yıldız gibi kayarak If He could
Kocatepe’den Afyon ovasına atlayacaktı. He would spring through the air
Glide down the mountain
Like a comet in the darkness of the night
From Kocatepe to the Afyon Plain.*
(Translated by the editor.)
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Mustafa Kemal was an ardent reader. Even before the final battle, at his headquarters in Akşehir, he began to
read Reşat Nuri Güntekin’s well-known work, The Wren (Çalıkuşu), the by-name of a young female teacher
portrayed in the novel. The novel described how neglected Anatolia was, and it defined the difficulties experienced
by a young and idealist female teacher. He never gave up reading and he had a private library in Ankara which
housed more than 10.000 books; subjects of these books ranged from history to literature, language, military,
political sciences, fine arts, geography, tourism, medicine, engineering, agriculture, law, religion, economy,
philosophy, logic, metaphysic, mathematics, physics, chemistry, astronomy, education, sociology, biology, and
so on (Turan, 2004, p. 61).
Sultan Mehmet VI fled from Istanbul shortly after the liberation of the country, and a peace conference
at Lausanne convened so as to form a new treaty and totally legitimize the Ankara government in the eyes
of the Allied Powers.
1923 was crucial in Mustafa Kemal’s personal life. In this year, he lost his mother, and he married Latife
Hanım, the well-educated daughter of a wealthy merchant family from İzmir, and the epitome of what
Mustafa Kemal expected of Turkish women. They were married from 1923 to 1925.
Figure 4.10 Mustafa Kemal and Latife Hanım (on the left), Mustafa Kemal, Latife Hanım and her family (on the right)
Source: http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/ataturkun-esi-latife-hanim-kimdir-40742911;
https://isteataturk.com/Kronolojik/Tarih/1923/3/5/Gazi-Mustafa-Kemal-Pasa-Latife-Hanim-in-ailesiyle-
Ankara-05031923/2
In 1923, Mustafa Kemal also opened the İzmir Economic Congress, and the Treaty of Lausanne was
signed to conclude the War of Independence. The treaty was also important because it recognized Turkey
as a sovereign nation. In the same year, Mustafa Kemal formed the People’s Republican Party (Cumhuriyet
Halk Partisi, CHP) on August 9. Ankara became the official capital of Turkey on October 13, and the
Turkish Republic was declared on October 29.
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Mustafa Kemal’s Presidential rebellious elements, and it would end up being

Years their shelter (Atatürk, 2005, p. 710). His foresight
proved to be correct since a rebellion (Şeyh Said
İsyanı) broke out in eastern Anatolia against the
new republic. The Law for the Maintenance
of Public Order (Takrir-i Sükun Kanunu) was
passed in order to restore order in 1925. This act
led to the closing of the Progressive Republican
Party (Terakkiperver Cumhuriyet Fırkası), whose
members were held responsible for the rebellion.
In November 1925, Mustafa Kemal toured
the Kastamonu province, where he announced
the abolition of fez to support the new dress
code. Furthermore, religious brotherhoods were
disallowed, and sacred tombs, as places of worship,
Figure 4.11 Mustafa Kemal, at celebration of the were closed. 1925 was also the year when Mustafa
Republican Day, Ankara, 1925 Kemal opened the Ankara Law School and the
European/Gregorian calendar replaced the former
Source: https://www.ntv.com.tr/galeri/
Islamic calendar. The new civil and penal code
turkiye/buyuk-taarruz-buyuk-zafer-30-
derived from European countries were introduced
agustos,ATAG876G6Uu5E5Ocx9c2vw/
in 1926. Turkey signed the Treaty of Ankara with
WYQJH1V9a0qNoDX0X6QzRQ
Britain and Iraq in the same year. Mustafa Kemal
had to suffer an attempted assassination in İzmir
After the declaration of the Republic, Mustafa but it failed. This was followed by trials and
Kemal was elected unanimously as the first executions of some members of the CUP.
president of Turkey. During his presidency in the From 1926 and onwards, Mustafa Kemal’s cult
1920s, the office of the Caliphate was abolished, was created around Ghazi savior and the hero of the
the Ottoman dynasty was exiled, the Directorate War of Independence. His images were distributed
of Religious Affairs was founded, the new throughout the country; his statues and busts were
constitution was accepted in 1924, and the newly put in public places, and his pictures in government
married couple, Mustafa Kemal and Latife Hanım, offices. In 1927, banknotes with his image were
toured Anatolia. circulated. Although the Turkish Republic and his
Although the participation of the political name went hand in hand, Mustafa Kemal did not
parties was, theoretically possible, a single party like to create dogmas; his principle Revolutionism
regime under Mustafa Kemal dominated the rejected dogmas as it suggested constant change.
politics from 1925 and onwards. Oppositions to He, therefore, stressed that he was one of those
him and to the Republic came from those who of flesh and blood: “There are two Mustafa Kemals.
wanted to re-establish the Caliphate and the One is the flesh-and-blood Mustafa Kemal who now
Sultanate; who were satisfied with the Ottoman stands before you and who will pass away. The other is
civil code (mecelle), but not with the secular you, all of you here who will go to the far corners of our
laws; who wanted to keep madrasas and religious land to spread the ideals which must be defended with
convents, and pious foundations. In their view, your lives if necessary. I stand for the nation’s dreams,
Mustafa Kemal brought Islam to ruin and made and my life’s work is to make them come true.” He
people into unbelievers/infidels (Atatürk, 2005, also said: “to see me, does not necessarily mean to see
p. 709). The dissidents finally formed a new party my face. If you understand and feel my feelings, that
called the Progressive Republican Party in the late will be enough” (Özdemir, 2008, p. 173). Mustafa
1924. Mustafa Kemal was afraid that the new Kemal’s legacy was an independent Turkey and the
party would become a refuge for reactionary and Turkish Republic.
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Republic, at the People’s Party (CHP) Congress. In the

same year, he was re-elected President of the Republic.
Mustafa Kemal’s first statue was made by
In 1928, in some Istanbul mosques, Friday khutba
Heinrich Krippel and it was erected in 1926 in
was read in Turkish, and the Latin script replaced the
Istanbul Sarayburnu, outside the garden of the Arabic script in writing. In 1929, national schools
Topkapı palace. The statue has its back to the (millet mektepleri) were opened to teach the new
Ottoman palace but faces towards Anatolia alphabet so as to increase the literacy rate.
where the Turkish Revolution was born.
In August 1930, Mustafa Kemal encouraged
some of his friends to form a new party, named the
Free Republican Party (Serbest Cumhuriyet Fırkası).
This new party had, among its members, Mustafa
Kemal’s close associates, such as his friend Ali Fethi
(Okyar) and his sister, Makbule. In 1930, the Free
Republican Party was dissolved when a religious
riot took place in Menemen, where reserve officer
Kubilay was killed by lynching. The new party did
not last long and the Republican People’s Party
remained the sole party during Mustafa Kemal’s
life time and even after his death until 1946.
In 1931, the Turkish Historical Society was
founded and Mustafa Kemal was re-elected as the
president of Turkey. In 1932, the Turkish Language
Society was founded and Turkey became the
Figure 4.12 The first statue of Atatürk in Sarayburnu member of the League of Nations in 1933, Istanbul
Source: https://isteataturk.com/g/icerik/Sarayburnu- University was established. In this year, Mustafa
Ataturk-Aniti-Istanbul/1007 Kemal toured Anatolia, the 10th Anniversary of the
Turkish Republic was celebrated, and the First Five-
In 1927, Mustafa Kemal visited Istanbul after a Year Plan for industrial development was introduced.
long time. He delivered a speech during his stay in 1934 was also important in that the Balkan Pact was
signed by Turkey, Greece, Rumania, and Yugoslavia;
Istanbul. He said: (…)
Mustafa Kemal adopted the surname ATATÜRK,
My fellow citizens, eight years ago my heart was Father of Turks, bestowed to him by the TGNA. In
aching when I left weeping and sad Istanbul addition, women received the right to vote in the
behind… Eight years later, with confidence parliamentary elections and to become deputies.
in my heart, I came back to a smiling and In 1935, in the Fifth Grand National Assembly,
beautiful Istanbul…People of beloved Istanbul, Mustafa Kemal was re-elected as president of the
here I speak to you from this palace... But, this Republic. In 1936, the dispute regarding the future
palace does no longer belong to Sultans who are status of Alexandretta (Hatay) was discussed in
claimed to be God’s shadow. This palace belongs the League of Nations. In addition, the Montreux
to people, who are not shadows. And I am happy Convention was signed, and thus the Bosphorus
myself to be here as a member and a guest of the and Dardanelles straits were put under the control
people (Özdemir, 2008, p. 180). of the Turkish State. In addition, Ankara Faculty of
Language, History, and Geography (Ankara Dil, Tarih
As seen, Mustafa Kemal stressed that palaces no ve Coğrafya Fakültesi-DTCF) was opened. In 1937,
longer belonged to the Sultan but to people. He Atatürk’s principles were formulated as six arrows to
considered himself only as the guest to the people’s be added to the constitution. Turkey, France and Syria
palace as he wanted to show that the Republic was agreed upon a solution on the Hatay issue. Turkey,
the rule of the people by the people and not the elite. Irak, Iran, and Afghanistan signed the Saidabad Pact
While in Istanbul, he prepared his famous Speech for mutual protection and collaboration. Moreover,
(Nutuk). He delivered this Speech, which was about Turkey and France agreed on sending French and
the days of struggle and the establishment of the Turkish troops into Alexandretta (Hatay) for the
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supervision of the elections. The Turkish Grand National Assembly voted for the Republic of Alexandretta
(Hatay). In this year, the Second Five Year Plan for industrial development was introduced. One of the striking
events of the late 1930s was that Mustafa Kemal and İsmet İnönü had disagreements that led to İsmet İnönü’s
resignation in 1937; he had served as the prime minister from 1925 to 1937. The first director of the Business
Bank Celal Bayar, who had been the Minister of Economic Affairs since 1932, became the new prime minister.
Figure 4.13 Mustafa Kemal was visited by the King of Afganistan Amanullah and his wife the Queen in 1928 (on the
left), by King Edward of England in 1936 (in the middle) and the King of Jordan, Istanbul, 1937 (on the right)https://
isteataturk.com/Kronolojik/Tarih/1928/5/bilinmiyor/Mustafa-Kemal-Ataturk-Afganistan-Krali-Amanullah-Han-ve-
esi-Kralice-Sureyya-ile-birlikte-051928/3; https://mustafakemalim.com/ingiltere-krali-edwardin-ataturku-ziyareti-
4-eylul-1936/ingiltere-krali-edwardin-ataturku-ziyareti-4-eylul-1936-mustafakemalim-15/; https://isteataturk.com/
Kronolojik/Tarih/1937/6/5/Mustafa-Kemal-Ataturk-Urdun-Krali-Abdullah-ile-Ertugrul-Yatinda-05061937/15/Full
During his presidential years, Mustafa Kemal tried to accomplish many innovations and reforms, and
he worked hard for his country and citizens. The details of the above events and more of his presidential
years (1923-1938) are discussed in different chapters of the present book. In this chapter, fallowing the
discussion of his final years and death, his ideas will be explored by examining his Speech, known as his
magnum opus, the party and thus the state program under single party regime starting in 1925, as well as
the six principles/arrows.
Mustafa Kemal’s Final Years, His Death, and Thereafter

In the mid-1930s, Mustafa Kemal had irregular and sleepless hours. He usually spent many nights
making decisions or reading into late hours. He was also busy with inspecting army maneuvers. In 1930s,
Mustafa Kemal gave up riding but continued to swim in the summer time at his new beach house in
Florya, Istanbul.
Figure 4.14 Mustafa Kemal with his adopted child Ülkü, in Florya (on the left) http://fotogaleri.hurriyet.com.tr/
galeridetay/58881/2/17/ataturkun-kizi-ulku-adatepe; Mustafa Kemal, inspecting troops in Mersin, 1938 (on the right);
https://isteataturk.com/Kronolojik/Tarih/1938/5/20/Mersin-seyahatinde-toren-birligini-denetlerken-20051938/11
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4
According to the doctors’ reports, he had important

cirrhosis of the liver. Its first symptoms appeared in
January 1938. Nevertheless, he did not slow down
On the day of the fifteenth anniversary of the
and was always present in public. He, for example,
Republic, October 29, 1938, Kuleli Military
attended the May 19 parade in Samsun in 1938.
Academy students sailed to Dolmabahçe
There on, he took the train to the Turkey-Syria
Palace to pay their respect to Atatürk. They
border in the south where 30,000 troops had been
started to sing a patriotic song composed for
send. In Mersin, he inspected the troops to show
the celebration of the 10th anniversary of the
that everything was going well since Alexandretta
Turkish Republic, part of which was as follows:
(Hatay) problem was not completely resolved.
“We are Turks! Our chest is the bronze shield of
The maneuvers of the army at the border meant
the Republic; Stopping is not for Turks! Here are
to put pressure on France as elections were being
Turks! Marching in the front, marching forward!
organized in the sanjak of Alexandretta (Hatay).
His presence convinced France to allow the troops
to enter the district. His illness was not revealed Mustafa Kemal’s health went worse and he fell
during these politically sensitive times. into his last coma on November 8 and he died on
The trip was exhaustive for Mustafa Kemal as November 10, 1938 at the age of 57; according to
his health gotten worse. He went back to Ankara some, he died of liver failure, while some argue that
and on May 26, 1938, to Istanbul Dolmabahçe he died of malaria.
palace on the shores of Bosphorous. The liver Following his death, flags hang half-mast to
failure resulted in edema in his abdomen. In the show the great sorrow. The government announced
summer of 1938, he moved to Savarona, the new his death as: “Turkey lost her great creator, a nation
yacht replacing the old yacht, Ertuğrul. lost its great chief, and humanity lost its great
As the fifteenth anniversary of the Republic son.” The Turkish Republic was honored to be his
was approaching, Mustafa Kemal agreed to declare immortal work. In the same announcement, it was
amnesty for 150 dissidents who had been exiled. stated that Mustafa Kemal Atatürk bequeathed the
Since his illness was advancing, he decided to continuation of his work to the Turkish nation.
write his will in September 1938. He left his estate He wished that the Turkish youth would always
including Çankaya, to the Republican People’s defend his precious legasy, the Turkish Republic,
Party. Five adopted daughters and his sister and that they would always march along the path
Makbule received a certain amount of money. of Atatürk. It was also said that Kemal Atatürk
Sabiha was given an extra amount to buy a house would always live.
in Çankaya, near Makbule’s house. The remainder Following Atatürk’s death, on November 11,
went to Turkish Historical Society and Turkish Istanbul City Council convened, on the next
Language Society and finally he made allotments day, university youth gathered in the university
for the education of İnönü’s children. conference hall, and on 13 November, the youth,
in front of the Taksim Republic Monument, vowed
to protect the Republic founded by Atatürk while
in Ankara Turkish Grand National Assembly met
to commemorate his memory.
Thousands of people in İstanbul paid their respect
to their savior and their father On November 20,
Mustafa Kemal’s body was transferred to Ankara.
Following the official ceremony which took place
in the courtyard of the Turkish Grand National
Assembly Building, his body was put on a catafalque
in the Ethnography Museum, a temporary resting
place where he lied in state awaiting his final resting
place, the mausoleum in Ankara in 1953.
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Figure 4.15 Atatürk’s funeral, 1938 (on the left) http://www.pressturk.com/ataturkun-cenaze-toreni-

goruntuleri/12141/; People are crying after him (in the middle) http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/galeri-ataturkun-cenaze-
toreni-goruntuleri-bir-millet-kurtaricisina-agliyor-40640152?p=14; His mausoleum (Anıtkabir), 1953 (on the right)
https://www.ntv.com.tr/galeri/turkiye/ataturkun-son-yolculugu-1938den-1953e,Zqjyzo-OTkab0GjhOvE2tQ?_
ref=infinite
Although some argued that it was İsmet İnönü, İnönü was loyal to Mustafa Kemal’s principles
Mustafa Kemal did not name a successor. He and he generally sought to protect the achievements
must have left this decision to the Grand National of the Turkish Republic. However, Mustafa Kemal’s
Assembly. İsmet İnönü had the experience to rule the picture was replaced by İnönü’s on the walls of
country after Mustafa Kemal and had the popularity government offices, on stamps, coins and banknotes,
of being only second to him. On November 11, and those who had opposed Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
the TGNA convened in Ankara and during his life time were given some honorific posts.
unanimously elected the new president. Following WWII, secularism changed its form so
On December 1938, the Republican that religious education was introduced at primary
People’s Party convened and bestowed schools on voluntary basis, and also Faculty of
Mustafa Kemal the title of Eternal Leader (Ebedi Theology was founded in Istanbul. This process was
Şef), it named İnönü as the national leader and party accelerated during the Democratic Party period in
leader for life. the 1950s, during which the call to prayer was again
recited in Arabic, and Islam gained more presence in
public. This was a departure from Atatürk’s secular
reforms. Statism did not continue, either. During
the 1950s, however, unlike İsmet İnönü’s days in the
1940s, Mustafa Kemal’s image reappeared on the
coins, banknotes, and postal stamps. Furthermore,
in 1953, his body was transferred to the mausoleum
whose construction had started during İnönü’s years
in the 1940s. In 1951, a law was passed making it a
criminal offense to insult Atatürk’s memory.
Figure 4.16 Mustafa Kemal Atatürk with İsmet İnönü What are the major events and
achievements in Mustafa Kemal Atatürk’s
Source: https://i.pinimg.com/originals/ee/92/5d/
life?
ee925d7c352e1b88c6d5a93d503bb434.jpg
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THE SPEECH (NUTUK) the successive stages of the Revolution. I consider

it to be my duty to undertake this more in my
capacity as a leader of our organization than
because during the course of these events I have
been the President of the Grand National
Assembly of Turkey and its Government,
Commander-in-Chief and the President of the
Republic” (Atatürk, 2005, p. 368).
Some issues that Mustafa Kemal talked about
are the role of the TGNA the idea of sovereignty
belonging to the nation, the Constitution of 1921,
conditions during the War, measures taken to
finance the War, the treaty of Lausanne, the reasons
behind his reforms, and many more. As the Speech
detailed various subjects, only certain themes will
be covered here.
The Speech started explaining the condition of
the country when Mustafa Kemal landed at Samsun
on May 19, 1919. There, his primary goal was to
Figure 4.17 Mustafa Kemal Atatürk reading the Great get in touch with what had been left of the army
Speech at the Republican People’ Party’s Great Congress, after the Armistice of Mudros, which existed merely
1927 in name, and the army commanders and officers
Source: https://isteataturk.com/Kronolojik/ suffered when the Ottoman Army was disbanded
Tarih/1927/10/15/Mustafa-Kemal-Ataturk-Cumhuriyet- as the result of the Armistice. Mustafa Kemal stated
Halk-Partisinin-II-Buyuk-Kongresinde-Buyuk-Nutkunu- that he wanted to mobilize high-ranking civil
okurken-15101927/4 officials and military officers to proceed mobilizing
the national movement throughout the country.
In his view, the enemy powers were attacking the
From October 15 to 20, 1927, Mustafa Kemal
Ottoman State and the country itself in order to
delivered a thirty-six-hour-and-33-minute speech
disintegrate and annihilate both. The Sultan/Caliph
over six days at the second general assembly of
wanted to save his life and comfort while the nation
the Republican People’s Party. This speech was
was suffering in darkness and uncertainty. There
later compiled into a book-the Speech (Nutuk).
were some who looked for ways to save the country
Mustafa Kemal wanted to leave future generations
(p.7). The Nation and the Army knew of the Sultan/
a document reporting past events, explaining
Caliph’s treachery. Nevertheless, for those with a
conditions, and giving descriptions and an extensive
fundamentalist, religious outlook and traditional
account of the War of Independence. To prove his
inclinations, their ties remained loyal to the throne.
explanations, he provided documents, such as
telegrams, communiques, and correspondences. Mustafa Kemal also focused on how he disagreed
He said that there were no secrets and that the with those who demanded protection from England
documents related to what he was talking about and wanted to accept the United States of America
could be found in the proceedings of the Assembly as a mandatory power. Those who advocated
and were to great extent included in Ministerial mandate rule sought to preserve the integrity of the
Reports and in the newspapers. Ottoman state under one single power rather than
to allow it to be divided among several states (p.
He explained his aim for giving the lengthy
8-9). Another proposal that he reproached allowed
Speech:
each region to act independently utilizing its own
“….Therefore, I shall confine myself to an resources either to stay as part of the state or to
outline of the general events. I desire to make seek its own safety without the state (p. 9). Mustafa
the task of the historian easier by pointing out Kemal rejected all three proposals. He argued that
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they had no grounds. He found it meaningless to use the one and only representative body of the nation.
the terms such as Ottoman State, its independence, The Turkish State was governed by the TGNA
Sultan/ Caliph, its government at that moment. He and its government bears the name of Turkey. To
asked: “Whose existence was it essential to save?” “And ensure complete national representation a system
with whose help?” “And how?” “Therefore, what could was organized so that the population in provinces
be a serious and correct solution?” He explained the (vilayetler) elected its members every two years. The
solution as the following: “In these circumstances, one president was elected by the TGNA. The council
solution alone was possible: namely, to create a New of ministers elected the president of the TGNA
Turkish State whose sovereignty and independence among themselves (p. 470). This was how the new
would be unreservedly recognized by the whole world” administration functioned during the occupation.
(p. 9). In his Speech, Mustafa Kemal made an
The Speech went on detailing the role of the important point that the country could be saved
local and national congresses. For example, he without a Caliph or a Sultan (p. 8). He also argued
convened the Sivas Congress to unite national against those who wished to maintain the Caliph/
organizations in both Anatolia and Rumelia under Sultan. He made it clear in the Speech that “until
one single body that was controlled and governed the Caliphate and the Monarchy are able to exercise
by one central administration. He continued to their functions once more, a number of men assembled
explain that spreading the word that the country in Ankara will work with the help of temporary
was under grave danger was important and that measures” (p. 472).
only the energy and the will of the nation alone During the preparation for the Lausanne
could save its independence. In order to free the Conference, the organizers –headed by England-
country from the foreign invasion and influence, asked the Istanbul government to the Conference.
convening the National Assembly was suggested On this issue, Mustafa Kemal explained the reasons
by him at Amasya meetings (p. 23). The Sivas as to why he argued against this invitation: one
Congress also confirmed the decisions that were being the the Sultan’ s presence at Lausanne. He
taken at the Erzurum Congress. With these, the said that their acceptance to go to the Conference
aim was to have a unified defense and a unified would lessen the advantages, which the nation had
resistance against the foreign occupation and gained at the price of so much effort and sacrifice.
intervention (p. 69). Furthermore, their presence might even deprive
He wanted the Turkish nation to live in honor the nation of the importance and significance of
and dignity, which to him could only be attained their sacrifices. (p. 567).
by independence. He said “Such a nation would He knew that the Sultanate would like to hinder
prefer to perish rather than subject itself to the life the newly gained independence. He thus explained
of a slave.” “Therefore, Independence or Death!” (p. his efforts to convince the Assembly. In other
10). The attainment, as well as the maintenance, of words, in his Speech, he spent some more time on
full independence was the main principle. Full and distinguishing the Sultanate from the Caliphate:
complete independence to Mustafa Kemal meant “Gentlemen,” he declared, “neither the sovereignty
“unlimited independence: political, economic, legal, nor the right to govern can be transferred by one person
military, cultural, and the rest. If, in any of these to anybody else by an academic debate. Sovereignty is
spheres of independence, there should be something acquired by force, by power, and by violence. It was by
lacking, it would be equivalent to saying that the violence that the sons of Osman acquired the power
country has not yet gained its independence in the to rule over the Turkish nation and to maintain their
fullest meaning of the word” (p. 518). rule for more than six centuries. It is now the nation
Throughout the Speech, Mustafa Kemal that revolts against these usurpers, puts them in their
emphasized that sovereignty was vested in place, and actually carries on its sovereignty. This is
the nation, without any reservations and an actual fact. It is no longer a question of knowing
any conditions. He explained the system of whether we want to leave this sovereignty in the hands
administration: It needed be based on the principle of the nation or not…” (p. 570). It was thus in 1922
that the people guide their own destiny. Executive that the vote to abolish the Sultanate took place
and legislative powers were vested in the TGNA, and the Ottoman monarchy ended thereafter.
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Mustafa Kemal also gave information about Mustafa Kemal also mentioned how he started
his opponents in the Assembly. He said that they to develop a political party and its program of
rejected his candidates and preferred to vote for the nine articles (dokuz umde). In the late 1922, he
members whom they knew would be sympathetic explained his intention of forming a political party
to their cause disregarding the letter of the law, on a democratic basis under the name of People’s
and thereby interfering with the formation of the Party. He thus asked all patriots and men of art
Government (p. 526). Mustafa Kemal continued and science for help and cooperation to write the
to talk about their hostility towards the army. He program. On April 8, 1923, he published the
said: “Gentlemen! A movement hostile to the army program during the elections for the Second Grand
had also been created in the Assembly. “Why,” they National Assembly.
said, “does the army not attack after months have gone The program covered and stressed the following
by since the battle of the Sakarya? The army must go points:
over and attack at all costs. An attack on one part of
• Sovereignty belongs unconditionally to the
the front, at least, must be undertaken, so that we may
nation.
get an idea of its offensive strength” (p. 526).
• The TGNA is the real representative of the
During the National Struggle, while the Turkish people.
army was battling against the Greek invasion, • The Caliphate (it was not abolished yet) is
another theory was developed by Mustafa Kemal’s an office of the TGNA.
opponents that the real enemy was not Greece • The government is responsible to defend
and the Greek army, but especially England. and maintain order in the country.
They questioned why the main forces were not • A complete reorganization of the legal code
concentrated on eastern Iraq to attack the English. will be formed with a scientific approach to
He found these arguments senseless and illogical. law.
At the same time, he explained that the leaders of • The tax reform involving livestock; meas-
the opposition in the Turkish National Assembly ures will be taken to increase the produc-
began another campaign. They asked, “Where are tion and the marketing of tobacco, bearing
we going?” They said that the direction was towards in mind the best interest of the nation.
unknown, uncertain goals, etc. Mustafa Kemal • Reforms will be made in financial institu-
clarified that this propaganda emanated from the tions to have credit available to industry,
body of the Assembly itself as well as from Ankara commerce, and other sectors of the econo-
circles and penetrated into the ranks of the army my.
(p. 527). • The capital of the Agricultural bank will be
One of his opponents, Rauf Bey asked to be told increased and measures will be taken to as-
the actual position of the army and the possibility sist farmers more effectively, efforts will be
of an attack attack. Mustafa Kemal explained: shown to have agricultural machinery and
“The army is determined to attack, but we are still equipment easily available to farmers by
postponing the moment for it because we still require suitable import regulations.
time to fully complete our preparations. To depend • Measures will be taken to protect and de-
upon half measures and only to be partially prepared velop to a maximum degree those indus-
for an attack is worse than not to attack at all…” (p. tries which depend upon raw materials
527). He went on explaining what military means found within the country.
before the final decision of attacking the enemy. To • Plans will be made and action will be taken
confront the enemy, he wanted to see the nation’s in regard to railroads which are urgently
stronger will and faith in their fulfillment, the will needed in various regions of the country.
and courage that the Assembly, as the representation • In order to improve the quality of elementa-
of the nation, showed in the manifestation of ry education and to meet the requirements
national efforts in a pronounced spirit of decision of the country, the educational system will
and unity, and the army composed of the armed be given increased attention and publicity,
sons of a nation (p. 529). especially in regards to faculty and staff ap-
pointments, promotion and training.
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• Health and social assistance establishments abolition of the madrasas and religious convents,
and facilities will be improved, and the and the introduction of the western style clothing-
helpless will be taken care of. hat. At that particular moment, he did not want
• Scientific developments which are consid- to give into the hands of the ignorant men and
ered appropriate for the improvement of reactionaries the means to poison the whole nation
our forests, mines, and animal husbandry before its time (Atatürk, 2005, p. 590). It can be
will be fostered. argued that these were unwritten and unannounced
• The period of compulsory military service reforms of the program as they, one by one, were
will be reduced. realized. So, he waited for the right time to achieve
• Benefits for reserve officers, veterans, etc. his goals.
will be considered. At the end of the Speech, Mustafa Kemal said:
• An efficient civil service and a government “I shall consider myself very happy if I have succeeded
to serve the people will be established. in the course of this report in expressing some truths
• Reconstruction of the country destroyed by which are calculated to rivet the interests and
the war will be one of the major the priori- attention of my nation and of future generations” (p.
ties (Atatürk, 2005, pp. 590-1). 715). He added: “Gentlemen! I have tried to show,
The program set the foundation of the new in these accounts, how a great people whose national
party and the state. Here, Mustafa Kemal excluded course was considered as finished reconquered its
some vital points, including the proclamation of independence; how it created a national and modern
the Republic, the abolition of the Caliphate, the State founded on the latest results of science” (p. 715).
suppression of the old Ministry of Education,
Figure 4.18 Mustafa Kemal at Ankara Law School, 1925 (on the left) http://bultenler.ankara.edu.tr/
dergiler/45/1000/sayi1000.pdf; Mustafa Kemal at Istanbul University, 1930 (on the right) http://ulastirmalojistik.
istanbul.edu.tr/tr/haber/24-kasim-ogretmenler-gunu-kutlamasi-59003300720033004E00610053002D0079005800
4D003100
Finally, he finished the Speech by leaving the Turkish youth his legacy: Turkish Independence and the
Turkish Republic.
O Turkish youth! Republic, you shall not think of the conditions and
Your first duty is to protect and defend forever the opportunuties of the position you are in to take action.
Turkish Independence and the Turkish Republic. These opportunities and conditions may appear in a
This is the sole foundation of your existence and very unfavorable nature. The enemies who may have
your future. This foundation is your most valuable a design against your independence and your Republic
treasure. Also even in the future, there will be internal may be the agents of a victory whose equal has not been
and external enemies who will want to deprive seen in the entire world. It could be that, by force or
you of this treasure. One day, if you find yourself in by design, all the fortresses of the beloved country have
a position to preserve your independence and your been captured all the shipyards have been entered, all
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the armies have been dispersed, and in fact every corner O the Turkish child of future generations! As you
of the country has been occupied. Even more deplorable see, even under these circumstances and conditions, it
and serious than all these conditions, it could be that is your duty to save the Turkish Independence and the
those in power in the country can be discovered to be Republic! The strength that you will need for this is
careless, taking refuge or even committing treason. present in the noble blood which flows in your veins!”
Moreover, they may unite with the the invaders for (http://www.ataturksociety.org/about-ataturk/
their personal interests. The Nation may be in utter ataturks-speech-to-youth/) (Atatürk, 2005, pp.
poverty, and she may become exhausted and ruined. 715-6).
Mustafa Kemal formulated his principles as

Six Arrows (Altı Ok), which were Republicanism,
Secularism, Nationalism, Populism, Statism, and
Revolutionism. They emerged as the basic principles
that were included in the Republican People’s Party
program in 1931 and in the Turkish constitution in
1937. They thus formed the ideology of the state.
In 1933, the logo of the Republican People’s

Party, the six arrows, was designed by the
Painting and Crafts Department under the
direction of İsmail Hakkı Tonguç (1893-
Figure 4.19 Mustafa Kemal, leaving after giving his 1960), an important figure in education
Speech, 1927 during the early Republican era. The six
arrows are still on the flag of the Republican
Source: https://www.ntv.com.tr/galeri/turkiye/
People’s Party.
ataturkun-hayatindan-kareler,5FL9PF-5v0C-jYbIWz-5Lg/
OlHS_4Ypf0aj91JAsVUX-Q
PRINCIPLES
Figure 4.20 Mustafa Kemal was a self-made thinker/ Figure 4.21 Mustafa Kemal Atatürk speaking at the
philosopher who spent many hours reading and RPP’s Great Congress, 1935
thinking.
Source: https://isteataturk.com/Kronolojik/
Source: https://www.cercevelet.com/uploads/ Tarih/1935/5/9/Mustafa-Kemal-Ataturk-CHPnin-
images/201801/ataturk-kitap-okurken---2-2061.jpg 4-Buyuk-Kurultayinda-acilis-konusmasini-
yaparken-09051935/3
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Mustafa Kemal was inspired by the eighteenth They, therefore, persistently preached that there
century Enlightenment thinkers as well as the was no higher authority than the Turkish Grand
intellectual and political trends of the late nineteenth National Assembly. With their insistence on this
and early twentieth century Europe and of the idea, they sought to prove the possibility that the
Ottoman Empire, such as scientism, materialism, country could be governed without the monarchy
social Darwinism, positivism, Turkism, and other (Sultanate) and the Caliphate. Indeed, they had
popular theories. His intellectualism was shaped by not given the Head of the State a name and had
the works and concepts of Thomas Henry Huxley, practically entrusted the President of the Assembly
H. G. Wells, Gustave Le Bon, and Ludwig Büchner with this authority. Mustafa Kemal explained why in
(Hanioğlu, 2011, pp. 228-9). The eighteenth a speech in 1927: “The real President of the Assembly
century Enlightenment thinkers, especially, Jean was actually its Vice-President. A government existed
Jack Rousseau (contrat social-social contract) and but it was called the “Government of the Grand
Montesquieu (de l’esprit de lois -the spirit of laws), had National Assembly. We abstained from the cabinet
also a great impact on Mustafa Kemal: He researched system, because the monarchist would immediately
Immanuel Kant, another Enlightenment thinker. have stood for the necessity of permitting the Sultan
Descartes’s Discours sur la Méthode was translated the use of his prerogatives” (Atatürk, 2005, p. 668).
and published in Turkish. Auguste Comte had Clearly, before the abolition of the Sultanate, he
already been known by the Turkish intelligentsia. was careful about not allowing the Sultan to use
Most certainly, Mustafa Kemal was also inspired his rights to form a cabinet in the constitutional
by the Ottoman/Turkish thinkers and writers, monarchy. He enforced the national will expressed
such as Namık Kemal, Tevfik Fikret, Ziya Gökalp, by the Assembly that had actually governed the
Mehmet Emin Yurdakul, Şehbenderzade Hilmi, and destiny of the country. He incessantly said that
Abdullah Cevdet (Turan, 2004, pp. 66-73). there was no power standing above the TGNA,
which combined in itself legislative and executive
powers. Initially, the Sultanate and the Caliphate
Republicanism (Cumhuriyetçilik) were not abolished but their places were within the
The Turkish Republic was declared in 1923. frame of the legislative principles determined by
With its declaration, it was sought to satisfy the the Assembly (Atatürk, 2005, p. 372). This lasted
exigencies of the time. Mustafa Kemal was elected until 1923 when the Republic was declared and the
its first president and remained so until his death Caliphate was abolished.
in 1938. The Turkish Republic thus became the
Republicanism was the ideology giving
first true Republic among the Muslim countries
priority to the principles of national sovereignty
although there had been short lived experiments in
in the composition of the laws for all types of
Azerbaijan, Tripoli of Barbary.
organizations, for all the details of administration,
The Turkish Republican ideology was under in public education and in the sphere of economics.
the influence of an important eighteenth century It certainly meant a government by the will of
French thinker of the Enlightenment, Jean Jack the people. Popular sovereignty was the key to
Rousseau. Mustafa Kemal’s ideal Republic was in Republicanism: “sovereignty belongs to nation”
fact what was in the French Third Republic (1870- (Hakimiyet Milletindir), which meant the Republic
1940), which to him was a success story. French was made by and for the people. Mustafa Kemal
practices and theories on solidarism, secularism, said “Gentlemen! It is not difficult to appreciate
and statism affected his thinking in establishing the the character of a Government standing upon
principle of the Republicanism. such foundations. Such a Government is a People’s
Initially, Mustafa Kemal and his supporters Government, based on the principle of the sovereignty
began to organize the administration of the state of the people. Such is the Republic” (Atatürk, 2005,
according to the principles of national sovereignty p. 372). Finally, the Republicans believed that
without referring to the Republic. They had people would see that their interests would overlap
shaped their administration and its development with those of the Republic.
made it possible to declare (the new) Republic.
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Secularism (Laiklik)
Both secularism and nationalism had already The US ambassador to Turkey, Charles
been promoted by the Young Turks in the Sherrill compared Mustafa Kemal to the
Ottoman Empire in the 1910s. Secularism in the religious reformers in the Christian world,
1930s went beyond the Young Turks’ views that Luther and John Wycliffe.
meant separating state and religion and removing
religion from the public life, a French type of
secularism. The aim was to establish state control Mustafa Kemal endeavored not to allow the
over religion and religious institutions. It did not religious (softa) classes’ economic exploitation
mean, however, to be against religion; but rather, of religion and of innocent people’ faiths. He
it meant separating it from scientific and purely believed that those fanatics of religious doctrines
political matters. Mustafa Kemal advised people to allured and deceived the ignorant, fanatical and
follow technology and civilization, not sheiks and superstitious people. According to him, it was
religious institutions. In other words, secularism this that led the Turkish nation, who had been
promoted reason rather than dogmas and dragged into endless suffering and obscurity,
superstitions. In November 1937, at the opening for centuries. He argued that foreign and idle
session of the Turkish Grand National Assembly, beliefs infiltrated into the religion. He stated
he said that our principles were not dogmas in the that since Turks did not know what their religion
books which came from heaven. really meant and talked about, the Quran had
The character of the newly created Turkish to be translated into Turkish. In 1925, TGNA
Republic was secular and considered very important ordered the Turkish translation of Quran and the
in the efforts to create a modern, and a democratic commentary, compilation of the prophet’s sayings
independent nation. For legitimacy, instead of (hadiths) into Turkish language.
religion, it relied on the nation’s taking a grip. That
is to say, the endeavor was to form a secular rather
than a religious justification for a national political The translation of the Quran (into Turkish)
community. Equality was the key to create a secular came forth long before the twentieth
society where any privileges including the religious century. The one in more contemporary
privilege or superiority were dismissed. Turkish came forth after 1941.
Secularism was to provide religious freedom.
Mustafa Kemal said: “every growing person in the Mustafa Kemal promoted a scientific and
new Turkish state be free to select his own religion.” nationalist thesis, such as the need for scientific
(Atatürk, 2005, p. 589). He believed that religion khutbas (religious sermons) based on reason rather
was a bond between God and people alone not than dogmas in Turkish. From 1927 and onwards,
to be interfered with. In Mustafa Kemal’s mind, the Directorate of the Religious Affairs which was
secularism meant that every individual was free under state control decided on the topics of the
in choices of conscience and beliefs. Every adult sermons at Friday prayers. It also required prayers
had the right to choose his/her religion. He said and direct quotations from the Quran and the
that people were free to observe religious practices. hadiths with Turkish translations. In 1932, there
However, they should not be against the acceptable were other attempts: the khutbas given in frock
values of the Republic and they should not have coats without headgear by the imams. In this year,
political demonstrations that would contradict legal changes were made for using Turkish for the
public order and general adherence. In the past, call to prayer. With all of these, Mustafa Kemal and
such demonstrations had often taken place. He said his supporters wanted to privatize the religion and
that such acts were not something that the Turkish Turkify Islam. Mustafa Kemal tried to reconcile
Republic would tolerate. To him, religious convents modernity and Islam. This type of Islam was open
and lodges were sources of fundamentalism and to progress and modernity; it led the society to be
ignorance, and thus closing them did not mean guided by scientism and Turkism. Turkification
something contrary to the freedom of worship. of Islam was not, however, much attractive to
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4
the masses, and thus Turkish could not be used of thought between the Turkish nation and the whole
as the sole language in religious ceremonies. Yet, family of civilized mankind…” (Atatürk, 2005, pp.
with the first free election in 1950, the single party 713-4).
rule ended and some of these secular reforms were To numerate some of the other secular reforms:
reversed. the civil code in 1926 prohibited polygamy, an
One of the most important secular reforms Islamic practice; the oath “on my honor” replaced
introduced by Mustafa Kemal was to abolish the “by God” (wallahi); the Gregorian calendar was
Caliphate. For Mustafa Kemal, this was necessary adopted; the Latin script replaced Arab-Persian
since it was not possible to establish a religious Ottoman script; Sunday became the weekly holiday
power over all the Muslims of the world anymore. in 1935; and finally, secularism was adopted in
Indeed, for him, the Caliphate was a political 1937 in the constitution.
authority not a religious one. In addition, on March
important
3, 1924, the Ministry of Sharia was abolished. The
Educational Unity Law (Tevhid-i Tedrisat Kanunu)
was passed in order to secularize education, and it The seeds of the hat reform were sown in 1910
envisioned specialist schools for the education of Picardy, France, where he went to monitor the
the clergy. However, these could not prevent some military maneuvers on behalf of the Ottoman army.
circles longing for the old order from opposing the When Mustafa Kemal explained his views on the
new reforms and criticizing Mustafa Kemal. military operations planned to be realized the next
day in Picardy, he was of taken seriously by the French
Mustafa Kemal explained as to why they
soldiers. A French colonel sat next to him at dinner
abolished the religious convents and sects, and
the same day and told him: “You are absolutely right,
why they forbade all religiously related titles, such
you know,” and then after a long pause, he went on
as şeyh, derviş, çelebi, and so on: “…in order to prove
saying, “What’s the idea of this funny hat you wear?
that our nation as a whole was not a primitive nation,
So long as you wear that, no one will respect the
filled with superstitious and prejudices” (Atatürk,
head underneath it.” (Atay, 1982, p. 49). Much later,
2005, p. 714). “Could a civilized nation tolerate a
after Mustafa Kemal created modern Turkey, Paris-
mass of people who let themselves be led by the nose
Le Temps would write something quite different:
by herd of Şeyhs, Dedes, Seyyits, Çelebis, Babas, and
“Atatürk has performed the miracle of modernizing
Emirs; who entrust their destiny and their lives to
a nation in a few years” (https://ataturktoday.com/
palm readers, magicians, dice-throwers and amulet-
AtaturkWorldPressLeadersTribute.htm).
sellers?...” (Atatürk, 2005, p. 714).
As seen clearly, secular reforms were important
to catch up with the civilized world. This manifested
itself in the hat reform in 1925. Mustafa Kemal
In 1928, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk was
explained: “Gentlemen! It was necessary to abolish the
given the title of ‘Head Teacher’ (Baş
fez, which sat on our heads as a sign of ignorance, of
Öğretmen), which was officially approved
fanaticism, of hatred for progress and civilization, and
on November, 24. Therefore, November 24
to adopt in its place the hat, the customary headdress
has nationally been celebrated as Teachers’
of the whole civilized world, thus showing, among
Day since 1981.
other things, that no difference existed in the manner
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Turkish nationalism also found more grounds

with the loss of Thrace. Turks who lived in the
region had to leave their homes and and lands to
take refuge in Turkey, which also contributed to
the birth of nationalism. However, by giving the
name of Turan to the Turks’ remote homeland, it
was the Hungarians who initiated the referential
Turanism movement. Intellectuals of the time
were aware of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire,
and thus they looked for remedies. Although, it
had earlier roots, Turkish nationalism (Türkçülük)
gained more ground with the War of Independence
and the Republic. Due to territorial losses, failure
of the Ottomanism to keep the multinational
empire intact, flight and fight of the minorities
during the wars, the new Republic became more
and more ethnically and culturally homogenous. It
should be noted here that Mustafa Kemal himself
read European thinkers on nationalism. In other
words, his intellectual orientation of nationalism
also came from Europe.
important
Figure 4.22 Mustafa Kemal, teaching the new Mehmet Emin Yurdakul, a nationalist poet who
alphabet, 1928 influenced Mustafa Kemal, saw the future of the
Turks in the newly created state. He called for
Source: http://www.kultur.gov.tr/genel/galeri/ataturk/
the creation and defense of Turan in his time. He
ataturkresimleri/3/pages/0107_01.htm
wrote: “Hey, lions of Turan! Stand like rocks against
every power of those who will cross the border and
Nationalism (Milliyetçilik) smash them like lightening.” “Let the drums of
The ideology of Turkish nationalism did not great Turan sound and announce the victory. Let
stem from within the Ottoman lands. Crimea and the announcement of the great leader be heard
Kazan Turks, especially in the Turkish communities everywhere.” He wanted men and women to partake
who lived in Tsarist Russia, developed a concept of in the creation of the nation and a Turkish child to be
nation before the Ottoman Turks since they were raised by women with love for Turan. (https://www.
under Russian pressure, which led to nationalist sav.sk/journals/uploads/020314084_Darnadyova.
reactions by the Turks. For example, in 1883, pdf last access 6.9.2018).
İsmail Gaspıralı from Crimea argued that the
Turkish nation had to be westernized and needed
to preserve its own language. The influence of For Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, nationalism meant
Arabic, Persian and other foreign languages on to have an independent country free from any foreign
Turkish language had to be avoided. Gaspıralı also influence and domination. He said: “This nation
supported the idea of liberation to women and has never lived without independence. We cannot and
equal rights. Hüseyinzade Ali Bey, an Azerbaijani shall not live without it. Either independence or death!”
Turk, has also a prominent influence on the birth of (Atatürk, 2005, p. 10). For him, independence was
Turkish nationalism. He influenced Ziya Gökalp, not only about political independence. He defended
who was the ideologue of the Turkish nationalism full independence, which could be achieved with
during the Republican Era. economic independence. He thus stated: “Whoever
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speaks of complete and full independence means thereby therefore, a peaceful one. It suggested to liberate,
unlimited independence: political, economic, legal, not to dominate other nations. According to him,
military, cultural, and the rest” (Atatürk, 2005, p. 518). the Turkish citizens must first work for the existence
In nationalism, fatherland was a homeland and happiness of their own nation and at the same
within the current political boundaries. According time they would work for the development of
to, Mustafa Kemal, Turkish nation lived there with other nations in peace. In other words, in his view,
its old and sublime history and works. Fatherland nationalism was humanistic and universal.
did not accept any division under any constraints The Turkish identity was based on the scientific
or condition. Nation was a political and social theory of the Turkish peoplehood. Mustafa Kemal
whole formed by citizens who were connected to looked for he roots where the Turks were involved
each other by unity of language, culture and ideals. in the formation of human civilization and the
The political system in Mustafa Kemal’s mind was beginnings of human life. For this reason, the
based on the national policy stated as: “to work Society for the Study of Turkish History (Türk
within our national boundaries for the real happiness Tarihi Tetkik Cemiyeti), later called Turkish History
and welfare of the nation and the country by, above Society was founded. He declared that Turkish
all, relying on our own strength in order to maintain history thesis was to show that the cradle of
our existence; but not to lead the people to follow human civilization was central Asia, the Turkish
fictitious aims, of whatever nature, which could homeland. The thesis claimed that the Sumerians
only bring them misfortune; and to expect from the and the Hittites were established by the Turks who
civilized world civilized human treatment, friendship had migrated there from central Asia. Additionally,
based on mutuality” (Atatürk, 2005, p. 371). it stated that Turkic peoples who had migrated to
Here, Turkish nation meant to live within the Crete and Italy contributed to the achievements
borders of the Turkish Republic. Mustafa Kemal of the Greco-Roman civilization and that Turks
Atatürk defined the Turkish Nation as the people in Anatolia were the descendants of the race that
who constituted the Republic of Turkey. In other had invented the civilization there. As a principle,
words, his formulation of nation was not racists; Atatürk’s Nationalism was to be interested in
rather, to him, nation was a neutral category. In his looking for the origins of the Turkish language and
perception, it was the common history, common its relation to past civilizations, but in this thesis,
language, and common culture that made a the Ottoman past was almost erased; in order to
nation. This well fits into the realities of Anatolia. create a national culture, a distant past rather than
The common notion of Turkish nation covered a closer one was studied.
everyone who lived in Anatolia as the original
member of this nation.
Atatürk’s aim was to create a unified society The First Turkish History Congress held
and a unified Turkish national culture. Indeed, the in 1932 closed with the acceptance of the
language reform worked towards this end. It aimed Turkish History Thesis. At the Second
at reconciling the living aspects of the Turkish Turkish History Congress in 1937,
language of the society with more authentic archeology found more place to serve
national terms, which would be a common societal the modernization project to prove the
identity that would help to unify the Turks. Turkishness of Anatolia as an ethnically
Turkish nationalism wanted to train students in united territorial space of the nation state.
nationalist values, dismissing what was foreign
and superstition. Mustafa Kemal’s understanding
of nationalism was not based on race as it had a In 1935, the Turkish history thesis was
humanitarian character. The motto “peace at home, supported by a new Turkish language thesis, the
peace in the world” reflected the essence of his idea Sun-language Theory, which came to claim that the
of nationalism. Mustafa Kemal advocated that original language of the humankind was Turkish.
equality had to be for all nations if one wanted The theory was abandoned after Mustafa Kemal’s
equality for his nation. His nationalism was, death.
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4
In summary, with science, history and language, Mustafa Kemal wanted to create a new civic religion,
which was Turkish nationalism. Turkishness was the religion and it was a secular citizenship. Turkish
nationalism was spread by the state through the press, schools, some government branches, and later People’s
Houses and People’s Rooms. Also, the Republican People’s Party was expected to render great services to the
nation because it had been created as a medium of representing the national ideology and national education.
Figure 4.23 People’s Houses, 1930s (on the left). httpp://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/interview-niyazi-berkes-life-

a-window-onto-turkeys-national-story-95440; Mustafa Kemal at the Third Language Assembly in Ankara People’s
House, 1936 (on the right) https://i.pinimg.com/736x/71/16/8a/71168a904bf0538d5baee7718d1c1ca8--dil-ankara.jpg
Statism (Devletçilik)
Statism meant that the state took its place as an entrepreneur in economic life. This principle was
resorted to as there was no time for individual entrepreneurs to accumulate capital for investment.
Therefore, the state took over and made the necessary investments. According to Mustafa Kemal Atatürk,
Statism was for the highest interests of the nation. Like Mustafa Kemal’s other principles, Statism was born
as a product of the conditions arisen in the 1920s Anatolia, where infrastructure and industry were weak
or practically non-existent. Initially, during the period of 1923-1930, private enterprises were expected
to come up with the necessary investments to develop the country. However, private investments were
not sufficient enough. At the same time, Turkey had the burdens of the Ottoman debts, and the Treaty of
Lausanne had some limits that prevented the state from having a full economic independence in the 1920s.
The limits of the Treaty was finally lifted in 1928 and Turkey had the opportunity to have more economic
independence. A more independent and protectionist economy came with the economic crisis that broke
out in 1929, the Great Depression, which shook the world as a complete failure of the liberal economic
policies. In the 1930s, Turkey, thus, developed Statism as a solution to its economic problems where both
the infrastructure and the industry would be established by the state. As part of the Statist policies, for
example, the state established ownerships in rails, tobacco, alcohol, sugar, matches, explosives, and so on.
Figure 4.24 Mustafa Kemal at Atatürk Forest Farm-Atatürk Orman Çiftliği, 1929 (on the left) https://www.ntv.
com.tr/galeri/turkiye/ataturkun-hayatindan-kareler,5FL9PF-5v0C-jYbIWz-5Lg/7vBv34WK7kePQkWe5n7_fw; Mustafa
Kemal, visiting Sümerbank, 1937 (on the right) https://mustafakemalim.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/9-1.jpg
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Statism that Mustafa Kemal envisioned was the most advanced economic path, entailing that the state’s
job was to encourage private enterprises and to regulate and supervise them. It did not mean, however,
an excessive state control over any economic activity; it did not prevent free trade and private property
holding or capital accumulation. Statism meant that the state took the role of being the locomotive in
economy to ensure a rapid economic growth. It planned a rational use of scarce resources. Briefly, the state
would invest and operate in areas where private entrepreneurs were not interested, could not succeed, or
where there was public benefit. In brief, Statism was somewhere between liberal capitalist economy and
socialism.
Statism supported a national commercial bourgeoisie who would accumulate more capital. Mustafa
Kemal sought to rescue the economy from foreigners and enriched local merchants. For this reason, the
Law on Encouragement of Industry in 1927 helped industrial bourgeoisie which could develop through
state franchise and credits.
Statism also meant to establish harmony between labor and capital. In 1938, a Labor Law inspired
by a similar law in Italy was accepted. The law, in fact, guaranteed some industrial safeguards and access
to insurance and at the same time banned class based activities seen as dangerous. The result was the
prohibition of forming trade unions, declaring lockouts, and holding strikes. No economic enterprise
could be contrary to the public interests and against the harmony between national and other private
activities. In short, harmony represented the unity between employers and employees; a mutual relation
between them was supposed to be regulated by law.
Furthermore, after the crises caused by the Great Depression ended, in 1931, the Turkish Republic
Central Bank was set up as the only authority to control Turkish currency. This meant to have a full control
of the national monetary policy. The Statist policies were made under the five-year plans adapted from the
Soviet Union in the 1930s. According to the first five year plan, industrial over agricultural development
was promoted as well as the use of state capital, enterprise and control in developing new industries. Under
the five-year plan, the investments concentrated on chemical, earthenware, iron, paper, sulfur, sponge,
cotton textile, worsted, and hemp industries. Sugar and textile were also emphasized. State banks, such as
Sümerbank and Etibank were founded in 1933 and 1935, respectively to help investments in specialized
areas. These banks joined the Business Bank (İş Bankası) that had been founded in 1924.
The second five year plan was accepted in 1938; however, due to approaching WWII, it could not
be fully implemented. It focused on mining, electricity, ports, and heavy factory machinery. It should be
noted here that while Russia gave advice and financial help for the first five year plan, Britain participated
in the second.
Yet, with statist policies, the state paid off the debts, avoided receiving foreign aid, and achieved very
rapid economic development without inflation. The Turkish lira also gained value. In other words, Statism
in Turkey produced fast economic growth with infrastructure and industrial investments.
Populism (Halkçılık)
Populism, also called “peoplesim” meant that the people were the government, the governments were
the people. It was not a rule by the elite like it was with the Sultan and the Ottoman ruling household.
Populism in Turkey rejected the dominance of any class. It was also in contrast to fascism that at that time
claimed that the people existed for the state, not the state for the people.
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Figure 4.25 Mustafa Kemal, listening to an old man in Tokat, 1930. https://isteataturk.com/Kronolojik/
Tarih/1930/11/21/Mustafa-Kemal-Ataturkun-Tokatta-bir-ihtiyarin-dertleri-ile-ilgilenisi-21111930/1; Mustafa Kemal,
listening to an old woman in Edirne, 1930. http://www.isteataturk.com/upload/images/1930_12_25-Edirne’de%20
ihtiyar%20bir%20kadını%20dinlerken_(25%20Aralık%201930)_%201%20(2).jpg
In Turkey, people’s sovereignty was akin to national sovereignty. Populism rejected class-based conception
of people since it was a solidaristic and corporatist alternative. It did not deny classes, but gave no place to
an antagonistic relationship between classes. The aim was to coexist and operate in harmony. In general, the
actual presence of conflict and power relations both in the economic and political realms were disregarded.
There were three aspects of the Populism: the first was the government by people or political democracy.
The second was the equality for everyone before the law. The third was the rejection of the class struggle
for the sake of the development of solidarity within nation. Populism was used in the same sense as
democracy. The idea of having national sovereignty carried important weight: In this principle, “sovereignty
belongs to the nation/people” became one of the main tenets of the new constitution and the new regime.
Populism aimed at strengthening the poorest and important
most uneducated groups of the society and to provide
social solidarity, which could be achieved through ensured
equality. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk’s understanding of Even when he was in Karlsbad in 1918,
Populism provided individual freedom and considered a Mustafa Kemal had written in his diary: “Let’s be
shepherd or a worker, a merchant, a doctor, or an artisan courageous in the matter of women. Let’s forget fear.
equal to one another. To establish total equality, suffrage Let’s adorn their minds full of serious knowledge and
rights of women were recognized and women were given science. Let’s teach chastity in a healthy, scientific
the right to vote and become deputies in 1934; they had way. Let’s give top priority to giving women honor
already been given the right to vote and to be elected in and dignity” (Mango, 2002, p. 192).
local elections in 1930.
Figure 4.26 Mustafa Kemal with men and women, 1925, Ankara (on the left) https://mustafakemalim.com/wp-
content/uploads/2017/09/Vatan-En-Büyük-Evladını-Kaybetti-Hakkı-Süha-Gezgin-Kurun-Gazetesi.jpg
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People’s Houses were planned to allow urban

and rural people and also intellectuals and ordinary
people to meet each other. In this way, the gap
between them would be lessened and solidarity
would be achieved. In addition to these, People’s
Rooms (Halkodaları) were founded in 1939. They
were small versions of People’s Houses in villages.
Another important development concerning rural
areas involved the Village Institutes founded in 1949
and thereafter. Based on Mustafa Kemal Atatürk’s
educational reforms, they were established in rural
areas as teacher training schools and advocated
Figure 4.27 Satı Kadın (on the right) http://www. learning by doing.
kocatepegazetesi.com/tr-TR/kose-yazilari/107800/
tarihimizde-kadin-kahramanlar
Revolutionism (İnkılapçılık )
Mustafa Kemal also found parallelism between
The Turkish War of Independence and the French
Satı Kadın was a peasant woman who was
Revolution (Turan, 2004, p. 73). According to him,
the mother of five and wife of a veteran
the French Revolution spread the idea of freedom
soldier. She met Mustafa Kemal when he
to the whole world as its main source. Mustafa
visited Kazan. Upon his recommendation,
Kemal said that humanity had progressed since the
she became a candidate to be a deputy. She
French Revolution. Turkish democracy followed
was elected as Turkey’s first female deputy
the path of the French Revolution, but evolved in
in 1935 parliamentary elections in which
a distinctive manner. This was because every nation
women voted for the first time. Mustafa
formed its own revolution depending on the time
Kemal wanted to change the name Satı to
and the conditions determined (or controlled) by
Hatı Her name thus entered the records of
the pressures and needs of the social environment.
Parliament as Hatı Çırpan.
(Turan, 2004, p. 73). Moreover, Mustafa Kemal
stated once that he was inspired by the American
War of Independence and thus by Washington and
Populism, at the same time, was implemented
Lincoln’s life and works; the two worked for the
through People’s Houses (Halkevleri) which were
glory and safety of the US (Turan, 2004, p. 75).
founded from 1932 and thereafter. They were
educational centers for adults. Such places for adults
important
were also opened in Europe; in fact, Turkish state sent
intellectuals and officials to Europe to examine adult
education centers. People’s Houses replaced Turkish The French Revolution and later ideological
Hearts (Türk Ocakları), which had been established in developments, which had roots dated back
1912. They became the instrument of the Republican to Renaissance when Humanism had taken
People’s Party. These houses utilized a rural policy strong uphold; humanism came to denote
since almost 80% of the Turkish population was having unlimited intellectual freedom
composed of peasants. In order to achieve national and no dogma or supernatural concept to
goals and create a true nation, adult education was dominate the human intellect. It promised an
considered essential by Mustafa Kemal himself. intellectually liberated society, which would
have its own identity and character. Turkish
reforms followed a similar path.
Mustafa Kemal said that “peasants are the
masters of the nation.” He praised peasants
since the Turkish economy then was largely According to Mustafa Kemal, the term
based on agriculture. Revolutionism (İnkılapçılık) meant greater change
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4
than an ordinary understanding of revolution Finally, Revolutionism represented a

referred to. It was to eliminate old forms, which were transformation which would bring progress and
replaced by a progressive form of state. Revolution rapid improvement; a massive, drastic and even
did not intend to promote individuality or class- forceful transformation. This principle rejected
based, mass movement that overthrew capitalist Western philosophical and ideological liberalism as
relations. Instead, it was to conceive the people or a base for social transformation since revolution in
the nation as directed by the national leadership. liberal sense meant to expand space for individual
The revolution or transformation was to make the interests. The principle of Revolutionism also
country contemporary, civilized, and modern. rejected revolution on the grounds that it gave all
Revolutionism emerged to close the gap between the forces of production to one class.
the developed and civilized world as there was no
time to wait, and thus certain phases needed to be
skipped. Mustafa Kemal defined the Revolutionism
as the revolution to break down the institutions that
had left the Turkish nation behind in the last few
centuries and to put in place new institutions that
could lead the Turkish nation to the level of the
most civilized nations. The second element of this
principle was a constant revolution. This was parallel
to the fact that Mustafa Kemal did not leave verses,
dogmas, frozen and stereotyped rules as his spiritual
heritage. He said that his spiritual heritage was
science and reason for those who would follow him.
Indeed, Mustafa Kemal said: “ (…) I am a

simple man. I mean, I am a kind of a man
who has to see his thoughts in his nation’s needs,
wishes and will. Only after seeing this, would
I feel responsible to take action. I do not have Figure 4.28 Mustafa Kemal, İzmir, 1926
a command of science, especially social sciences.
Source: https://isteataturk.com/Kronolojik/
I would like scientists to enlighten me in this
Tarih/1926/7/9/Izmirden-ayrilisinda-Basmane-Tren-
valley. If you have confidence in your knowledge
Istasyonunda-9-Temmuz-1926/6
of science show me the directions of science, and
I shall follow…” (Özdemir, 2008, p. 159).
Since Mustafa Kemal’s death, there have
been some departures from his principles. After
Moreover, unlike the developed countries, in his death, historical and linguistic theories were
underdeveloped countries there was the absence or revised, and later they were abandoned, but Turkish
weakness of the middle classes. In order to have a nationalism continued to have a role in modern
democratic society, a new generation of men was Turkey. The Turkish blood, the links with ancient
created to make a revolution and thus break the civilizations such as the Hittites or Sumerians,
vicious circle of backwardness. From this point of the role of the proto-Turks in human civilization
view, Revolutionism also meant populism against do not find much ground in current day Turkey.
elitism. In other words, the Turkish Revolution Although Mustafa Kemal gave a small role to the
did not aim at establishing an elite rule which Ottoman past in the Turkish history, in the 1940s
was represented by the Sultanate, but rather a rule and onwards, and especially after 1950s, Ottoman
based on people’s rule. history gained ground and Turkish modernization
had been dated back to the late Ottoman reformers
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4
starting in the eighteenth century. Military interventions in Turkey were said to be made in the name
of Atatürkism. In 1980s, a new cultural policy reconciled Turkish nationalism with Islam. Thus, ultra-
secularist xenophobic nationalism emerged in the late 1990 as a counter movement. In this atmosphere,
there have been attacks on Atatürk and his principles by ultra-religious groups. In spite of these, Mustafa
Kemal Atatürk’s personal cult has remained strong in current-day Turkey.
ATATÜRK’S LEGACY
Each year, on November 10, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk is officially commemorated nationwide. Sirens are
sounded at 9:05 a.m., the exact time of his death, and flags fly half-mast. On this particular date, an official
ceremony is held at Atatürk mausoleum in Ankara to honor him. High state officials, government officials,
top army commanders, and political party leaders or their representatives are present at the ceremony. It
has become a custom for presidents of the republic to go to his mausoleum and lay a wreath at his tomb.
Then, the president of the Turkish Republic and others
observe silence to commemorate Atatürk. The president also
signs the memorial guestbook to express the feelings and
2
thoughts. Day-long commemoration events take place in
Ankara and across the country. Thousands of people go and What are the roots of Atatürk’s six
visit his mausoleum to pay their respect to Atatürk not only principles?
on November 10 but the whole year.
Figure 4.29 Paying respect to the Founder on Novermber 10

Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=2018+10+kas%C4%B1m+an%C4%B1tkabir+ziyareti
After his death, many have offered him tributes including Lloyd George, Churchill, Roosevelt, Nehru,
de Gaulle, Nasser, Kennedy, and others. Winston Churchill, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom,
said in 1938: “The death of Atatürk, who saved Turkey during the war and revived the Turkish nation, is not
only a loss for his country, but it is also a great loss for Europe. The sincere tears that people from all classes have
shed, are nothing more than the true reflection of this great man - the Father of modern Turkey. The sincere tears
shed after him by all classes of people is nothing other than an appropriate manifestation to this great hero and
modern Turkey’s Ata.” (https://ataturktoday.com/AtaturkWorldPressLeadersTribute.htm)
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4
In 1933, Eleutherios Venizelos, the Prime Turkey’s neighbors and non-neighbors to establish
Minister of Greece, stated: “In the life of a nation, it and preserve peace and to protect the borders. In
is very seldom that changes to such a radical degree are the 1930s he, thus, formed the Balkan Pact and
carried out in such a short period of time... Without the Sadabat Pact with the neighbors. A friendship
a doubt, those who have done these extraordinary treaty had already been signed with Soviet Union
activities have earned the attributes of a great man in the 1920s. He anticipated the awakening of
in the complete sense of the word. And because of this, the Eastern countries. He said: “(…) I see the
Turkey can be proud of itself.” (https://ataturktoday. awakenings of all Eastern countries just as I see the
com/AtaturkWorldPressLeadersTribute.htm). dawn today. There are many brother nations, which
will have their independency and freedom. Their
renaissance will definitively be towards improvement
and well-being. These nations will overcome all the
According to the Office of Commander in
obstacles and difficulties and, succeed and reach the
Chief, 6 million 391 thousand 238 people
futures that await them…” (Özdemir, 2008, p.
visited his mausoleum in 2017. http://www.
212).
hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/tsk-anitkabir-
ziyaretci-sayisini-acikladi-11-ayda-muthis- Mustafa Kemal Atatürk believed that humane
rakam-40664566 thinking was the only true guide in life. He wanted
to be in step with the civilized world wherever
it was and contribute to its development further
and be an active participant. His principles of
Jawaharlal Nehru, the Prime Minister of India
humanism and the vision of a united humanity are
said: “Kemal Atatürk or Kemal Pasha by which name
still respected today. The UNESCO Resolution on
we knew him in those times, was my hero during my
the Atatürk Centennial explains well how he was
youth. I was very moved when I read about his great
seen by the world.
reforms. I met with great praise the general efforts made
by Atatürk in the course of modernizing Turkey. His
dynamism, undauntedness and unawareness of fatigue
created a great effect on people. He was one of the
builders of the modern age in the orient. I continue to be
among his greatest admirers.” (https://ataturktoday.
com/AtaturkWorldPressLeadersTribute.htm).
Also, Maurice Baumant, a French Professor,
said: “One of the most exceptional events of this era
is the establishment of a national Turkish State while
the Ottoman Empire disappears like a ghost. Mustafa
Kemal has done something great. The victory of Turkish
nationalism has effected Asia and Kemalism has
influenced all countries fighting for freedom” (http://
theataturksocietyofcanada.ca/mka/obituaries/).
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk strove to establish
peace at home and peace in the world. In other
words, one of his great achievements was to
establish the domestic and foreign balance. World
War II was approaching and thus Mustafa Kemal
took measures. He was not an irredentist, who
would pursue a pan-Turkist and/or Pan-Islamist Figure 4.30 UNESCO Resolution on the Atarük
policy. He achieved full control of the straits with Centennial
Montreux Treaty in 1936 and was able to annex Source: https://madak.files.wordpress.com/2008/04/
the territory the sanjak of Alexandretta (Hatay) unesco_ataturk.jpg (at the right)
in 1938. He developed peaceful relations with
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4
important
There have been many literary works written for him and to him. Here is one as an example:
I Am Thinking of Mustafa Kemal He goes from victory to victory.
I am thinking of Mustafa Kemal: I am thinking of Mustafa Kemal:
On a bay horse with a mane of flame He did not die one November morning!
He passes the high mountains, the deep seas. He is still with us ,everywhere;
His gold hair waves in the wind, He lives in all parts of the land
His blue eyes burning bright. In the veins of our hearts.
I am thinking of Mustafa Kemal: I am thinking of Mustafa Kemal:
In the burnt, ravaged fields of war His gold hair waves in the wind,
He creates epics the world has never seen, I see his blue eyes shining bright.
Great armies follow him, He enters my dreams at night.
Each soldier like Mustafa Kemal. I kiss his hands.
I am thinking of Mustafa Kemal:
Worth all the heroes of history Ümit Yaşar OĞUZCAN
He rules the boundless skies, http://theataturksocietyofcanada.ca/the-wisdom/
A naked sword on a bay horse poems-for-ataturk/
The following statement by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in the tenth anniversary of the Turkish Republic
tells us what it is that is still applauded:
We shall raise our country to the level of the most prosperous and civilized nations of the world. We shall
endow our nation with the broadest means and sources of welfare. We shall raise our national culture
above the contemporary level of civilization.” He exalted the Turkish nation in his speeches by mentioning
our nation’s excellent character, its tireless industriousness, intelligence, devotion to science, love for fine
arts, and sense of national unity. He was exalting it as it had civilized characteristics and great civilized
talents, and henceforth, he said, it would rise like a new sun from the high horizon of civilization for the
future. And finally, he addressed to the Turkish nation: “I express my heartfelt wish that you will celebrate,
after each decade elapsing into eternity, this great national day, in greater honor, happiness, peace and
prosperity. How happy it makes one to say I am a Turk!” (http://www.ataturksociety.org/about-ataturk/
ataturks-speech-at-the-10th-anniversary-of-the-turkish-republic/).
Today people admire Mustafa Kemal Atatürk for a variety of reasons. One of them was his being
farsighted, which is clearly seen in his statements on importance aviation. He once said: “The future is in
the sky. Nations who fail to protect their skies can never be sure of their tomorrow.” In 1936, during his visit
to the Aircraft Regiment in Eskişehir (Eskişehir Tayyare Alanı) he also said, “No doubt, aircrafts are both the
most effective weapons and means of the future. One day, the humankind will walk in the sky without airplanes,
visit planets and, maybe, send us news from the moon. Waiting for the year 2000 will not be necessary for this
miracle to become real. Developing technology already tells the good news. Our duty is to ensure that we are not
left far behind the west.” With this, Mustafa Kemal urged the youth towards aviation. https://www.hvkk.
tsk.tr/en-us/Turkish_Air_Force/Firsts_in_the_100th_Anniversary/Atat%C3%BCrk_and_Aviation
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Sabiha (Gökçen), Atatürk’s

adopted daughter (on the left)
became a pilot after Atatürk’s
recommendation. Her case
represents both Atatürk’s social
reforms, providing equal rights
and opportunities for women
and his giving importance to
aviation.
Figure 4.31 Caption for Sabiha Gökçen???? https://turkeytravelplanner.
com/go/Istanbul/Transport/sabiha_gokcen_airport.html
Mustafa Kemal at Civil Aviation School-Türkkuşu, 1935 (on the left)
http://www.keciorenbedenegitimivesporbolumu.com/v1/wp-content/
uploads/2014/09/photo_00073_1.jpg
This spirit of self-reliance cultivated during Atatürk’s days found its expression after WWII when restraints
on private initiatives were lifted and thereafter Turkey has become one of the largest economies of the world
in spite of the crisis. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk is certain to pave
the way for a democratic regime in Turkey. With a genuine
parliamentary government whose structure and principles had
3
been drawn during his days, Atatürk left behind a structure of
democracy which came to full realization in 1950. Another What kind of state and society did
legacy was the superiority of reason over superstitions. He Mustafa Kemal Atatürk seek to create?
combatted ignorance and demanded his people to work hard
be confident and proud.
In Conclusion
This chapter has given information on Mustafa Kemal Atatürk’s life story. After detailing
major points in his life, it has focused on his Speech, which helps to understand what has
happened and clarifies his ideas in his own words. It has also detailed his ideas by introducing
the six principles, which became the party and thus a state program. Finally, the chapter has
told about Atatürk’s legacy to understand his role in Turkey and in the world.
In brief, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk achieved much in a short period time. He created modern
Turkey and introduced sweeping reforms. He became the pioneer and a national liberation
leader. He was compared to Frederick the Great and Napoleon Bonaparte for his tactical
ingenuity in battles. He, even, has been compared to Thomas Jefferson in terms of their
political philosophies both of which focus on national independence. He became a role model
for third world intelligentsia and leaders as he was an anti-imperialist. Among them were
Hindu statesmen Jawaharlal Nehru and Punjabi poet Mohammed Iqbal. Although, Muslims
from Egypt and India reacted to him when he abolished the Caliphate, he continued to be
greeted as a great statesman and military commander in the Islamic world. He has been praised when he
won independence for his country and achieved to give her a civilized status. Moreover, in 1934, the Greek
Prime Minister, Venizelos, who suffered a great defeat in the Turkish War of Independence, nominated
Ataturk for the Nobel Peace Prize. This in itself is a witness to his greatness. Finally, in spite of some
criticism, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk is seen as a great national leader, a heroic soldier of the twentieth century
who is placed as an outstanding soldier, politician, thinker and revolutionary in history. Thus, people
commemorate him with praises and gratitute as being the true father of the modern Turkey.
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4
Learn about the founder and the first president of modern

LO 1 Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881-1938) is the founder and the first president of the Turkish
Republic. He was born in Ottoman Salonika in 1881. He received military education in
Salonika, Monastir, and Istanbul, respectively. He pursued a military career, starting in
Damascus. He became the hero of the battle at the Dardanelles during WWI. After the
Ottoman Empire was defeated by the Allied powers and was forced to sign the Armistice of
Mudros, he organized the national resistance movement. He emerged as a charismatic leader
Summary
of the Turkish War of Independence fought from 1919 to 1922. In addition, after the military
victory in the War, the Lausanne Peace Treaty signed in 1923 guaranteed national sovereignty
and freed Turkey from the perils of WWI, which augmented his international reputation. He
became the main force behind the establishment of the Turkish Republic based on national
sovereignty. Moreover, he started a full-fledged reform program. Among his reforms were
the abolition of the Sultanate, the Caliphate religious convents and titles. The civil code,
the Latin script replacing the Arabic script, unification of education were introduced under
his leadership. The Great Speech that he delivered in 1927 also tells what he achieved. The
Six Principles, known as Republicanism, Secularism, Nationalism, Populism, Statism, and
Revolutionism best characterize his ideas which still prevail in Turkey even after his death in
1938.
Learn and understand Mustafa Kemal Atatürk’s ideas and

LO 2 ideals by providing examples from his Speech (Nutuk)
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk delivered a thirty-six-and-a-half-hour Speech (Nutuk) in 1927. The

Speech reported past events and explained the circumstances after WWI. It started with
his landing at Samsun in 1919. He explained why he opposed to be under the protection
of England and the United States of America. He went on explaining the role of national
congresses. In other words, he gave an extensive account of the national struggle, which was
not only military but also political. In the Speech, he also talked about measures to finance
the War, the Constitution of 1921, the abolition of Sultanate, the treaty of Lausanne in 1923,
and the abolition of the Caliphate. He stressed the role of the TGNA the idea that sovereignty
belongs to the nation; unconditional sovereignty was vested in the nation with no reservation.
He said that only by attaining independence, would the Turkish nation be able to live in honor
and dignity. Mustafa Kemal also explained facts about the internal enemies who presented a
great danger to the Turkish Republic. He ended his Speech by leaving his legacy, Turkish
Independence and the Turkish Republic, to the Turkish youth. That is to say, he wished the
Turkish youth to protect and defend both; he clearly set his hopes on the youth.
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Understand the meanings of the six arrows that also became

LO 3 the main tenets of the Turkish Republic
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk found a new political party, the Republican People’s Party, which was
established in 1923. He published the party program called the nine articles (dokuz umde)
during the elections for the Second Grand Assembly. The Six Principles/Arrows were formulated
by Mustafa Kemal. They are known as Republicanism, Secularism, Nationalism, Populism
Statism, and Revolutionism. Republicanism like other principles were born of the realities
of Turkey. In Atatürk’s mind, the Republic was made by people for people. Republicans thus
expected the people’s interests to overlap with those of the Republic’s. National sovereignty
Summary
was key to Republicanism. The principle of the national sovereignty was in the composition
of the laws for all types of organizations, for all the details of the administration, public
education, and the sphere of economics. Secularism was another principle. The character of
the new Turkish state was organized to be secular, which was important to create a modern,
democratic independent nation. For the national political community, a secular rather
than a religious justification was sought. Secularism promoted reason rather than dogmas
and superstitions. Secular reforms, such as abolishing the Caliphate, removing the Ministry
of Sharia, introducing the hat reform and the civil code, adopting the Gregorian calendar,
replacing the Arabic script with the Latin script, making Sunday the weekly holiday, were made
to catch up with the civilized world. Nationalism meant to have an independent country free
from any foreign influence and domination. In this principle, it was never acceptable to divide
the fatherland under any constraint or condition. For Atatürk, independence referred to not
just political independence, but also financial, economic, military, and cultural independence.
Moreover, in Statism, the state took its place as an entrepreneur in economic life. This was
resorted to since there was no time for individual entrepreneurs to accumulate capital for
investment. For Atatürk, Statism was the most advanced economic path as it entailed that
the state needed to encourage private enterprises and regulate and supervise them at the same
time. Populism meant that people were the government and the government were the people.
It was not the rule by the elite as it was like in the Sultanate and the Ottoman household.
It rejected the class-based conception of people. It did not deny classes but it was against
the antagonistic relationship between classes. Revolutionism, for Atatürk, meant to make
the country contemporary, civilized, and modern. It meant to close the gap between the
developed and the civilized world. He thus went on replacing old institutions with new ones
to reach the level of the most civilized nations.
Understand Mustafa Kemal Atatürk’s legacy, his place in the

LO 4 world and the present-day Turkey.
Each year, on November 10, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk is commemorated nationwide.

Thousands of people go and visit his mausoleum to pay their respect to Atatürk not only on
November 10, but also during the whole year as he is the founder of the modern, secular, and
civilized state and society. He paved the way for a democratic regime in Turkey and left behind
a structure of democracy which came to full realization in 1950 and onwards. Another legacy
was fighting for the superiority of reason over superstitions. He introduced sweeping reforms.
He became a role model for the third world intelligentsia and leaders as he was an anti-
imperialist. He showed the way to the Turkish nation to reach the level of the civilized world
and he wanted to teach how to make systematic rational thinking. Finally, his statement,
“peace at home, peace in the world” is still valid today.
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4
1 Which of the following is false about Atatürk? 5 The Great Speech was not about the _____ .
A. He was born in Ottoman Salonika in 1881. Which of the following completes the sentense
B. His father was Ali Rıza Efendi and mother was above?
Zübeyde Hanım.
C. He received military education in Salonika, A. role of the TGNA
B. five-year plan
Test Yourself
Damascus, and Istanbul, respectively.
D. He fought at the battle of Dardanelles. C. treaty of Lausanne
E. He delivered his Speech (Nutuk) in 1927. D. Constitution of 1921
E. conditions during the Turkish War of
2 Atatürk did not take an active role in _____ . Independence
Which of the following completes the sentense 6 The party program (dokuz umde) in 1923 did
above? not promise _____ .
A. fighting at the Ottoman-Greek war in 1897 Which of the following completes the sentense
B. introducing the civil code in 1926 above?
C. suppressing the March 31st Incident in 1909
D. taking Bitlis and Muş from the Russians A. the TGNA as the real representative of the
Turkish people
E. founding the Society of Homeland and Freedom
B. popular sovereignty
3 Which one/s of the following is/are supported C. the abolition of the Caliphate
by Atatürk? D. to establish an efficient civil service and
government to serve the people
i. separation of religion from state E. to reduce the period of obligatory military
ii. separation of military from politics service
iii. solving problems with religious solutions
iv. revolutionism 7 Atatürk’s principles did not include _____ .
A. only i B. only ii
C. ii, iii D. iii, iv Which of the following completes the sentense
E. i , ii, iv above?
A. Republicanism B. Revolutionism
4 Which one/s of the following was/were the C. Religiosity D. Populism
major events in Atatürk’s life? E. Statism
i. the battle of Dardanelles, 1915
ii. landing at Samsun, 1919 8 The principle of Secularism was important
iii. resigning from all official duties, 1919 for Atatürk because it meant _____ .
iv. becoming the president of the Republic, Which of the following shows the importance of
1923 Secularism for Mustafa Kemal?
A. only i B. only i and ii
A. To fight with ignorance and superstitions
C. only iii D. only iii and iv
E. i, ii, iii, iv B. To allow individuals to have the right to choose
their religion
C. To create a modern, democratic, independent
nation
D. To catch up with the civilized world
E. All of the above
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4
9 Which of the following did not take place 10 Who was inspired by Atatürk?
during Atatürk’s time?
A. The sanjak of Alexandretta (Hatay)’s unification i. Mohammed Iqbal
with Turkey ii. Jawaharlal Nehru
B. Achieving full control of the straits with iii. Martin Luther
Montreux Treat iv. İsmail Gaspıralı
Test Yourself
C. Founding People’s Houses A. i B. i, iii

D. İnitiating Turkish Historical Society C. ii D. iii, iv
E. The abolition of the Sultanate and the Caliphate E. ii, iii, iv
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4
1. C 6. C
If your answer is wrong, please re-read the If your answer is wrong, please re-read the
section entitled “Atatürk’s Background.” first part of the section entitled “Principles.”
If your answer is wrong, please re-read the

2. A 7. C

section entitled “Atatürk’s Background,” If your answer is wrong, please re-read the
and sub-section, “secularism” under one of sub-section entitled “Principles.”
the main sections, “Principles.”
3. E 8. E
If your answer is wrong, please re-read the If your answer is wrong, please re-read the
section entitled “Atatürk’s Background.” sub-section entitled “Principles.”
4. E 9. A If your answer is wrong, please re-read the

sub-section entitled “Secularism” under
section entitled “Atatürk’s Background.”
main section, “Principles.”

5. B 10. C
If your answer is wrong, please re-read the sections “Legacy” and the sub-section “Na-
section entitled “the Speech (Nutuk).” tionalims” under one of the main sections
“Principles.”
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4
What are the major events and achievements in Mustafa

Kemal Atatürk’s life?
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk’s life started in Ottoman Salonika in 1881. He lost

his father at the age of 12 and his mother at the age of 42. His life changed
when he entered the military school. During his education in Monastir, he

became a nationalist. He continued his military education in Istanbul. After
graduating from the War Academy in Istanbul, he entered active military
life. He was also involved in political activities and founded the Society of
Homeland and Freedom, which later merged with the CUP. He supported the
1908 Revolution and took part in the suppression of the March 31 Incident
of 1909, which led to the deposition of Sultan Abdülhamid II. In 1910,
he went to France to monitor the military maneuvers and held some other
military positions until 1913 when he became the military attaché to Sofia.
During WWI, he took an active role at the Dardanelles front, successfully
stopped the Allied land invasion and emerged as a hero. However, The
Ottoman Empire accepted defeated in WWI when Germany surrendered.
The Mudros Armistice, which had serious repercussions for the country
was signed in 1918. The Greek army occupied İzmir with the support of
the British in 1919. Mustafa Kemal left İstanbul and started the national
struggle in Anatolia. He landed at Samsun as the inspector of the Nineth
your turn 1 Army However, he was not interested in overseeing the disarmament of the
army troops as was his official assignment from the Palace. He started to unite
the likeminded nationalists for a national struggle against the invading Allied
forces. His activities displeased the Palace and he was asked to return. Neither
did he return to İstanbul, not did he stay in the army. Instead, he resigned from
his official duties as an Ottoman army officer before the Erzurum Congress
in 1919. He also convened the Sivas Congress in 1919 to unify the national
resistance movements under one roof and to direct them from one center.
Moreover, in January 1920, he made the Ottoman Parliament to adopt the
National Pact, based on the decision at the Erzurum and Sivas Congresses.
Such developments led Istanbul to be occupied by the British in March 1920.
This led to the opening of a new parliament in Ankara, which thereon became
the central authority of the resistance movement. Mustafa Kemal became
the head of the new parliament. When the Turkish War of Independence was
won, the Sultanate was abolished upon Mustafa Kemal’s advice. In 1923, the
Republic was declared and Mustafa Kemal Atatürk became the first president
of the Republic. Until his death in 1938, he preserved his position; he was
re-elected in 1927, 1931, and 1935, respectively. During his fifteen years of
presidency, he introduced many reforms, which aimed at reaching the level
of the civilized world and even beyond that.
150
4
What are the roots of Atatürk’s six principles?
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk’s six principles were primarily derived from the
realities of Anatolian Turkey. For these, he was inspired by the Ottoman
thinkers, such as Namık Kemal, Tevfik Fikret, Ziya Gökalp, Mehmet Emin

Yurdakul, Şehbenderzade Hilmi, and Abdullah Cevdet. Mustafa Kemal
Atatürk was also inspired by the 18th century Enlightenment thinkers,
intellectual and political trends of the late 19th and early 20th century Europe,
such as scientism, materialism, social Darwinism, positivism, Turkism, and
other popular theories. His intellectuality was shaped, for example, by the
your turn 2 works and concepts of Thomas Henry Huxley, H. G. Wells, Gustave Le Bon,
and Ludwig Büchner. Besides, the French Third Republic was his ideal, and
thus its practices and theories on solidarism, secularism, and statism affected
his thinking in his efforts of establishing the principle of the Republicanism.
Moreover, both secularism and nationalism had already been promoted
by the Young Turks in the Ottoman Empire in the 1910s. Secularism in
the 1930s went beyond the Young Turks’ views. Secularism for the young
republic meant separating the state and religion and removing religion from
the public life.
What kind of state and society did Mustafa Kemal Atatürk

seek to create?
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk wanted to create a new Turkish Nation, whose sovereignty
and independence would be unreservedly recognized by the whole world. He
wanted to create a secular, modern and civilized state and society. The true guide
for him was not dogmas and superstitions, but science and technology. National
sovereignty was key to his reforms. In his view, the Caliphate was something
that did not belong to modern times. If a nation wanted salvation and welfare,
it should not be asked from one single person. A nation’s success depended on
uniting and organizing all its power towards one direction.
Dominance and regency cannot be given to anybody with consultation or
dispute. The Turkish nation has taken dominance and regency in its hands
by its uprising. Moreover, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk wanted to create a secular
state and society. Equality was the key to create such a society where any
privileges including religious ones or superiority were dismissed. Secularism
was also important to provide religious freedom. In other words, every adult
your turn 3 in the new Turkish state would be free to chose his/her own faith. Religion
was a bond between God and people alone not to be interfered with. He
thought that religious convents and lodges were sources of fundamentalism
and ignorance, and thus closing them did not mean anything contrary to the
freedom of worship. For these reasons, from 1928 and onwards, the state did
not have a stated official religion and in 1937 secularism was written down in
the constitution. In addition, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk emphasized the Turkish
independence. He wanted the Turkish nation to live in honor and dignity,
which, in his opinion, could only be attained by independence. According to
him, independence did not mean only political independence. Complete and
full independence meant thereby unlimited independence: political, economic,
legal, military, cultural, and the rest. Moreover, he defended a government by
the people rather than by the elite and thus supported the idea of “sovereignty
belongs to the nation/people” that became one of the main pillars of the new
constitution and the new Republican regime.
151
4
References
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Republic: The emergence of the Turkish nation from Retrieved from http://atam.gov.tr/wp-
1789 to the present, (D. H. Mursaloğlu Trans.). content/uploads/KAYNAKÇALI-ATATÜRK-
New York, NY: New York University Press. GÜNLÜĞÜ1.pdf
Atakuman, Ç. (2008). Cradle or crucible: Anatolia Mango, A. (2002). Atatürk: The biography of the
and archeology in the early years of the Turkish founder of Modern Turkey. New York, NY: The
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Mango, A. (2002). Atatürk. In R. Kasaba (Ed.), The
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Atatürk, M. K. (2005). The Great Speech. Ankara: Obituaries (n.d). The Atatürk Society of Canada.
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ca/mka/obituaries/
Atataürk’s Speech at the 10th Anniversary of the Turkish
Republic (n.d). Atatürk Society of America. Ozankaya, Ö. (2001). Atatürk’s legacy views by world-
Retrieved from http://www.ataturksociety.org/ famous intellectuals. Ankara: Ministry of Culture.
about-ataturk/ataturks-speech-at-the-10th-
Oğuzcan, Ü. (n.d). I am dreaming of Atatürk.
anniversary-of-the-turkish-republic/
Retrieved from http://theataturksocietyofcanada.
Atay, F. R. (1982). The Atatürk that I knew: Istanbul, ca/the-wisdom/poems-for-ataturk/
Yapı ve Kredi Bankası.
Ökten, N. (2007). An endless death and an eternal
Berkes, N. (1964). The development of secularism in mourning: November 10 in Turkey. In E. Özyürek
Turkey. Montreal: McGill University Press. (Ed.), The politics of public memory in Turkey (pp.
95-113). Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.
Darnadyova, M. (2006). Comparison of the use
of mythology in the works of Ziya Gökalp and Özdemir, F. (Ed.). (2008). Sarışın bir kurt . İstanbul:
Mehmet Emin Yurdakul, considereing their Kırmızı Yayınları.
contribution to national identity building. Asian
Parla, T., Davidson, A. (2004). Corporatist ideology in
and African Studies 2, 167-184. https://www.sav.
Kemalist Turkey: Progress or order? Syracuse, NY:
sk/journals/uploads/020314084_Darnadyova.pdf
Syracuse University Press.
Dural, B. (2007). His story: Mustafa Kemal and Turkish
Shaw, S. J., Shaw, Kural. E. (1977). History of the
revolution. Lincoln: iUniverse, Inc.
Ottoman Empire and modern Turkey: reform,
Bakay, G., Pekcan , L. (Eds). (2017). Memorable revolution and republic: The rise of modern Turkey,
encounters with Atatürk. Frankfurt: Peter Lang 1808-1975. Cambridge: Cambridge University
GmbH. Press.
Hanioğlu, M. Ş. (2011). Atatürk: An intellectual Sherrill, C. H. (1934). A year’s embassy to Mustafa
biography. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Kemal. New York, NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons.
Heper, M. (2012). Kemalism/Atatürkism. In M. Turan, Ş. (2004). Mustafa Kemal Atatürk: Kendine
Heper & S. Sayarı (Eds.), The Routledge handbook özgü bir yaşam ve kişilik. Istanbul: Bilgi Yayınevi.
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Volkan, V. D., Itzkowitz, N. (1984). The immortal
York: Routledge.
Atatürk: A psychobiography. Chicago, Ill.: The
İnalcık, H. (2008). Atatürk ve Atatürkçülük. In F. University of Chicago Press.
Özdemir (Ed.), Sarışın bir kurt (pp. 13-98).
Yalçın, E. S., Güler, A. (2000). Atatürk: Hayatı,
Istanbul: Kırmızı Yayınları.
düşünceleri ve kişiliği, 1881 Selanik-1918 İstanbul,
Karaömerlioğlu, M. A. (1998). The people’s houses Vol.1. Ankara: Berikan.
and the cult of the peasant in Turkey. Middle
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(n.d). Retrieved from https://ataturktoday.com/
Kinross, P. (1978). Ataturk: A biography of Mustafa AtaturkWorldPressLeadersTribute.htm
Kemal: Father of modern Turkey. New York, New
York: William Morrow.
152
4
Further Reading
Atabaki, E., Zürcher, J. (Eds.). (2004). Men of order: Quotations from Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1982). (Y. Öz
Authoritarian modernization under Atatürk and Tr.). From an originals compilation by Akil Aksan.
Reza Shah. London: I. B. Tauris. Ankara: Ministry of Foreign Affairs Republic of
Turkey on the Occasion of Atatürk’s Centenary.
Barlas, D. (1998). Etatism and diplomacy in Turkey,
1929-1939: Economic and foreign policy strategies Said, A. M., Thabit, K. K. (2011). The life of Mustafa
in an uncertain world. Leiden: Brill. Kemal Pasha the Turkish national struggle in
Anatolia, (C. Akaş Tr.). Istanbul: Doğan Egmont
Bozdoğan, S. (2001). Modernism and nation building:
Yayıncılık.
Turkish architectural culture in the early republic.
Seattle, Wa.: University of Washington Press. Sheldon, G. W. (2000). Jefferson and Atatürk: Political
philosophies. New York, NY: P. Lang.
İğdemir, U. (1978). Atatürk ve Anzaklar: Atatürk and
the Anzacs. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu. Sonyel, S. R. (1989). Atatürk: the founder of modern
Turkey. Ankara: Atatürk Supreme Council for
Kazancıgil, A., Özbudun, E. (1997). Atatürk founder
Culture, Language and History Publications of
of a modern state. London: Hurst & Company.
Turkish Historical Society.
Kili, S. (2011). The Atatürk revolution: A paradigm of
The reforms of Atatürk: Essays written to commemorate
modernization. İstanbul: Türkiye İşbankası Kültür
the 50th anniversary of the Turkish Republic (1973).
Yayınları.
Istanbul: R.C.D. Cultural Institute.
Okyar, O. (1984). Atatürk’s quest for modernization.
Villalta, J. B. (2014). Atatürk. Ankara: Türk Tarih
In J. Landau (Ed.), Atatürk and the modernization
Kurumu.
of Turkey. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Zürcher, E. J. (2010). Young Turk legacy and nation
Okyar, O., Yalçın, A., Hiç, M. (Eds.). (1981). Atatürk
building: From the Ottoman Empire to Atatürk’s
and Turkey of Republican era. Ankara: Union of
Turkey. London: I.B. Tauris.
the Chambers of Commerce, Industry, Maritime
and Commodity Exchanges of Turkey.
153
Turkish Foreign Policy
Chapter 5 During the Atatürk Era
Learning Outcomes
identify the major objectives and principles in
1 Turkish Foreign Policy following the Lausanne

Peace Treaty,
2 explain the Major International Challenges for
Turkey in the 1920s,
comprehend Turkey’s Foreign Policy in the recognize Turkey’s Contribution to World
3
1930s and her Active Participation in the Peace and Turkey’s Membership in the League
Regional Politics: The Balkan Entente (Pact)
and The Sadabad Pact,
4 of Nations and other international pacts and
organizations.
Key Terms
Chapter Outline Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
Introduction Lausanne
Turkish Foreign Policy during the Post-Lausanne Turkish Republic
Period: Major International Challenges in the 1920s League of Nations
International Efforts to Preserve Peace in the Mosul
Interwar Period: 1920 and 1930 Population Exchange
Turkey’s Foreign Policy in the 1930s and her Active Ottoman Debts
Participation in the Regional Politics and Peace: Alexandretta Question
The Balkan Entente and the Sadabad Pact Convention of Montreux
Adherence to Law and Turkey’s Contribution to Balkan Entente
World Peace and its Rewards Sadabad Pact
International Court of Justice
154
INTRODUCTION
Signing the Lausanne Peace Treaty, Turkey Appeasement is the foreign policy of making
secured peace and earned back the international concessions to the dictatorial power in order
recognition that the Ottoman Empire had lost to avoid conflict. This was a policy followed
from the late 18th century onward. The important by Britain and France during the 1930s.
task that Turkey needed to do was to keep peace in
order to be able to realize economic, legal and social
restructuring. Thus, Turkey pursued a peaceful Moreover, Turkish governments contributed to
foreign policy since 1924, which has facilitated all agreements that geared to keep the status quo in
her recognition and gained her respect even from order to keep peace in the World. Mustafa Kemal
her former enemies. The compliance the Turkish (Atatürk) set Turkey’s foreign policy on the motto
governments showed to the provisions of the “peace at home peace at world” and established
Lausanne Peace Treaty received great appreciation friendly relations with the neighboring countries as
from the world. Despite this, Turkey was put to test well as with former enemies such as France, the Great
many times to defend her national unity and her Britain, Italy and Greece. Turkey established relations
national borders against the imperialist claims of with other countries on the bases of cooperation,
the Great powers. In such cases, the Great Britain mutual benefits, friendship, and non-aggression
took Mosul, claiming it as part of Iraq, while the to keep herself away from danger. In this manner,
latter under the British mandate and France took Turkey contributed to the Balkan Pact in 1934 and
the Sandjak of Alexandretta (İskenderun Sancağı the Sadabad Pact in 1937 forming peaceful alliance
with neighboring countries. Thus, Turkey was invited
in Turkish, hereafter the Sandjak of İskenderun)
to join the League of Nations in 1932 and became a
claiming it as part of Syria although it was in fact
member of international organizations since Turkish
under the French Mandate. Turkey also resisted
governments complied with international laws and
against the aggressive policies of the Great powers
tried to solve problems that had been left unsolved in
when the belligerents of World War I went into
the Lausanne Peace Treaty.
disputes on the border and compensation issues
after the peace treaties signed in the Paris Peace
Conference (1919-1920). However, although the THE TURKISH FOREIGN POLICY
belligerents held various meetings in the 1920s as DURING THE POST-LAUSANNE
in the example of Locarno Meetings (1925), signed PERIOD: MAJOR INTERNATIONAL
treaties, established international contracts and CHALLENGES IN THE 1920s
organizations to solve their problems, these efforts
Turkey’s foreign policy was determined at the
did not work because, the great powers preserved
beginning of the Turkish War of Independence by
their shares in the colonies, and Britain and France
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Important decisions
wanted to protect the status quo in Europe.
pertaining to foreign policy were taken during
Nevertheless, Germany and Italy disagreed with
Erzurum and Sivas congresses prior to the opening
these policies of status quo and their aggressive of the Turkish Grand National Assembly (hereafter
policies initiated tensions that would lead Europe TGNA). Among the decisions taken during the
into a new war despite the establishment of the Erzurum Congress, the article that stated “the entire
League of Nations in 1919 to solve international country within its national frontiers is an undivided
problems. During the 1920s and the 1930s, Turkey whole” was the answer to the land claims of the
became an active opponent of “Appeasement” and Allied Powers and former Ottoman minorities.
still supported the League of Nations’ policy of Moreover, the rejection of a mandate regime and of
collective security. This was important in the sense the Great Powers’ protectorate at the Sivas Congress
that it would put Turkey among modern civilized was also another response to the Allies. All these
countries and reinforce the power of the state. decisions formed the bases of the National Pact
that determined the principles of the foreign policy.
155
Turkish Foreign Policy During the Atatürk Era
Consequently, the government used the National The Lausanne Peace Conference at this point
Pact as her basis at the London Conference in 1921 was the turning point in Turkey’s foreign policy.
as well as in Treaty of Ankara and Treaty of Kars signed The Turkish delegation headed by İsmet Pasha
in 1921 with minor changes. The National Pact (İnönü), the Minister of Foreign Affair of the
was the red line drawn during and even after the TGNA, had difficult time at Lausanne since the
Turkish War of Independence. For example, during the representatives of the Entente tried to impose
İzmir Economic Congress, it was declared that, “the their imperial claims on Turkey. However, Turkey
TGNA will accept technical, industrial and economic achieved to have most of her terms accepted in
assistance that will help achieve the humanitarian the conference by the diplomatic finesse of İsmet
as well as the objectives of Turkish people if it is Pasha. In this conference, the territorial integrity of
not against the integrity and independence of the Turkish Republic as specified by the National Pact
country” (Ökçün, 1997, p.220). From the very was confirmed with the exception of Mosul. This
beginning, Mustafa Kemal determined Turkey’s issue will be discussed in the following sections. In
main foreign policy objectives as being recognized as addition to Mosul, there were also other issues left
a sovereign entity and being depended on a realist to be solved after Lausanne such as the Ottoman
foreign policy within the framework of the National debts, the Straits and the population exchange that
Pact. This foreign was also a realistic one; adherence Greece put on the negotiation table. These issues
to international law, foreign relations on a solid basis were all solved peacefully after Turkey, Greece, and
and “Peace at home and peace at World”. With all Italy ratified the Lausanne Peace Treaty on August
these principles and expectations, Turkey also wanted 23, 1923; on August 25, 1923; and on March
to become a source of inspiration to the oppressed 12, 1924, respectively. However, Japan ratified the
nations of the World. Lausanne Peace Treaty on May 15, 1924, and the
Great Britain on July 16, 1924. Finally, the treaty
attention became effective on August 6, 1924 after all the
approved documents were collected in Paris.
Mustafa Kemal explained his ideas on national and While the Turkish government was busy
international policy as solving these issues, the unsolved problems among
the belligerents of World War I, especially the
The political system which we regard as clear and tension between Germany and France maintained
fully realizable is our national policy. In view of the for centuries, caused polarization in Europe and
general conditions in the world at present no greater increased tension not only in Europe but also
mistake could be made than that of being a utopian. in the Mediterranean region. Moreover, Italy’s
This is borne out in history, and it is the expression aggressive policies in the Mediterranean region
of science, reason and common sense. In order for and the ideological approaches of the Soviet Russia
our nation to able [to] live a happy, strenuous, and (known as USSR) in the international relations also
permanent life, it is necessary that the State pursue contributed to the rising tension in Europe. Even
an exclusively national policy and that this policy be the League of Nations could not offer solutions
in perfect agreement with our internal organization for that. Meanwhile, the Turkish Republic under
and be based on it. When I speak of national policy, the leadership of President Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
I meant it in this sense: To work within our national tried to decrease tension by establishing friendly
boundaries for the real happiness and welfare of the relations on mutual benefit and by contributing
nation and the country by, above all, relying on our to world peace with adherence to the resolutions
own strength in order to retain our existence. We must of the League of Nations, which was founded
not let people follow fictitious aims of whatever nature in 1919 to protect the peace after World War I.
which can only bring them misfortune; we expect Turkey’s adherence to the resolutions was better
from the civilized world civilized human treatment, tested in the aforementioned issues such as Mosul,
friendship based on mutuality. (A Speech Delivered by the Ottoman debts, the Straits, and the population
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, 1981, pp.379-380). exchange between Greece and Turkey together
with the Question of Alexandretta Sandjak (the
Sandjak of İskenderun) or known as “Hatay
156
Sorunu” (Hatay Question) in Turkey. This former (Hale, 2013, p.43). Hence, upon the Turkish
Ottoman Sandjak had become autonomous under request a temporary border (called the Brussels
the Article 7 of the Treaty of Ankara signed with Line) was drawn between Iraq and Turkey on
France in 1921. The Sandjak of İskenderun later October 31, 1924 by the League and both states
became part of the Turkish Republic through a promised not to violate the border (Coşar and
series of events beginning in 1937 and solved in Demirci, 2006, p.126).
1939 after Mustafa Kemal had passed away in
1938, which would have made him happy since it
was his efforts that ensured this outcome. William
Hale explains that Mustafa Kemal tried “…to
reconstruct the Turkish state on quite untraditional
lines – as a secular republic, committed to modernism
and a Turkish-ethnic rather than Muslim identity,
with himself as President. This outcome was basically
determined on the battlefield, not at the conference
table…” (Hale, 2013, p.31).
The Mosul Question and the Frontier

Picture 5.1 Mosul as an Ottoman Vilayat
Treaty of 1926
Source: http://terra-image.com/melihat-akibat-perang-
Mosul, a city in modern day Iraq was once
di-mosul
one of the Ottoman provinces (vilayat of Mosul).
The Following World War I, the British Army
occupied the city, which was against the terms of
the Armistice of Moudros. Mosul became part of
the British share when the Sykes-Picot Treaty (one
of the secret war agreements of World War I) was
signed, and Britain accepted a mandate over Iraq
at the San Remo Conference in 1920. Britain also
created the Kingdom of Iraq with King Faisal as
its ruler in 1921. The Turkish government brought
this matter to the attention of the Allies during
the Lausanne Peace Conference. However, when
Britain insisted on the idea that Mosul belonged
to Iraq, which she claimed on behalf of this new Picture 5.2 The Brussels Line drawn between Iran and
kingdom that she created, there was no agreement Turkey
on the problem. Therefore, this issue would be Source: http://www.shlama.be/shlama/content/
settled within nine months by direct negotiations view/164/140/
between Turkey and Britain. Both sides met at the
Golden Horn Conference (Haliç Konferansı) in
İstanbul on May 19, 1924 (Coşar and Demirci, Then, the League awarded Mosul to Iraq in
2006, p.126). However, neither Britain not July 1925. Not surprisingly Britain accepted this
Turkey agreed on terms and decided to refer this transfer, while Turkey asked the case be transferred
issue to the League of Nations, of which Turkey to The Permanent Court of International Justice at
was not a member. Britain brought the case to the The Hague for advisory opinion. She was dubious
attention of the League in September 1924 and a about the authority of the Council, and she wanted
commission of enquiry was set up to investigate if to avoid tension with Britain. The Permanent
Turkish claims were justified when they said most Court of International Justice approved the
people in Mosul asked for the Turkish rule. In the League’s decision about granting Vilayet of Mosul
end, the commission rejected the Turkish claims to Iraq in November 1925.
157
Prior to the decision made by the international attention

authorities, Britain tried to create tension in the
Turkish regions close to the border with Iraq in
“According to the Frontier Treaty, Article 14 stipulates
1924 and 1925. They even provoked the Kurds
that the Iraqi government shall pay the Turkish
in Eastern Anatolia in February 1925, Şeyh Sait
government ten percent on all royalties it would receive
Rebellion, against the Turkish government in
over the following twenty-five years as of March 14 1925;
order to weaken Ankara’s diplomatic position in
the following are the relevant articles from the Treaty.
the Mosul question. Moreover, the British Air
Force bombarded the Turkish city of Suleymaniye 2. from such companies or persons as may exploit
in August 1923, and this caused the death of 37 oil under the provisions of Article 6 of the above-
people. The British attacks against Turkey, in fact, mentioned concession;
signaled her concerns about a possible declaration 3. from such subsidiary companies as may be
of war by Turkey to take Mosul back especially constituted under the provisions of article 33 of the
after signing a Friendship Treaty with the Soviet above-mentioned concession.”
Russia in 1925. (Coşar and Demirci, 2006, p.127).
Additionally, the League of Nations, passed
another resolution putting Mosul under the control
of the British mandate in December 1925 for
twenty-five years. Turkey had to accept this decision
hopelessly by signing the Frontier and Friendship
1
Treaty with Britain and Iraq on June 6, 1926. This
treaty was extended in the name of friendship on What might be the main obstacles, which
December 8, 1936 (Soysal, 1989, p.308). By this prevented Turkey to take Mosul back?
treaty, Turkey had to “give up her territorial claims
on the Vilayet of Mosul, but insisted that she would
have a share in the Turkish Petroleum Company”. The Greek and Turkish Population
According to this treaty, Iraq retained Mosul, and Exchange
the Brussels Line became the permanent border
Turkish nationalism was not hostile to
between Iraq and Turkey, and 10% of Iraq’s oil
neighboring countries even toward those countries
was allocated to Turkey for 25 years (Coşar and
with whom the nation had fought recently. The
Demirci, 2006, p.127). As part of the treaty, the
main objective was always to cooperate for mutual
Iraqi government granted concession to the Turkish
benefits. The Turkish-Greek relations after the
Petroleum Company (TPC) on March 14, 1925.
Turkish War of Independence can be given as an
This Iraq based company was renamed the Iraq example to this objective. For example, during
Petroleum Company (IPC) in 1929. It accepted to the Lausanne Peace Conference, Greece asked for
pay “ten per cent royalty payments to Turkey” and a population exchange, which was not something
the IPC’s payments to the Iraqi government started that Turkey was willing to do, but had to accept.
in 1931(Coşar and Demirci, 2006, p.128). Finally, After long debates, Greece and Turkey signed the
Mosul was lost to Iraq, while it was under the convention of “Concerning the Exchange of Greek
British mandate and stayed as such until the 1930s. and Turkish Populations” comprising 19 articles
The tense relations between Turkey and Britain during the first phase of this conference on January
took a different form in 1939 when the Italian 30, 1923 (Hirschon, 2004, p.6). This issue with
expansionist policies concerning the Mediterranean Greece became one of Turkey’s main foreign policy
region created tension. As a result, Britain had to concerns during the late 1920s because there
come to terms with Turkey, and an alliance was were serious disputes between Greece and Turkey
signed between Turkey and Britain in 1939 both to following Lausanne. Article 1 of the Convention
prevent a Turkish-Italian accord and to have an ally read, “as from the 1st May, 1923, there shall take
to be used against Italy in the region. place a compulsory exchange of Turkish nationals of
158
the Greek Orthodox religion established in Turkish territory, and of Greek nationals of the Moslem religion
established in Greek territory” (League of Nations, Treaty Series, 1925, p.77). Thousands of Greeks who had
fled from İzmir to Greece during the last days of the Turkish War of Independence were not mentioned
in the Convention, and this caused long disputes. Moreover, Article 2 of the Convention specified who
would not be included in the exchange. They were
the Greek inhabitants of Istanbul who resided
there before October 30, 1918, and the Muslim
inhabitants of Western Thrace “in the region to
the east of the frontier line laid down in 1913
by the Treaty of Bucharest.” (League of Nations,
Treaty Series, 1925, p.77). According to the
Convention, both Greeks and Turks who were to
be exchanged “shall not return to live in Turkey or
Greece respectively without the authorization of the
Turkish Government or of the Greek Government
respectively” (League of Nations, Treaty Series, 1925,
p.77). Moreover, this convention also confirmed
the refugee status of an additional more than one
Picture 5.3 The bitter results of population exchange million people displaced since the Balkan Wars of
Source: https://sureshemre.wordpress.com/2010/12/11/ 1912-1913” (Yıldırım, 2006, p.45).
salonika-you-are-on-my-mind
Picture 5.4 Population exchange from both sides of the Aegean

Source: http://www.coveringmedia.com/movie/2014/03/from-both-sides-of-the-aegean.html
Turkey ratified this Convention at the same time as the Lausanne Peace Treaty on August 23, 1923
and Greece on August 25, 1923, and it was put into practice on January 27, 1925 (League of Nations,
Treaty Series, 1925, p.77). The League of Nations was also involved in this matter soon, and a “mixed
commission, consisting of Turks, Greeks, and three neutral members, was set up by the League of Nations
to supervise the transfer.” The Turkish government was not happy about this involvement, though (Güçlü,
2003, p.192). When the Convention became effective, approximately 700,000 people were removed from
their native soil and made refugees by virtue of the Exchange Convention.
159
attention
The Articles of the convention of “Concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations”;
Article 1: As from the 1st May, 1923, there shall take place a compulsory exchange of Turkish nationals
of the Greek Orthodox religion established in Turkish territory, and of Greek nationals of the Moslem
religion established in Greek territory.
These persons shall not return to live in Turkey or Greece respectively without the authorization of
the Turkish Government or of the Greek Government, respectively.
Article 2: The following persons shall not be included in the exchange provided for in
Article 1. a) The Greek inhabitants of Constantinople (Istanbul). b) The Moslem inhabitants of
Western Thrace. All Greeks who were already established before October 30, 1918, within the areas
under the Prefecture of the City of Constantinople, as defined by the law of 1912, shall be considered
as Greek inhabitants of Constantinople. Moslems established in the region to the east of the frontier
line laid down in 1918 by the Treaty of Bucharest shall be considered as Moslem inhabitants of
Western Thrace.
Article 3: Those Greeks and Moslems who have already, and since October 18, 1912, left the territories
the Greek and Turkish inhabitants of which are to be respectively exchanged, shall be considered as
included in the exchange provided for in Article 1.
The expression “emigrant” in the present Convention includes all physical and juridical persons who
have been obliged to emigrate or have emigrated since October 18, 1912.
Article 4: All able-bodied men belonging to the Greek population, whose families have already left the
Turkish territory, and who are now detained in Turkey, shall constitute the first instalment of Greeks
sent to Greece in accordance with the present Convention.
Article 5: Subject to the provisions of Articles 9 and 10 of the present Convention, the rights of
property and monetary assets of Greeks in Turkey or Moslems in Greece shall not be prejudiced in
consequence of the exchange to be carried out under the present Convention (League of Nations,
Treaty Series, 1925, p.77, 79).
Meanwhile, on the heyday of the discussions on disputes between the two countries. The property
the population exchange, other disputes between issue was still on the agenda and even caused
Greece and Turkey materialized. Two of these bitter discussions until it was solved in 1930
disputes were about the expulsion of the Orthodox after Eleftherios Venizelos was elected the Prime
Patriarch Constantine from Turkey in 1924 and Minister of Greece in February of the same year.
the properties left from the Greeks in Turkey. The He “launched an unexpected initiative, telling the
Orthodox Patriarchate was a political and social Greek parliament that he believed that Turkey
organization of the Greek-Orthodox community in was a peace-loving country, which would not
the Ottoman Empire. The expulsion of the Patriarch attack Greece…” and this speech normalized the
was protested by Greece. However, when Basil relations. The Turkish government was appeased
Georgiadis succeeded Constantine as the Patriarch from this approach and the talks on the properties
of the Orthodox people in Turkey in May 1925, the restarted, and this issue was finally solved by an
problem was solved and this succession provided agreement signed in June 1930. This agreement
the conditions for normal diplomatic relations. The also created friendly relations between Greece and
exchange of ambassadors between the two countries Turkey. İsmet İnönü, the Turkish Prime Minister,
started in the summer of 1925. invited Venizelos, “the Greek premier, Turkey’s
The properties of the Greeks who left İzmir former arch-enemy” to Turkey (Hale, 2013, p.43).
during the latter days of the Independence Moreover, the Greek-Turkish Economic Pact
War and the Greeks who were later sent and including the three protocols of the Friendship
the properties of the Turks in Greece who were Message, the Trade and Residence Agreement and the
subjected to the population exchange caused long Nautical Protocol signed on June 10, 1930 “after
160
the Venizelos government agreed to pay 425,000 agreed to keep neutrality in case any disagreement
sterling to Turkey” to compensate the Turks for between one of them with another country (League
restoring to the Greeks the lands they had taken over of Nations, Treaty Series, 1931-1932, p.11). Both sides
in İstanbul (Hatzivassiliou, 1998, p.91). However, also agreed to solve the problems with conciliation
this decision was protested in Greece on the basis or to bring the problems to the attention of the
of the argument that “the Greek properties left in Permanent Court of International Justice when they
Turkey were worth much more than the Turkish could not find a solution (League of Nations, Treaty
ones left in Greece” and this involved “one-sided, Series, 1931-1932, p.13, 15). For example, Article
concessions on the part of Athens” (Hatzivassiliou, 8 of this treaty affirms, “should a dispute arise before
1998, p.91). Venizelos came Turkey and he was the Parties have nominated a Permanent Conciliation
welcomed during his visits to Ankara and İstanbul in Commission, a Special Conciliation Commission shall
October 1930. Venizelos, his wife Helena, and other be established to investigate the dispute within a period
members of the Greek delegation even joined the of three months from the date on which the request
reception given for the anniversary of the Turkish is addressed by one Party to the other. Nominations
National Holiday October 29, which was the date of shall be made in conformity with the provisions of the
the declaration of the Republican regime. foregoing Article unless otherwise decided by the Parties”
The signing of the Treaty of Friendship, Neutrality, (League of Nations, Treaty Series, 1931-1932, p.15).
Mediation and Arbitration (No. 2841) on October At the same time, a protocol as part of the treaty
30, 1930 (Hale, 2013, p.44) followed this visit. This determined the border between the two countries
treaty provided for the resolution of the bilateral and accepted naval equality and undertook “to effect
disputes over the exchange of populations. Article 1 of no order, acquisition or construction of war units or
the treaty conformed “not to enter into any political armaments, without having notified the other Party
or economic agreement or any alliance directed six months previously” (League of Nations, Treaty
against the other Party”. With Article 2, both sides Series, 1931-1932, p.21).
Picture 5.5 Venizelos with his second wife Elena during the official reception held for the signing of the Greek-
Turkish Treaty of Friendship, Ankara 1930.
Source: http://www.venizelos-foundation.gr/en/4289-2/
Eleftherios Venizelos’s visit to Turkey in October 1930

After signing these treaties and Venizelos’ visit to Turkey, İsmet İnönü paid “a return visit” to
Athens in October 1931, which strengthened the relations between Greece and Turkey. Then both
countries signed another guarantee agreement on September 14, 1933, aimed at promoting the
161
relations of the two countries ‘into a clearly defensive The TGNA government accepted the Ottoman
alliance’. One-step further in Turkish and Greek debts since it claimed itself as the successor to the
relations was the Balkan Entente signed in 1934. The Ottoman Empire but asked the debts to be shared
peaceful relations between the two maintained until among the other successor states as well. Upon the
the 1950s when problems started in Cyprus. the TGNA’s rejection to assume total responsibility
for the Ottoman debt, the total was shared among
16 Ottoman successor states. Moreover, the TGNA
government refused to accept the Muharrem Decree,
2 and thus no provisions were made in Lausanne for
What were the important steps taken in solving its restoration. There has never been a question of
the problems between Turkey and Greece after the its restoration since.
Turkish War of Independence? After long negotiations in Lausanne, the
debt of the Ottoman Empire was “evaluated as
Ottoman Debts 129.4 million Turkish Liras (about 106.000.000
Mosul was not the only issue left unsolved Sterling) and the annual payments as 8.66 million
from Lausanne. The status of the Public Debt liras, with the Turkish Republic’s share being 84.6
Commission and the monetary value of the and 5.8 million liras, respectively” (Shaw &Shaw,
Ottoman debts were also among the hot debates 2002, p.367). However, this amount was still a
of the Lausanne Peace Conference, and these issues considerable amount for Turkey, and the Turkish
were left out of the Lausanne Peace Treaty. The governments rejected this amount set by the treaty
Ottoman government did not abolish the Public and did not pay the debts until 1929 since the
Debt Commission, which was established with meetings continued with the related parties about
an imperial decree called Muharrem Kararnamesi payment responsibilities. Finally, the League of
in 1881. It allocated the Ottoman revenues to Nations got involved in this matter and “the Turkish
the Commission to honor debt payments to the debt was reduced to 8 million gold liras (80 million
European creditors (lenders), during World War I. liras) and the annual payments to 700.000 gold liras
(7 million paper liras) starting to be paid in 1933”
(Shaw & Shaw, 2002, p.367). These payments
continued until May 25, 1954 until the last bonds
Muharrem Kararnamesi was an Ottoman Imperial
were liquidated.
Decree promulgated on December 20, 1881
(28 Muharrem 1299) by the Ottoman Sultan
Abdülhamid II for the establishment of the Public Turkish Relations with Former
Debt Commission. The decree was co-named with Enemies, Neighboring States, and
month in which it was accepted: Muharrem, one Other States
of the months of the Lunar Calendar used by The
The Turkish governments in the 1920s and
Ottoman Empire and the Islamic world.
1930s put time and energy to solve the problems
that remained unresolved after the Lausanne peace
When the Allies took over the control in İstanbul meetings. The governments under the leadership of
in 1918 after the Armistice of Mudros, they also Mustafa Kemal tried to establish friendly relations
took over control of the Public Debt Commission with the neighboring countries as well as with the
by appointing their own representatives to former enemies such as France, the Great Britain,
substitute the representatives of the Central Powers Italy, and Greece with whom she has fought in
(Shaw &Shaw, 2002, p.367). When the position various battles. The foreign relations of Turkey were
of the Commission and the Ottoman debts established on the bases of cooperation, mutual
were listed on the agenda of the Lausanne Peace benefit, friendship and non-aggression since the
Conference, it caused endless discussions, and after winners and losers of World War I were divided
the conference, it was decided that the question into camps as pro-status quo or anti-revisionist
needed to be solved among the concerned parties and revisionist. The countries who favored pro-
to whom the Ottoman Empire had been indebted, status quo or anti-revisionist position wanted to
162
preserve the peace terms determined at the Paris the Armistice of Moudros (Atabaki, 2006, p.4). A
Peace Conference (1919-1920). The revisionist coup d’état in February 1921 under the leadership
countries, however, favored changes in the peace of a Cossack officer Reza Khan removed the Qajar
terms in their favor, and they pursued expansionist regime in Iran. Then, Reza Khan became the first
policies. Although Turkey had many issues unsolved monarch of the Pahlavi Dynasty in Iran (Ataei
in Lausanne, she was on the pro-status quo camp and Monavari, 2013, p.122). Iran recognized
and tried to solve her issues in peaceful terms and the TGNA government as an independent state
means. For example, the Mosul Question was a on June 22, 1922 and sent Mofakhan Eshag as
turning point in the relations between Britain and ambassador to Ankara. In return, Turkey sent
Turkey where a mutual respect and understanding Muhittin Pasha as ambassador to Tehran on
occurred between the two countries following the February 7, 1923 (Soysal, 1989, p.274). They also
signing of the Treaty of Friendship in 1930. signed the Treaty of Friendship on April 22, 1926
Turkey has also tried to determine its land in Tehran. The treaty stipulated that both Turkey
borders with the other neighboring states while the and Iran would agree to friendship, neutrality,
Mosul issue was negotiated with the Great Britain. and nonaggression toward each other. The two
Turkey already established a close relationship with countries also agreed for possible joint actions
the Soviet Russia in 1921 during the Turkish War of against the groups in the territories of both which
Independence. As a matter of fact, the cooperation would try to disturb peace and security or change
between Turkey and the Soviet Russia was the government of either country, Articles 2, 4 and
established when the Greek occupation started in 6 (Soysal, 1989, p.276). The threat mentioned in
1919 and continued throughout the Turkish War of this treaty meant not only the states in the region
Independence. The Bolshevik regime provided the but also the Kurdish tribes who lived along the
TGNA with military aid and international support border between Iran and Turkey and raided both
to help confront the advancing Greek army. This countries. Moreover, because of the mutual desire
friendship was strengthened when Turkey and to firm the economic relations, additional articles
Soviet Russia signed the Treaty of Neutrality and of solidarity were written in the Friendship Treaty
Friendship on December 17, 1925 (Hale, 2013, on June 15, 1928 covering economic cooperation,
p.35, 43). mutual protection and understanding in cases of
aggression towards one of the countries (Soysal,
Turkey also signed a friendship treaty with
1989, p.279).
Iran, another neighboring state, on April 22,
1926. The relation between Iran and Turkey had Afghanistan was also another country with
been quite moderate from the late 18th to early which Turkey had established close relations
20th century until the Ottoman forces occupied during the Turkish War of Independence. After
southern Iran in the early days of World War I receiving independence from Britain in 1919, she
and the Ottoman armies moved to western Iran. worked toward establishing good relations with
However, following the Ottoman defeat in the Soviet Russia and the TGNA. She was the second
war, Iranian territories occupied by the Ottomans country after Soviet Russia to recognize Ankara
were taken over by the British Army in 1919 to government as the representative of Turkey by
enforce the terms of the Armistice of Moudros. signing Turkey-Afghanistan Alliance Agreement
In fact, Iran was under occupation in the north on March 1, 1921. Following the signature of
(Azerbaijan) by Russia since 1911 and in the this Agreement, Afghanistan opened its Embassy
south by Britain since 1917 despite the fact that in Ankara, and Ataturk attended the opening
she declared neutrality in 1914. Upon the Russian ceremony and raised the Afghan flag to the pole
and British occupation, the Ottoman forces also himself. These treaties provided Turkey with the
occupied western and northwestern Iran in 1915 opportunity to secure land frontiers with the
(Atabaki, 2006, p.1-2). The Russian Armies neighbors; other friendly countries empowered
withdrew withdrawn following the Russian Turkey in her endeavors in the international
Revolution in 1917, and the Ottoman Armies arena, and her efforts to resolve the issues left from
withdrew from the west of Iran in 1918 following Lausanne (Soysal, 1989, p.24-26).
163
While signing friendship agreements with the Convention of Friendship and Good Neighborly
neighboring states, Turkey also tried to normalize Relation, with Procés-Verbal of Signature, in Ankara
relations with her former adversaries such as France. on May 30, 1926 (League of Nations, Treaty Series,
The Turkish-French relations had difficulties since 1926-1927, p.197).
the Ottoman period. Capitulations, debts, and Turkey established relations with Italy as
the French claims for Cilicia were the reasons well, but this relation was strained since Italy
behind the problems since the Ottoman period. maintained its colonial intentions toward Turkey,
The French Armies occupied Adana, Antep, and which started in 1911. Italian attacks on Ottoman
Maraş in the aftermath of World War I. Cilicia Tripoli (modern day Libya) caused the Tripoli
was an important source of cotton. Being close to War between the Ottoman Empire and Italy
Gulf of Basra, it was also an important gateway to which ended with the Ottoman defeat. Both sides
Syria and to the trade routes, and to the ports in signed the Treaty of Ouchy on October 18, 1912.
the Mediterranean region. The Turkish National Although Italy agreed to withdraw from the Aegean
Forces expelled the French occupation in the Islands (the Dodecanese), she did not do so. This
period from 1920 to1921 and the French forces was perceived as a continuous threat to Turkey’s
left the National Pact borders by signing the Treaty security. Italy wanted to materialize her claims over
(Accord) of Ankara on October 20, 1921. With not only the Aegean Islands but also over Western
this treaty, France became the first western power Anatolia during and after World War I. Following
to abandon the claims imposed by the Treaty of the war, Italian armies occupied the towns in the
Sèvres and to effectively recognize the new Turkish Aegean region and the ones in Anatolia, e.g.,
government based in Ankara. Nevertheless, with Antalya and Konya, but they left Turkey without
this treaty the Sandjak of İskenderun was also lost signing a ceasefire following the Turkish victory in
to Syria when France insisted that this city was part the Battle of Sakarya. However, the Italian policy
of Syria. The TGNA Government had to endorse of expansionism and her colonial ambitions over
this claim since at the time it was more important southwestern Anatolia continued. The aim was to
to keep France out of Anatolia and to secure a break gain Italy dominance in the Mediterranean region.
up among the Allied Powers. This would help to These ambitions became more eminent during the
facilitate further steps such as clearing Anatolia from Lausanne Peace Conference. Benito Mussolini,
the Greek and the British occupations. After the who was appointed the Prime Minister of Italy
Turkish victory at the Turkish War of Independence, in October 1922, agreed to recognize Turkey as
French claims rose during the Lausanne Peace a sovereign state. He also recognized “the Turkish
Conference when Turkey insisted on abolishing presence in the Balkans (limited to eastern Thrace)”
the capitulations and rejecting to pay all Ottoman during the Lausanne Conference. With this policy,
debts. Then, the Allied Powers had to accept the Mussolini “secured the formal recognition of the
Turkish claim on the abolition of the capitulations Italian possession of the Dodecanese Islands”,
imposed on Turkey. Turkey in return had to accept which made “the demilitarized straits” vulnerable
the concessionary contracts which were signed to any attack (Barlas, 2004, p.233).
during the Ottoman period and became effective Following World War I, Italian claims “over
on October, 20, 1914. According to the terms of the port city of Fiume on the Adriatic coast of the
these contracts, Turkey had to wait until 1929 to Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (later to
gain full control over its own custom policies. After be Yugoslavia)” created tension in Europe because
Lausanne, the Turkish and French relationship took Italy was against the Treaty of Friendship signed
a different form and became friendlier than before. between France and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats
Especially, the border issue concerning Turkey and and Slovenes, in November 1927. Italy believed
Syria brought two countries together in 1926 when that this treaty would increase the French control
the Mosul question was solved. Meetings between against Italy in this kingdom and in the Balkans.
France and Turkey started in May 1926 to solve the Mussolini wanted “Risorgimento, the national
border problem with Syria, which had been under unification of Italy” and the revival of the Roman
the French mandate since 1919. Finally, both Turkey Empire. He also desired that the Balkan Peninsula
and Syria represented by French diplomats signed located between the Adriatic and the Aegean,
164
which he claimed to be Mare Nostrum, and the Turkey” (Barlas, 2004, p.240). Moreover, both sides
port cities in Adriatic had belonged to Italy (Barlas, agreed on the Turkish naval tender on May 24 1929,
2004, p.233). Thus, he would not tolerate the and “the Italian Foreign Ministry officially notified
French influence on Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. the Ministry of Marine in Rome that the contract to
He even forced Belgrade to recognize the Italian supply warships to the Turkish navy was finalized”
claim over Fiume. Moreover, the Italian Armies (Barlas, 2004, p.242). These connections normalized
occupied the Corfu Island for a while but then the relations between Turkey and Italy for a while.
had to withdraw because of the British pressure Turkey even sent junior officers in the Turkish navy
(Barlas, p 2004, p.234). All of these were the signs to Italy “for training” puposes.
of increasing danger created by Italy not only in The Turkish-Italian relations maintained well
the Balkans but also in Southwestern Anatolia that after the agreements signed in the 1920s until the
was supposed to help the Italian dominance in the aggressive Italian policies in the Mediterranean region
Mediterranean region and in the Balkans. Due created tension that went against the considerations
to these reasons Italy tried “to take advantage of which many countries shared in preserving the status
Turkey’s international isolation and to turn Ankara quo in Europe in the 1930s. Italy in this period was
into a pro–Italian actor” until Turkish-Italian seen as a dangerous force against the World peace.
formal relations were established. Mussolini in his Mussolini no only wanted to occupy more land
plan was inspired by what France did in Eastern but also rejected projects for establishing unity in
Europe by influencing “the Kingdom of Serbs, Europe for fear of the French dominance in Europe
Croats, and Slovenes, and in Romania”. He was and in Mediterranean politics. For example, Italy
against “the entente system Paris established in rejected “a plan for the establishment of a European
Eastern Europe… the Paris–Belgrade axis in the Economic Union within the framework of the
Balkans” (Barlas, 2004, p.234, 238, 239). League of Nations” which was proposed by French
The reconciliation between Turkey and Italy Prime Minister Aristide Briand in September 1930
started in February 1926. Italy initiated the move (Barlas, 2004, p.243). Turkey was excluded from this
and Turkey welcomed this. In fact, Italy waited offer since she was not a member to the League at
and watched the resolution of the Mosul Question the time. Italy used this offer as an excuse to isolate
hoping that Turkey might weaken and Italy might Turkey from other countries while Turkey preferred
receive some concessions from Turkey. However, to establish peaceful relations with each and every
when Turkey solved the Mosul Question with one of them.
peace, Italy had no choice but approach Turkey. The The Turkish Prime Minister İsmet İnönü
Turkish and Italian representatives met on April 3, visited Rome in 1932 in the hope of securing
1928. Following this meeting, Tevfik Rüştü Aras, Italian financial aid for the Ottoman debts and
the Turkish Foreign Minister, met Dino Grandi, the industrialization. Turkey and Italy agreed to
Italian Vice-Minister of Foreign Affairs, in 1929. “renew the Turkish-Italian Treaty of 1928 for
Italy also wanted Greece to join the meetings but five more years. They also signed a convention
Aras explained the unsolved issues between Turkey to delimit territorial waters between Anatolia
and Greece dating back to the post-war period and and an Italian-owned island, Castellorizzo, off
did not agree with this suggestion. Italy and Turkey the Turkish mainland” (Barlas, 2004, p.245).
signed the Treaty of Neutrality, Mediation and However, relations between Turkey and Italy
Judicial Settlement on May 30, 1928, which Italy gradually worsened since the latter opposed
saw as “part of an eastern Mediterranean alliance Turkey’s membership to the League of Nations that
that would protect Italy’s flank in its contest with became possible in 1932. Italy went even further
Yugoslavia over Albania” (Hale, 2013, p.45). With by claiming that peace had to be maintained in
this treaty, Italy and Turkey agreed “to remain Europe only by the initiatives taken by the Great
neutral in case of aggression by a third party against powers, i.e. France, Britain, Germany and Italy,
any party to the treaty. For example, if Belgrade ignoring minor powers such as Turkey (Barlas,
attacked Italy with the help of the French, Turkey 2004, p.246). Later, the Italian expansion in Africa
would remain neutral. Above all, according to this and Asia in 1934 caused a major shift in the Turkish
treaty Italy was to abstain from exerting pressure on policy towards Italy, and relations got frosty while
165
Turkey cooperated with Britain and then France Locarno Pact

concerning peace in the Mediterranean, especially Locarno, a town in Switzerland, became famous
after the Italian occupation of Abyssinia in 1935. when the political leaders from Britain, France,
On the eve of World War II, Turkey took action Germany, Belgium, and Italy came together on
against the Italian aggressive policies by agreeing October 16, 1925 to discuss and normalize relations
to implement sanctions on Italy imposed by the among the countries in Europe. The aim was to end
League of Nations. some border issues between France, Germany, and
As a matter of fact, Turkey’s relationship with Belgium determined at the Paris Conference after
European countries was not limited to former World War I. The Treaty of Versailles that followed
enemies mentioned above. Turkey signed trade and the Peace Conference stipulated that Germany
friendship treaties with other European countries would pay war reparations for the damages she
such as Germany, Austria, and Hungary including caused to the Allies. The amount to be paid was
the Balkan countries in the 1930s. Relations with not determined. A Reparation Commission made
these countries went back to the Ottoman period. up of members from Britain, France, Belgium,
Germany, and Austria Hungarian Empire were the and Italy was established. Germany, along with the
Ottoman allies during World War I. Germany and other conditions put upon her by the Versailles,
Austria left this war as defeated except Hungary that was very reactionary to this stipulation. In fact, she
was part of Austria. These countries faced difficulties failed to pay her interim payments. As a result of
in their attempts to revive in the post-war period. this “the Allies ordered that she immediately make
The social, physical and economic destructions of up the shortfall. When Germany failed to comply
World War I along with war sanctions imposed on with the stipulations of the Treaty, the Allies, in
them through the peace treaties signed in the Paris March 1921, occupied three cities in the industrially
Peace Conference were difficult to deal with. As a important Ruhr as well as most of the customs posts
on Germany’s western borders.” French occupation
result, it took time for them not only to establish
of Ruhr, in particular, caused “passive German
relations with the Turkish Republic but also with
resistance” (Goldstein, 2002, p.77, 78).
other countries. Among these countries, only
Germany had interest and important economic Interestingly, European states also owed money to
investments in the Turkish economy and market. the United States and wanted their debts to be waivered.
The German interests continued during the They argued that the money they owed was for arms
Republican era as well. that they used against their common enemy. However,
the United States government would not consent to
this request. The great European powers who owed
INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS debts to the United Stated on one hand, had money
TO PRESERVE PEACE IN THE due to be paid to them on the other. Walther Rathenau,
INTERWAR PERIOD: 1920 AND the new foreign minister of Germany had to accept the
1930 recently calculated German reparation payment of 50
billion gold marks in April 1921. Rathenau thought
The belligerents of World War I were not sure that paymnets would be good and a step forward
that the peace treaties signed during the Paris Peace in starting good international relations. However,
Conference would ensure peace in Europe since they he was assassinated in 1922 by the ultra-nationalist
did not satisfy all parties involved especially, France, Germans because of his initiative to accept the amount
Germany and Italy. Consequently, the former of reparations demanded by the Allies (Goldstein,
belligerents held a series of meetings, conferences 2002, p.77). Following his footsteps, another German
and signed treaties to preserve a peaceful “status quo” Politician Chancellor Gustav Stresemann tried to
in Europe. However, this was not so easy since the normalize relations with the European countries in
unsatisfied parties wanted to revise the peace treaties 1923. Germany, while dealing with Allied demands,
signed at the Paris Peace Conference. Thus the ones had to resolve its economic problems because the
who wanted to change the peace treaties were called German mark lost its value. There was “a flight of
“anti-status-quo” or revisionists. The first of these capital seeking safer homes”. This caused tension in
meetings for peace was held in Locarno. Others took the country that reflected itself in relations with foreign
place in the countries of the participants. countries (Goldstein, 2002, p.78).
166
The occupation of the Ruhr territory became a great concern for the US. Although there were US forces
in the Ruhr region, she withdrew them. The US devised a plan named the Dawes Plan. It was named after
Charles G. Dawes, the President of a Commission set up to help Germany in her plight. The Dawes Plan
offered “the evacuation of the Ruhr and the rescheduling of the German debt in a way that adjusted payments
in proportion to prosperity. The US also provided a loan to Germany to assist its economic recovery”
(Goldstein, 2002, p.79). This Plan decreased the tension in Europe for a while when the European countries
were trying to decrease arms in order to avoid another war. At the same time, Germany wanted to avoid
the arms control of the inspectors who worked under the authority of the International Military Control
Commission attached to the League of Nations established after the Paris Peace Conference. The Allied
Powers of World War I were trying to assure that the disarmament policy adopted through the agreements
they signed among themselves would yield “collective security”. They brought “limitations on a particular
class of naval vessel” as discussed at the Washington Naval Conference (1921-1922). They also signed “the
1925 Geneva Protocol, which prohibited the use of poison gas and bacteriological weapons” designed under
the Article 10 of the League Covenant for collective security (Goldstein, 2002, p.81). The Geneva Protocol
was expected to secure at least regional peace under the leadership of the League of Nations by forcing
economic and military sanctions. Nevertheless, the Geneva Protocol did not work well since powers such as
Britain rejected to ratify it. The major powers tried to find another way to preserve peace in Europe “outside
the League, through either bilateral or small multilateral negotiations” (Goldstein, 2002, p.82). The result of
these attempts to ensure collective security was the Locarno meetings held in 1925.
The diplomats, namely French Aristide Briand, British Austen Chamberlain and German Gustav
Stresemann, took the initiative to organize the first meeting at Locarno. They had to meet to understand
each other and find answers to their questions. Stresemann offered, “initially to Britain, a re-guarantee of the
western European territorial status quo”; France wanted to “reinsure its security vis-à-vis Germany through
a security pact with Britain”; and the other parties were to learn why “the new Conservative government
in Britain” refused to ratify the Geneva Protocol. (Goldstein, 2002, p.82). The delegates from Belgium,
Czechoslovakia, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, and Poland attended the first meeting at Locarno on
October 16, 1925. The discussions mainly concentrated on assuring the concerned countries that the borders
not be changed (withdrawal from Ruhr) and that the peace be preserved in Europe by keeping the German-
Belgian and Franco-German frontiers as determined by the Treaty of Versailles. This would stabilize the
political situation in western Europe. After a series of discussions, Locarno treaties were signed between the
countries who had border issues, and then Locarno meetings were finalized in London on December 1, 1925.
Picture 5.6 A cartoon depicting the Locarno Pact and its signatories
Source: https://www.google.com/search?tbm=isch&q=locarno+pact&spel
167
In these meetings, the contributing countries concluded and signed four series of treaties known as the
Locarno Pact. They were:
1. “A treaty of mutual guarantee of the Franco-German and the Belgian-German frontiers, with
Britain and Italy as guarantors” agreeing that the Rhineland would remain a demilitarized zone,
2. German-Belgian and German-French arbitration treaties,
3. German-Czechoslovak and German-Polish arbitration treaties,
4. Treaties of mutual assistance in the event of German aggression between France and Poland, and between
France and Czechoslovakia” (Goldstein, 2002, p.83).
However, all these treaties secured the territories in Western Europe, but there was no “territorial
guarantee” concerning Eastern Europe. Thus, France was expecting that her allies Serbs, Croats, and
Slovenes would help her and that she could guarantee their borders “through the treaties of mutual
guarantee signed at Locarno in tandem with the other treaties” (Goldstein, 2002, p.83).
Picture 5.7 Negotiating Table of the Locarno Treaties

Source: https://www.wdl.org/en/item/11585/
attention
Locarno Peace Pact (1925)
Signing of the Locarno Pact At Locarno in 1925, the core states of Western Europe—France,
preserved peace in Europe and the Allies Germany, Great Britain, Italy, and Belgium —voiced the great
evacuated Rhineland and Cologne. Then lessons they learned from the Great War in the terms of the treaty. An
Germany was accepted to the League end to military conflict among them was of greater value to them than
of Nations through a resolution passed anything to be gained from another resort to arms. They agreed that
on September 8, 1926. “The German, their primary common interest was in banishing war from the region,
British, and French statesmen, the and they declared an end to centuries of military conflict over the
architects of Locorno, were awarded the territories adjacent to the Rhine. The treaties they concluded then were
Nobel Peace Prize” (Goldstein, 2002, a historic effort to make a stable peace by means of a comprehensive
p.83-84) for their efforts to preserve peace regional settlement designed to end longstanding antagonisms and
in Europe. Moreover, the settlement of conflicts. (Jacobson, 2004, p.8)
issues at Locarno also cretaed the “Spirit
168
of Locarno”, a peaceful period between 1924 and (Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa,
1929. In fact, it was a loose spirit since France, Irish Free State, and India), Czechoslovakia, Italy,
Britain, and Germany were not genuine in their Japan, and Poland.
efforts and were thinking of their own interests. For This was a multilateral agreement designed “to
example, prior to Locarno, Germany had signed renounce war as an instrument of national policy”
the Treaty of Rapallo with Soviet Russia in 1922, and was considered as a supplement to the Locarno
which caused French concerns (Goldstein, 2002, (Johnson, 2004, p.41). It composed of 3 articles.
p.82). The Locarno Pact on the other hand worried Article 1 stated the following: “The High Contracting
Soviet Russia in the sense that this would exclude Parties solemnly declare in the names of their respective
Soviet Russia from Europe and Germany might peoples that they condemn recourse to war for the
join an anti-Soviet bloc. Thus, Soviet Russia signed solution of international controversies, and renounce it
another treaty with Germany on April 24, 1926, as an instrument of national policy in their relations
confirming and extending the friendly relations with one another” (League of Nations, Treaty Series,
established by Rapallo. While Germany was relieved 1929, p.63).
economically following the Locarno Pact, the Spirit Although this pact is known as the Kellogg-
of Locarno was lost when Germany sent troops into Briand Pact with reference to the statesmen who
the Rhineland in 1936, which had been previously initiated the talks, it was also called the Pact of
demilitarized according to the terms of the Treaty of Paris since it was also signed in Paris. In the official
Versailles. When this was protested, Germany used records the Pact is referred to as “General Treaty for
the Franco-Soviet alliance of 1935 as an example Renunciation of War as an Instrument of National
to support her expansionist act. Moreover, despite Policy” (League of Nations, Treaty Series, 1929,
the fact that Germany signed the Kellogg-Briand p.59). Although, the pact was prepared in the
Pact in 1928, she did not end her disputes with fear of a possible German aggression, surprisingly
Czechoslovakia in 1938 or with Poland in 1939 and Germany was one of the first signatory states.
occupied these countries in September 1939, which Meanwhile, although Austen Chamberlain, the
was how World War II started. British statesman, did not trust Briand, he signed
the pact as well. Totally 62 countries signed the
pact believing that the terms of the pact could be
Turkey’s Entrance to the Kellogg- reconciled with Article 16 under the Covenant of
Briand Pact the League of Nations (Johnson, 2004, p.50).
Post war period in Europe witnessed a series of Among the signatory states Turkey also took
meetings, conferences and treaties either bilateral or her place since Mustafa Kemal believed in world
multilateral. The Kellogg-Briand Pact was one such peace and strived to keep it. Turkey was represented
treaty that was signed in this period. Turkey sent by the Ambassador of Turkey to Washington and
delegates to these meetings. The foundation of the signed the pact on October 31, 1928. The TGNA
Kellogg-Briand Pact was laid in 1928 with the aim approved the Kellogg-Briand Pact on January 19,
of preserving peace because collective security and 1929 (League of Nations, Treaty Series, 1929, p.59).
peace that concerned the major powers of Europe This pact was to be one of the international treaties
and the US had become fragile in the late 1920s. Turkey signed to contribute to world peace. The
Although, the US did not participate at Locarno next step Turkey took was joining the League of
meetings, the American government put emphasis Nations on July 8, 1932.
on peace in the world and supported disarmament.
The main concern was a possible resurgence
of German aggression. Consequently, with the The Disarmament Policy in the World
initiative taken by Frank B. Kellogg, the US Bringing peace to Europe was a precarious task
Secretary of State and Aristide Briand, the French that forced the European major powers to repeat the
Minister for Foreign Affairs, a pact was signed on meetings for disarmament. The first attempt was
August 27, 1928 in Paris with the participation the Versailles Treaty which literally left Germany
of the representatives from Germany, the US, without any weapons. The agreement stipulated a
Australia, Belgium, Britain and her 6 dominions decrease in arms, fleet, and the disarmament of
169
German ‘Aggressive Weapons’ such as tanks, heavy As amatter of fact, during the period when
guns over 105 mm, battleships over 10,000 tons, Turkey was not a member of the League of
military aircraft, poison gas and submarines. The Nations, she actively worked to strengthen the
Treaty also wanted Germany to abolish the General peace and did not remain indifferent to the efforts
Staff as well as many other measures directed to of the League. Turkey also showed readiness to
the arms and the military staff (Kitching, 2004, cultivate good relations with its Balkan neighbors.
p.112). The disarmament policy was on the agenda When the disarmament question was taken up by
of all the major powers. Locarno Meetings (1925) the League, the Balkan countries were naturally
were one of the efforts. Another step which tried to reluctant to discuss it in the absence of Turkey.
cement the concept of compulsory arbitration was The Turkish government accepted the invitation
the Protocol for the Pacific Settlement of International from the League to join in the work of the
Disputes or otherwise known as the Geneva Protocol ‘Preparatory Commission’ for the Disarmament
signed also in 1925. The countries who refused to Conference in 1928. Turkey joined the work of
sign this Protocol were assumed to be aggressors the Advisory Committee on ‘Traffic in Opium’
(Kitching, 2004, p.115). and later subscribed to the International Opium
The League of Nations set up a ‘Preparatory Convention. Turkey also sent representatives to
Commission’ for the organization of a conference the Briand Commission of Enquiry for European
on disarmament in 1926. There was a World Union and also observers to the conferences of the
Disarmament Conference convened by the International Labor Organization.
League of Nations in Geneva in February 1932
with representatives from 60 states. A one-year
moratorium on the control of the expansion of The Treaty of Nyon
armaments, later extended by a few months, Despite the efforts to preserve peace on
was proposed at the start of the conference. The international level, the problems that arose in
Disarmament Commission obtained initial and within the European countries proved that
agreements from France, Italy, Spain, Japan, and peace was very fragile in case any problems arose.
Great Britain to limit the size of their navies but no Each problem had the potential to be used as an
final agreement was reached. The conference was excuse to employ arms in the name of self-defense,
to force Article 8 of the Covenant of the League of which might lead to a full scale war. This was what
Nations which gave the League the task of reducing happened in 1936 when a civil war broke in Spain
“armaments to the lowest point consistent with between the Nationalists lead by General Francisco
national safety and the enforcement by common Franco and the Republicans (Güçlü, 2002, p.53).
action of international obligations” (Kitching, The Spanish Civil War began on July 18, 1936
2004, p.120). The conference continued until when a coup d’etat led by General Francisco Franco
1934 but ended with failure, and “disarmament against Manuel Azana, the Republican president
was decisively removed from the international of Spain took place, and the army, and took over
agenda, and rearmament became the order of the the control of the government in Spain. This war
day” (Kitching, 2004, p.120). continued until 1939. Germany, Italy, Britain,
At this point in time, Germany had started France and the Soviet Russia took sides in this
her military aggressions. Hitler remilitarized the war according to their ideological concerns. While
Rhineland, occupied the Sudetenland and Anschluss Germany and Italy supported the Nationalists,
Austria despite the fact that the Treaty of Versailles France and Britain “were anxiously avoiding war
had outlined serious limitations for Germany. It at all costs…” (Güçlü, 2002, p.53). Germany
was the members of the League themselves who hoped to benefit from this war which could
virtually caused World War II by their inclination weaken France “on the Rhine by creating a hostile
of excessive rearmament. Japan withdrew from frontier at the Pyrenees” (Güçlü, 2002, p.53). The
the League rather than submit to its judgment in Italian leader Mussolini supported the Nationalists
1933. Germany, Italy, and Spain followed in 1937. claiming that he was doing so to prevent the spread
The final significant act of the League was to expel of communism. In fact, Mussolini wanted to block
the Soviet Russia from the union after she invaded Britain and France in the Mediterranean region,
Finland in December 1939. and to “secure naval and air bases for Italy in the
170
Balearic Islands” of Spain as well as “to raise the prestige of fascism, already heightened by the Ethiopian
war, to new levels in Italy by new military victories” (Güçlü, 2002, p.54). The Spanish Civil War and
Italian and German aggressive policies forced Britain and France to become closer to Turkey for naval
bases in the Mediterranean especially when the Question of İskenderun Sandjak arose and the talks on
the Straits came to an end on July 20, 1936 when the Montreux Straits Convention (Montrö Boğazlar
Sözleşmesi) was signed. After the Spanish Civil War broke, the Soviet Russia wanted to use the Straits
to sail into the Mediterranean Sea to help the Republicans in Spain. However, Italy was angered by
this wish. The Soviet fleets sailed into the Mediterranean Sea. Even more important for Russia was the
German threat to her Baltic ports at that particular time (Güçlü, 2002, p.54).
While, Germany, Italy, and Soviet Russia got involved in the Spanish Civil War, Turkey stayed neutral
and only “gave moral support to the Republicans and backed the League of Nations” and appreciated
the constitutional government (Güçlü, 2002, p.54). Moreover, the Turkish government refrained from
interfering with the Spanish affairs and announced restrictions on other nations that would keep her out
of the Civil war. These restrictions included the following:
(i) Turkey would prohibit the direct or indirect export or re-export of all ‘arms, munitions and materials
of war as well as all airplanes, mounted or dismantled, and all ships of war’ from its territory to
Spanish territories;
(ii) The prohibitions would apply to contracts in the process of execution;
(iii) Turkey would keep other governments participating in the mutual understanding informed of the
measures taken to carry out the prohibitions. (Güçlü, 2002, p.54).
Moreover, the Turkish government forbade the enrollment of Turkish volunteers in the Spanish Civil
War and did not sell “obsolescent munitions” (outdated weapons) as claimed by the Valencia government
in 1937. Nor did Turkey respond to the claims of Italy and Germany “for the Italo-German proposals in
the matter of naval control and non-intervention” (Güçlü, 2002, p.55). While Turkey was hoping that
all foreign troops immediately be withdrawn from Spain, the war entered a new phase with piracy in the
Mediterranean. In fear of the Soviet aid sent to the Republicans, naval, air and submarine attacks started
“upon merchant ships using the Mediterranean as a highway, without warning or inquiry and without
regard to the nationality of the vessel attacked, the nature of its cargo, or its port of destination” (Güçlü,
2002, p.55). This increasing piracy worried many, except Italy and Germany. The attacks were even carried
in the Straits when two Spanish merchant ships were attacked at the Straits near Bozcaada in August 1937.
Upon this, the Turkish government took action and on August 24 declared that “the presence of foreign
submarines in Turkish waters would be a violation of the Montreux Convention and that any submarine
whose presence was detected would therefore be summoned to surrender and that if it failed to surrender
it would be sunk” (Güçlü, 2002, p.56). These attacks, launched at the timeTurkey lacked a powerful
navy including submarines, disturbed Turkey. Therefore, Turkish diplomats tried to urge Soviet Russia,
Germany, Britain, and others to take action against the piracy active not only in the Mediterranean but
also in the Straits in August 1937. The French government took the initiative and called the concerned
parties to meet in a conference on August 31 (Güçlü, 2002, p.59).
171
Picture 5.8 Delegates at the Nyon Conference

Source: https://www.haberturk.com/haber/haber/991353-nyon-antlasmasi
Upon the call from France, the British and the Dardanelles” (Güçlü, 2002, pp.61-62). The
French ambassadors invited Albania, Bulgaria, Turkish government ratified the Nyon Agreement
Egypt, Germany, Greece, Italy, Romania, the on September 18 (Güçlü, 2002, p.63). The Greek
Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, and Turkey to attend a and Turkish governments guaranteed to patrol
conference in Nyon (Switzerland) on September their territorial waters but not the Mediterranean
10, 1937. The main purpose was “to end the in fear of clashes with Italian or German fleets
present state of insecurity in the Mediterranean or submarines. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, decided
and to ensure that the rules of international law to cooperate fully “in the international patrol
regarding shipping at sea were strictly enforced” set up by the Nyon Conference to counter the
(Güçlü, 2002, p.60). Italy and Germany did not piratical submarine acts in the Mediterranean to
agree to participate in the conference. Albania did ward off Mussolini’s expansionist attempts at the
not join, either since Italy asked her not to do so. Mediterranean Sea” (Güçlü, 2002, p.65). The
The conference started on September 10, 1937 and conference contributed to the decrease of piracy
“a draft agreement for countermeasures against attacks in the Mediterranean region and even anti-
the Mediterranean piracy was reached” but the submarine patrols ended their attacks. Surprisingly,
signatures were put on September 14, 1937 (Güçlü, Mussolini announced his intent to enter into the
2002, p.61). The countries who signed the Nyon “agreement and took over responsibility or patrols
Agreement were Britain, France, the Soviet Union, in the Adriatic” on September 30, which indicated
Turkey, Greece, Yugoslavia, Romania, Bulgaria, the success of the Nyon Agreement (Güçlü, 2002,
and Egypt. They “agreed that any submarine which pp.66-67). The Nyon Agreement and the collective
attacked a ship in a manner contrary to the rules of attitude of the signatory countries showed that
international law referred to in the International international co-operation is paramount in the
Treaty for the Limitation and Reduction of Naval efforts to prevent the breaking of international
Armaments signed in London on 25 March 1936 law. The Turkish participation at the conference
should be counter-attacked and, if possible, destroyed. and the support of the patrols given to the British
In order to facilitate the putting into force of the above fleet indicated Turkey’s “interest in preserving the
arrangements, the British and French fleets were to status quo and the principle of collective security”
operate in the Mediterranean up to the entrance of (Güçlü, 2002, pp.67-68).
172
The Balkan Entente (Pact) (1934)

Turkey took important steps to ensure security
3 and cooperation both in the east and the west at
What were the international agreements/ treaties
a time when the whole world was being dragged
for peaceful cooperation to which Turkey was a
into a new all-out war. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk,
party by signing them?
the founding leader of Turkey, was sure that the
tension in the world would bring another world
war. Consequently, he spent time and effort to
TURKEY’S FOREIGN POLICY IN build rapport among the Balkan countries based on
mutual interests. Balkan Entente was one of the end
THE 1930s AND HER ACTIVE results of these efforts. The Turkish policy regarding
PARTICIPATION IN THE the Balkan states was to protect the status quo
REGIONAL POLITICS AND PEACE: designated by the Treaty of Lausanne. Immediately
THE BALKAN ENTENTE (PACT) after this treaty was signed, Turkey attempted to re-
AND THE SADABAD PACT establish the relations with the Balkan states severed
Turkey’s contribution to world peace was long time ago. Turkey signed friendship agreements
not only limited to trade and friendship treaties with Albania on December 15, 1923, with Hungary
signed with the neighboring states and with on December 18, 1923, with Bulgaria on October
former enemies. She also included efforts to 18, 1925, and with Yugoslavia on October 28,
ensure regional peace. To this end, Turkey took 1925. These agreements were signed as part of the
the initiative to establish peace in the Balkans Lausanne Peace Treaty (Soysal, 1989, pp.212-248).
during the post-war period. As mentioned before, These efforts which aimed at solving the problems
French influence over the Serbs, Croats and with the Balkan states and pulling them into a
Slovenes angered Italy since this influence was collaborative platform began in 1929.However, the
against her expansionist policies in the Balkans. events that threatened peace in the other parts of
There were also factions within the Balkans at this Europe had begun in 1933. When the conferences
time because of the countries who joined World to reduce weapons in polarized Europe did not
War I on opposite camps. For example, Greece, come to a conclusion, arms race accelerated among
Yugoslavia, and Romania were on the winning the European countries. The new rising powers Italy
side and gained territory. These countries “took a and Germany had begun to threaten the world peace
pro-status quo or anti-revisionist position”, while with their expansionist policies. Italy encouraged
Bulgaria and Hungary who were on the defeated Greece and Turkey to have closer relations and even
camp favored the revisionist camp because of their worked to that end. Mussolini wanted to use these
territorial losses (Hale, 2013, p.45). Meanwhile, two countries in his future plans in the Balkans
although Turkey was at risk since the Straits and and in the Mediterranean region, especially after
her Thracian border were demilitarized under the the Nazi Party came to power in Germany. The
Treaty of Lausanne, she supported status-quo and friendship and collaboration between Turkey and
was defenseless in case of any attack from Bulgaria Greece materialized as desired; however, Bulgaria
or Greece “especially if the two states combined presented itself as a problem. As friendly relations
or were supported by Italy” (Hale, 2013, p.45). were established between Greece and Turkey in
Naturally, instead of claiming any lands that had 1930, Mustafa Kemal and Venizelos worked to
been lost by the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans, preserve peace in the Balkans. In 1932, Turkey was
Turkey wanted to keep peace in the Balkans and accepted to the League of Nations. This membership
form an entente. encouraged Turkey to take more initiative toward
the establishment of regional peace. Turkey and
173
Greece had already extended their guarantee agreements called Entente Cordiale on September 14, 1933
and “mutually guaranteed their common frontier in Thrace and agreed to consult with one another on all
questions of common interest” (Hale, 2013, p.45). Following this agreement Turkey also signed separate
non-aggression pacts with Romania and Yugoslavia.
In support of the peace keeping efforts, there were Balkan conferences with the participation of Albania,
Bulgaria, Romania, Yugoslavia, Greece, and Turkey in Athens in 1929, in Istanbul in 1931, and in Thessaloniki
in 1932. However, due to the fact that Bulgaria did not abandon its expansionist policies, these efforts of the
Balkan states did not yield a positive result. Because of Bulgaria’s efforts to change the Neuilly Agreement in
her favor, the rest of the Balkan states decided either to abandon their attempts for a Balkan Pact or to make
one and leave Bulgaria out until Bulgaria would want to join in. The result of the conferences was the signing
of the Balkan Entente, known as the Balkan Pact, between Turkey, Greece, Yugoslavia, and Romania on
February 9, 1934 in Athens. With this pact they guaranteed “each other’s territorial integrity and independence
and establishing machinery to settle disputes among the signatories” (Shaw & Shaw, 2002, p.377). Bulgaria,
however, did not sign this Pact until
1938 because she claimed Dobrudja
as hers from Rumania, Macedonia,
Yugoslavia, and Greece; Western
Thrace from Greece, and Edirne and
left bank of the River Maritsa from
Turkey even though relations with
her was improving.
Under the pact, the four
states agreed that in the event of
aggression against any of them,
they would guarantee the frontiers
of the signatory state against the
aggressor and would consult one
another in the event of any threat
to peace in the region. Article 3 of
the additional secret protocol of the Picture 5.9 Balkan delegates at the reception given by Atatürk (Left
to right: Stoyadinoich, Yugoslavia’s Prime Minister; Atatürk; Minister of
Entente, envisaged the operation of
Foreign Affairs; Romania’s Prime Minister; Celal Bayar
the aid mechanism in the event of
a non-Balkan state attack (Soysal, Source: http://www.ataturk.net/cumh/20b.html
1989, pp.447-451).
The main purpose of this Entente was mainly to create measures against the expansionist ambitions
of Bulgaria. Furthermore, Turkey also saw this pact as a barrier against the dangers that might come from
other sources other than the Balkan states. This danger for Turkey might be Mussolin’s Italy. As expalined
earlier, Mussolini viewed the Mediterranean Sea as mare nostrum ‘our sea’. For this reason, the self-exclusion
of Bulgaria worried Turkey because of the fact that she would be vulnerable to a potential attack from
Bulgaria with the support of Italy. Greece also insisted that “its commitments under the Pact should not
involve her in a war against Italy”. This fear was shared by the others and they offered that “none of the
signatories were under an obligation to assist the others if one of them were attacked by Italy alone.” In
fact, this happened when Italy attacked Greece in 1940 and ironically it was Greece who previously had
told the entente members “that it would not take action against Italy” since she was apprehensive of an
Italian attack (Soysal, 1989, p.452). While the Balkan countries formed the entente, Soviet Russia was
concerned in fear of losing her cooperation with Turkey. Thus, Turkey had to assure Soviet Russia that this
entente was not against the existing cooperation with her.
Although formed with good intentions, the Balkan Entente could not establish a mechanism to protect
the borders of the member states against external dangers because of all these concerns. On the other
hand, each of the members had their own concerns and interests which also weakened the effect of the
174
Entente. For example, Yugoslavia and Romania Lausanne Peace Conference. There were mandate
gradually came under German influence. Italian regimes in Syria by France and in Iraq by Britain.
aggression and Soviet dictations also had their effect Turkey established friendly relations with Syria
in this influence. Nevertheless, the Balkan Entente by signing the Convention of Friendship and Good
was able to show some success in the political Neighborly Relation, with Procés-Verbal of Signature,
arena and contributed to world peace. To give an in Ankara on May 30, 1926 via France, and this
example, the Balkan Entente members took part Convention also covered Lebanon. Relations with
in the economic embargo sanctions taken by the Iraq were also established through Britain when the
League of Nations against Italy because of her attack Frontier and Friendship Treaty was signed on June
against Abyssinia in 1935. Moreover, the members 5, 1926. Turkish-Iraq relations further developed
also supported the initiative taken by Turkey for when Iraq got her independence from Britain in
changing the status of the Straits as set out by the 1930. King Faisal of Iraq showed his intention of
Treaty of Lausanne, which had made the Straits friendship and cooperation by sending his prime
demilitarized and put them under the control of an minister, Nuri al-Said to Turkey in 1931.
international commission. They put a unified front Because, Iran, Iraq, and Syria were the
at the Montreux Conference in 1936. However, neighboring states in the East and in the Southeast
these achievements of the Balkan Entente did not borders it was natural and necessary to establish
prevent the dissolution of the economic and political friendly relations with them. On the other hand,
influence of the major states and their expansion Afghanistan, although kilometers away from
policies. Germany began to take the Balkans and Turkey, cultural and historical ties brought both
the Middle East under economic sovereignty, while countries close, and, therefore, it was easy to build
a cordial relationship. Iran and Afghanistan were
Italy employed political schemes to drive a wedge
the two countries who had recognized the TGNA
between the Balkan states. World War II brought an
government as the representative of Turkey during
end to the Balkan Entente. Unfortunately, while the
the Turkish War of Independence. Relations with
Balkan Entente members held their last meeting in
Iran and Afghanistan progressed in years, and the
Belgrade in 1940, attempts to disintegrate Romania Afghan Leader Gazi Amanullah Khan was the first
from the Entente, a member of the pact, had already foreign leader to congratulate Mustafa Kemal after the
begun to be made by Soviet Russia and Germany. Treaty of Lausanne was signed. He also applauded the
declaration of the Turkish Republic. The Friendship
The Sadabad Pact (1937) and Cooperation Agreement between Turkey and
Afghanistan was signed on May 25, 1928 and this
Turkey’s contribution to the regional peace
was also the first technical assistant agreement of
was not only limited to Europe and the Balkans.
Turkey with Afghanistan (Soysal, 1989, p.329-332).
While pioneering the establishment of the Balkan Turkey sent doctors, teachers, technicians, engineers,
Entente, she attempted to improve her relations etc. to Afghanistan to help the process of restruction
with her Eastern and Southeastern neighbors. Italy’s and modernization. Turkey also signed the Treaty of
expansionist policy in Asia and Africa after 1934 Conciliation, Judicial Settlement and Arbitration with
was especially alarming, and it led Turkey to form Iran on January 23, 1932 to determine the borders
peaceful alliances with the Eastern states as she between the two countries. This treaty was going to
had done with the Balkan states in 1934. Turkey be the first definitive frontier treaty between the two.
extended the principle of regional security pacts It solved centuries-old border issues (Soysal, 1989,
eastward, and the result was the Sadabad Pact signed p.275-280).
with the participation of Turkey Iran, Iraq, and These peaceful relations with the neighboring
Afghanistan in 1937. states in the 1920s and 1930s laid the foundation
Forming an entente in the East started with for the Sadabad Pact. In fact, prior to the signature
signing of a non-aggression agreement with Iran in of the Pact, representatives of Turkey, Iraq, and Iran
1926 and 1932. The visit of Reza Pahlavi, the Shah came together in Geneva upon Italy’s attack on
of Iran, to Turkey led to further developments of Abyssinia, and they signed a tripartite agreement
friendly relations. Turkey’s relations with Iraq and on October 2, 1935. Nevertheless, this agreement
Syria in the southeast in late 1920s, however, took was turned into a pact later once the Iran-Iraq
a different form from the one established by the border problems solved in 1937.
175
Picturce 5.10 İsmet İnönü, Atatürk, and Rıza Sah Pehlevi

Source: http://www.paragrafoku.com/2018/06/09/sadabat-pakti/
Iraq, Iran, Turkey, and Afghanistan concluded these two security systems, Turkey strengthened
the Sadabad Pact, signed on July 8, 1937 in Sad- the peace policy in both regions. Furthermore,
Abad, the summer palace of the Shah of Iran she paved the way for the policy of neutrality she
in Tehran. According to the Pact, four states would follow during World War II.
accepted “to preserve their common frontiers, not to
interfere in one another’s internal affairs, to commit
no aggression against one another’s territory and to
ADHERENCE TO LAW AND
consult together on all matters of common interest” TURKEY’S CONTRIBUTION
(Hale, 2013, p.46). This Pact was important in TO WORLD PEACE AND ITS
terms of being the first multilateral agreement to REWARDS
aim political solidarity in the Middle East region. After the Lausanne Peace Treaty was signed,
The Pact was not an aid agreement like the 1934 Turkey tried to preserve her rights in the international
Balkan Pact, but it was a solidarity agreement arena while contributing to the regional and world
and was about the preservation of the common peace. Throughout these efforts, there was one
borders of the participant states. Moreover, the principle that Atatürk and the Turkish governments
Sadabad Pact was able to have a deterrent effect used as a motto: adherence to international law. They
against a possible hostile action toward the Middle solved all issues and disputes left from Lausanne
East region. Unfortunately, the Sadabat Pact was following this line of action. Thus, Turkey with her
almost forgotten after World War II, and it lost peaceful approaches was praised and rewarded by an
its impact after the establishment of the Baghdad invitation to the League of Nations.
Pact in 1955. Furthermore, when a communist In fact, the Turkish government overcame
regime was established in Afghanistan at the end many problems even when she was not a member
of 1979 and Iraq and Iran entered into war in of the League of Nations, and there were many
September 1980, the conditions that caused the cases that the League decided against the Turkish
making of the pact no longer existed. interests and causes. To name one, Turkish judges
Both Balkan and Sadabad Pacts represented were successful in the Bozkurt-Lotus Incident even
Turkey’s peaceful mindset in the preservation of when Turkey was not a member of the League and
peace in the Balkans and the Middle East. With the International Court of Justice. The following
176
will exemplify Turkey’s adherence to international to the Permanent Court of International Justice
law and her success with this outlook and the and to learn “whether Turkey had been justified
rewards granted to her as a result. in exercising criminal jurisdiction” (Spiermann,
2005, p.248). The question asked was whether or
not Turkey had the right to take criminal action,
Bozkurt-Lotus Case
and had jurisdiction over a crime committed
Bozkurt-Lotus Case is the name of the trial by a French national in high seas. Furthermore,
which dealt with an accident that happened did Turkey violate international law in doing so.
around Mytilene Islands on August 2, 1926. A mail Meanwhile, the October 12 Agreement could not
steamer flying the French flag SS Lotus, captained prevent suspending of the proceedings in Turkey
by a French citizen, hit the Turkish collier Bozkurt, and Demons was still in prison.
captained by Hasan Bey. Lotus had cut Bozkurt
The hearing for the case started on September
into two with practically no damage to herself.
7, 1927 at The Hague. It was Mahmut Esat
In the collision, Bozkurt sank and eight Turkish
(Bozkurt), the Minister of Justice of Turkey, who
seamen died. Lotus with Lieutenant Demons, the
represented the Turkish Government, while it was
French officer on watch at the time of the collision,
Professor Basdevant from Paris Faculty of Law
helped the surviving Turkish seamen and continued
representing the French Government before the
on her course arriving in Istanbul on August 3. The
Turkish authorities asked Lieutenant Demons to Permanent Court of International Justice at The
go ashore and give a deposition on August 5. He Hague (The Case of the S.S. “Lotus”, 1927, p.4).
was questioned and then was arrested (The Case Although the French representative insisted that
of the S.S. “Lotus”, 1927, p.5). France, however, Turkey did not have jurisdiction over the French
protested Turkey arguing that Turkish authorities citizen since this collusion happened at high seas
arrested a French citizen without informing the by asserting that, “the principles of international
French Consul-General in İstanbul. The Turkish law contrary to which Turkey is alleged to have
courts put Demons and Hasan Bey, the captain acted thereby infringing the terms of Article 15 of
of the Turkish ship, on trial for negligent conduct. the Convention of Lausanne of July 24th, 1923,
However, Demons contested the decision on the respecting conditions of residence and business and
grounds that the court did not have jurisdiction jurisdiction” (The Case of the S.S. “Lotus”, 1927,
over this case since the collision happened at high p.9). France claimed that the country of the flag
seas and asserted that Turkish authorities violated ship needed to have exclusive jurisdiction over the
the international law. The French side must have crimes committed on board the ship. Conversely,
objected to the assumption that the capitulations Turkey argued that since it was the Turkish flag
still existed, but they were wrong. When the trial carrying ship which was destroyed, the Turkish
started in Istanbul on September 13, Lieutenant courts should be entrusted with the case. The
Demons demanded his release on bail. It was carrying of the Turkish flag enabled the jurisdiction
accepted and the bail was fixed at 6,000 Turkish liras, to be passed on to Turkey. Turkey also argued that
in fact, with this demand and response, the French Turkish laws were adopted from France and were
side had accepted the Turkish laws. The Criminal compatible with the International law. Moreover,
Court in Turkey delivered its verdict and sentenced the negligent act on part of the French Lieutenant
Lieutenant Demons to eighty days imprisonment which caused the death of 8 Turkish seamen
and a fine of twenty-two pounds on September needed to be sentenced by the Turkish courts. The
15, 1926. Hasan Bey, the captain of Bozkurt, was Permanent Court of International Justice voted on
given a slightly more severe penalty. The Public the case and both sides received equal votes. Finally,
Prosecutor of the Turkish Republic appealed the the presiding judge voted in favor of Turkey stating
verdict since the terms had not been communicated that the capitulations were abolished according
to the Court by the Parties. Therefore, the execution to Article 28 of the Lausanne Peace Treaty which
of the verdict was suspended until a decision completely abolished them in Turkey. Article 15
was reached on appeal. Then, Turkey and France of the Convention also supported this view stating
had signed a Special Agreement in Geneva on “respecting Conditions of Residence and Business
October 12, 1926 and agreed to submit this case and Jurisdiction” which reads as “all questions of
177
jurisdiction shall, as between Turkey and the other one step further by declaring that “the existing treaties
Contracting Powers, be decided in accordance could lead to conflicts among the European powers and
with the principles of international law” (League needed to be revised” although he himself was one
of Nations, Treaty Series, 1924, p.163). There was of the main obstacles for the world peace (Barlas,
no international law to limit the Turkish Judiciary 2004, p.246). Soviet Russia considered that Turkey’s
on this case. Thus Turkey came out as the winning membership to the League would affect her relations
party. That’s exactly why Bozkurt-Lotus Case was an with Turkey and would cause a distance between
important success for Turkey on the international the two countries. However, Turkey assured Soviet
level and served as an example of advantages to Russia that she would not be part of the policies
be gotten from adherence to international law. devised against Soviet Russia (Güçlü, 2003, p.199-
Mahmut Esat Bey, who represented Turkey, adopted 200).
‘Bozkurt’ as his last name when the Surname Law Despite the opposition from Italy and Soviet
was accepted in Turkey in 1934. Russia, the invitation to join the League of Nations
was approved by the TGNA on July 9, 1932, in
Turkey’s Membership to the League order to benefit from a common security system
against the Italian aggression in Ethiopia and for
of Nations
fear of similar moves in the Middle East. The notion
In addition to all problems and threats she had which invited Turkey to the League membership
to encounter and also her contribution to world was confirmed by 28 countries including Albania,
and regional peace, Turkey was also going through Australia, Austria, Britain, Bulgaria, Colombia,
a series of reforms initiated by the State and mostly Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Estonia,
by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk to create a new modern Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Guatemala,
state. This new born country and nation managed Hungary, Iran, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Netherlands,
to attract the attention of the European states. New Zealand, Panama, Poland, Romania, Sweden,
Then, the biased attitude these states harbored Switzerland, and Yugoslavia. With the motion
against Turkey started to disappear. As mentioned it was accepted that “the Turkish Republic fulfils
above, many European countries signed friendship the general conditions laid down in Article 1 of the
treaties one by one in the 1920s and 1930s. Even Covenant for a state to become a member of the
better, Turkey was invited to become a member of League of Nations…to give it benefit of its valuable
the League of Nations in 1932 by the initiative of co-operation” (Güçlü, 2003, p.195).
the two representative states: Spain and Greece.
By the unanimous decision of the General
This invitation was in recognition of Turkey’s
Assembly of the League, Turkey was accepted as a
efforts toward peace in Europe.
member of the League of Nations on July 18, 1932
As a matter of fact, Turkey and the League representing 43 states (Güçlü, 2003, p.197-198).
did not have a happy start. The relation between In the following years, Turkey became one of the
the League and Turkey was strained during the few member countries that remained loyal to the
settlement of the Mosul Question. Nevertheless, the resolutions taken by the League. One example of this
invitation to join the League was a worldwide sign was the application of economic sanctions imposed on
of the recognition of the new Turkish state. Yet, the Italy during the period when Italy attacked Abyssinia.
invitation extended to Turkey to join the League was As a result, Turkey “received 20 votes even though it
not welcomed by Italy and Soviet Russia. Mussolini had not put forth its candidacy” in the election for
ignored Turkey since he believed that peace would Council membership in 1933 (Güçlü, 2003, p.201).
continue only with the initiatives of the Great Turkey was “elected as a non-permanent member of
Powers and “presented his ideas for a Four-Power the Council with 48 votes cast in its favor for a period
Pact to British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald” of three years with British, Balkan, and Western Asian
in March 1933. Mussolini offered that only “the four support” on September 17, 1934 (Güçlü, 2003,
Western powers -France, Germany, Britain, and Italy- p.202). Moreover, Turkey had a seat on the Council
should cooperate to preserve peace. … Would have the of the League from 1934 to 1937 which could only
power to revise the treaties that might lead to conflict be interpreted as her increasing prestige and influence
among states” (Barlas, 2004, p.246). Mussolini went on the international platform.
178
Turkey’s Membership to the was even not a member of the League of Nations.
International Court of Justice However, the Court had given its opinion on both
The clashes among the Great Powers in Europe issues against Turkey. Nevertheless, it had decided
encouraged the foundation of international in favor of Turkey on the aforementioned Bozkurt-
organizations in the late 19th and early 20th Lotus case in 1926.
centuries. The Permanent Court of Arbitration,
established under the 1899 and 1907 Conventions The Regime of the Straits and the
for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes, Montreux Convention
was one of these pioneering organizations to
Among the problems that prevented Turkey’s
sustain peace through international adjudication
full rapprochement with the world was the control
and law (Spiermann, 2005, p.3). Another
of the Straits which was under the authority of
such organization was the Permanent Court of
an international commission as stipulated by the
International Justice established by the Charter
Lausanne Peace Treaty, which also required their
of the League of Nations as the principal judicial demilitarization. This commission consisted of the
organ of the League of Nations on December United States, France, Britain, Japan, and Turkey.
13, 1920. Its aim was to ensure adjudication When German and Italian aggressive policies began
as opposed to arbitration. According to Article to disturb peace in Europe and in the Mediterranean
14 of the Covenant of the League, approved on region in the 1930s, Turkey was left defenseless along
January 10, 1920, the Permanent Court was its borders in the Straits. Especially, when, in 1936,
to be “a judicial body entrusted with two kinds of Italy fortified the Dodecanese Island against the treaty
jurisdiction: contentious jurisdiction over ‘any dispute of arbitration. Similarly, Germany armed the Rhine
of an international character which the parties. region by denying the conditions of the Versailles
.. submit to it’ and advisory jurisdiction over ‘any Treaty. What is more, Japan attacked Manchuria
dispute or question referred to it by the Council or and withdrew from the League of Nations. Under
by the Assembly’” (Spiermann, 2005, p.5). In its these distressing circumstances, Turkey applied to
foundation, it was determined that the Court was the League of Nations to present her concerns about
expected “to contribute, through its jurisprudence, a possible threat that she might receive from the
to the development of international law” when Straits and requested the control of the Straits to be
“any dispute of an international character” was transferred to Turkey on April 11, 1936. Turkey asked
submitted to it. The Court would “also give an the signatories of Lausanne to resume her wish of full
advisory opinion upon any dispute or question sovereignty on the Straits. The League of Nations
referred to it by the Council or by the Assembly” saw the justification in Turkey’s claim. Britain, the
(Spiermann, 2005, p.5, 8). The Court which was Soviet Union, the Balkan Entente members, and
established on the basis of the desire to establish a the Permanent Council backed her request. These
judicial organization to work in accordance with steps brought about the political and legal basis for
the founding principles of the League of Nations the Montreux Convention signed on July 20, 1936 in
was able to begin its work in 1922 in The Hague, Switzerland. According to the Montreux Convention,
The Netherlands. Turkey obtained the right to organize and arm the
Turkey decided to join the Permanent Straits for her security in the times of both war and
International Court of Justice three years after she peace. The convention also allowed Turkey to close
became a member of the League of Nations with the straits to all warships in and during the times of
the approval of the TGNA on June 10, 1935. war but to permit merchant ships free passage. While
However, before becoming a member, Turkey had all signatories of Lausanne accepted the Turkish
agreed to authorize the Court of Justice on certain proposal and signed the convention, Italy was not
issues such as the following two: (1) the etablis happy with this outcome at the beginning. Two
problem concerning the Greeks who were to remain years later, Turkey signed a separate agreement with
in Istanbul in their places which rose during the Italy on May 2 1938. This was another successful
conduct of the population exchange between Greece and peaceful outcome and solution of one of the
and Turkey and (2) the problem of Mosul. Turkey issues left unsolved in Lausanne.
conveyed these issues to the court in 1925 while she
179
Alexandretta Question
Alexandretta was the name of the Sandjak of İskenderun
(Sandjak d’Alexandrette) of the Aleppo Province of the
Ottoman Empire. It had two sub-districts (kaza) namely The antic name of İskenderun was Alexandretta.
Alexandretta (now İskenderun) and Antioch (now
Antakya). Atatürk named the central town of this sandjak
Hatay with a reference to the Hittites, who once ruled this region. The ethnicities in the Sandjak of
Alexandretta included Turks, Sunni Arabs, Alawis, Greeks, and Armenians. The Turks were the majority
in the Sandjak when it was occupied by the French Army following World War I. In fact, France claimed
this Sandjak for the additional advantage that it has an harbor which could be used to transport cotton
produced in Syria. The TGNA government had to accept unwillingly the stipulation of the Treaty of
Ankara signed on October 20, 1921 which granted Syria the rule of the Sandjak. The Treaty signed with
France, was paramount important for TGNA at the time since it would drive a wedge among the Allied
Block as mentioned previously.
During the talks prior to the signing of Ankara Treaty, Mustafa Kemal had insisted on putting
provisions in this treaty to protect the interests of the Turkish elements and lay the foundations for an
autonomous regime in İskenderun. There was a special administrative regime (autonomous) for the district
of İskenderun, and the Turkish language was accepted as official language there with the Treaty of Ankara
in 1921. France also agreed to “appoint officials of Turkish origin to districts with Turkish majorities, and
provide facilities for the development of Turkish culture” (Güçlü, 2001, p.596).
attention
“Franklin-Bouillon agreed, in return, that France would employ Turkish as an official language in the sanjak
of Iskenderun, appoint officials of Turkish origin to districts with Turkish majorities, and provide facilities
for the development of Turkish culture. France would also allow Turkish goods to travel by way of the port
of Iskenderun free of customs and, most importantly, allow the sanjak to have its own flag incorporating the
Nationalist flag. As flags are regarded as signs of statehood or, at least, of a distinct political entity, France
hereby recognized the distinctness of the sanjak of lskenderun from Syria. To the Nationalists, who regarded
the flag as the first step towards autonomy for the sanjak, the Ankara agreement had a significant bearing on
future disputes over it between Turkey and France.” (Güçlü, 2001, p.596)
Although the Ankara Treaty was not a peace treaty, it nevertheless was an official bilateral agreement
between the French and the TGNA government. It was not ratified by the two parliaments until 1923
when it became part of the Lausanne Peace Treaty (Güçlü, 2001, pp.602-603).
Meanwhile, the Sandjak of Alexandretta with a “Décision administrative” of the French High
Commissioner in Syria on March 4, 1923 “was attached to the state of Aleppo, but had its own council
and a special budget prepared by its Mutasarrif (governor).” When the peace talks in Lausanne were
interrupted in the period between February 4 and April 23, 1923 (Khadduri, 1945, p.408). Later the
Mandate Regime of France to Syria was approved by the League of Nations in September 1923. Then,
the Sandjak was attached to the State of Syria (existed from 1924 to 1930) in 1925 keeping its special
administrative status under the French Mandate of Syria (Fieldhouse, 2006, p.258). The borders between
Turkey and Syria were determined in 1926 and Alexandretta was left within the boundaries of Syria.
Mustafa Kemal continued his struggle to include The Sandjak of İskenderun within Turkish borders
during his lifetime. Yet, the Turkish governments could not take action on behalf of the Sandjak until
September 1936 when France promised Syria ‘its full independence in three years’ time. The decision
included “the unification of the state of Syria and the four autonomous sanjaqs- Alexandretta, Latakia,
the Druze, and Jazira” (Fieldhouse, 2006, p.298). Turkey was displeased with this decision and as a result
180
denounced the 1926 Friendship Treaty with Syria. State of Hatay). The new State began using the
In protest of this decision, Atatürk, on October 9, Turkish flag as her flag. The Hatay Assembly, then,
1936, demanded that the Sandjak be given its own unanimously decided to join the Turkish motherland
independence. The negotiations started upon the on June 29, 1939 and petitioned Ankara for
application of Turkey’s appeal on the status of the unification. The TGNA accepted the request made
Sandjak and the constitution of Syria at the League by Hatay to join the motherland and become the
of Nations on December 14, 1936. The talks province of Hatay on July 7, 1939. Finally, France
ended with a Franco-Turkish Agreement signed agreed to the annexation in return for the Turkish
on January 26, 1937. According to the agreement, entry into a non-aggression pact on July 23, 1939
the League of Nations would grant the status of which was followed by a similar agreement with
“entite distincte” to Alexandretta as a demilitarized Britain. This agreement secured Turkey’s support for
region. This ensured independence in internal Britain and France in a possible conflict with Italy
affairs, her own constitution, a guarantee for the and the Nazi Germany.
rights of her Turkish inhabitants. Additionally,
Turkish would remain the official language, “but
Syria would control foreign relations, customs
duties, and currency” (Fieldhouse, 2006, p.298).
This agreement also linked the Sandjak to both
France and Turkey in matters of defense including
the right to plebiscite.
Meanwhile, Atatürk organized the former
residents of the Sandjak, who resided out of the
Sandjak, to unite and have their voices heard to
have the Sandjak back in the Turkish borders. On
November 2, 1936, in İstanbul, he told the following
to Tayfur Sökmen, one of the pioneers of struggle
for Hatay: “from now on, the name of Antakya-
İskenderun and neighborhood is Hatay. Change
the name of İskenderun-Antakya and Solidarity
Association (İskenderun ve Antakya Muavenet-i
İçtimaiye Cemiyeti) to Hatay Independence Society
(Hatay Erginlik Cemiyeti) and continue your
activities under this name”. This call was welcomed
by Sökmen (Sökmen, 1978, p.95).
According to the agreements of 1937, the
elections in the region were supposed to be held by
April 15, 1938. However, French activities and the
Syrian intervention created trouble in the region.
Picture 5.11 Newspaper heading about the
The Turkish and French troops entered the Sandjak
Alexandretta June 30, 1939
to provide peace on July 5, 1938. The elections were
held on August 24, 1938, and the new National Source: https://mnzmgnydn.wordpress.com/2014/04/17/
hatayin-anavatana-katilmasi-30-haziran-1939/
Assembly was opened on September 2, 1938.
Tayfur Sökmen was elected the President of the new
state established in the Sandjak. He appointed Dr.
Abdurrahman Bey as the prime minister. There were 4
34 Turkish, 2 Arab, 2 Armenian and 2 Orthodox What were the important steps taken in solving
Greek deputies, a total of 40, in the Parliament. The the Question of Straits and the Alexandretta
Assembly approved that the name of the new State Question?
would be Hatay. Then, the Sandjak state began to be
called as Hatay Bağımsız Devleti (the Independent
181
The Foreign Statesmen Who Visited Turkey During the 1920s and 1930s
Atatürk was a leader keen on international relations. While he was busy with implementing the
revolutions in Turkey in every field after the victorious end of the Turkish War of Independence, he also
tried to establish good relations with other nations not only of western but also of eastern countries. He
developed political relations with European states. Among them were the former enemies such as Italy,
France, England and Greece. The world leaders accepted him as a genius and as the men of the century.
Numerous kings, political leaders and diplomats came and visited him in the 1920s and 1930s. Among
them were the King of Afghanistan, the Shah of Iran, the Emir of Jordan, the King of Romania, the King
of Yugoslavia, the King of Iraq, the Prime Minister of Greece, and the King of England. In no time in her
history had Turkey been visited by so many foreign statesmen in such a short period of time and in such
a frequent manner. The reason of all these visits was that Atatürk was a progressive, modern, and open
leader who created a young, dynamic, bright, free and civilized nation and state from the wreckage of a
fragmented empire by making a revolution in history. Unfortunately, he was unable to visit any country
after he was elected the president of Turkey. After his death, the ideal to develop and modernize the country
while maintaining the path of his peaceful foreign policies continued. However, after Atatürk’s death, the
world also witnessed many events, and new policies came about. Turkey, now, a part of the democratic
world, was also affected by these changes. The effects of especially World War II, whose outbreak in 1939
had been predicted by Atatürk even in the 1920s through his observation of the aggressive policies of Italy
and Germany, were quite detrimental to Turkey.
Picture 5.12 King of Afganistan Amanullah Han (1928) Picture 5.13 King of England VIII. Edward (1936)
Source: http://www.sessiztarih.net/2014/04/ataturku-ziyaret-eden-yabanci-devlet.html
Picture 5.14 King Faisal of Irak (1931)

Source: https://isteataturk.com/Kronolojik/Tarih/1931/7/6
182
Identify the major objectives and

LO 1 principles in Turkish Foreign Policy
following the Lausanne Peace Treaty
Turkey’s foreign policy followed the principles of the National Pact from the beginning of the national
struggle against the Allied occupations in Anatolia. Consequently, in every meeting held with the Allied
Powers during and after the Turkish War of Independence, the TGNA representatives based their
discussions around the Pact and stated that peace would only be possible if it was not against the National
Pact. The Pact presented important guidelines of securing the national and territorial unity. It was also
Summary
a guarantee that Turkey would be recognized as a sovereign entity which Mustafa Kemal insisted on as
a must. Turkish foreign policy was also based on a realist foreign policy within the framework of the
National Pact. This foreign policy also depended on the principles of adherence to international law and
on the motto “Peace at home and peace at World”. With all these principles and expectations, Turkey also
wanted to become a source of inspiration to the oppressed nations of the World.
Explain the Major International

LO 2 Challenges for Turkey in the 1920s
Major international challenges for Turkey were the issues left from the Lausanne Peace Conference held
between November 20, 1922 and July 24, 1923. Among others, these issues included the following
problems: the question of Mosul, the Turkish-Greek Population Exchange, the Ottoman Debts, the
demilitarization of the Straits and their control by an international commission. All these issues, with
the exception of the ones related to the Straits, were solved in the 1920s. While Turkey was trying to
resolve these issues, there was tension between Turkey and the relevant countries. For example, Mosul
was occupied by the British forces in 1918, which was against the terms of the Armistice of Moudros.
Mosul issue was brought on the agenda at Lausanne but it could not be solved when Britain insisted
that Mosul belonged to Iraq. This issue was decided to be discussed between Britain and Turkey within
nine months. Meetings for Mosul started in 1924 with the Golden Horn Conference (Haliç Konferansı).
When the meetings could not resolve the dispute, both countries decided to refer this issue to the League
of Nations, of which Turkey was not a member at that moment. Upon the Turkish request, the League
drew a temporary border (called the Brussels Line) between Iraq and Turkey on October 31, 1924, and
both powers promised not to violate that border. While meetings were held for Mosul, Britain tried to
create tension in the Turkish region close to the border with Iraq in 1924 and 1925. They even provoked
the Kurds in Eastern Anatolia in February 1925 (Şeyh Sait Rebellion) against the Turkish government
in order to weaken Ankara’s diplomatic position in the Mosul question. Moreover, the British Air Force
bombarded the Turkish city of Suleymaniye in August 1923 and caused the death of 37 people. All these
British acts could cause a new war between Turkey and Britain, but Turkey kept calm while awaiting
the decision from the League and the Permanent Court. Later, despite Turkish efforts to have it back in
her borders, Mosul was given to Iraq by the League in November 1925 when Iraq was under the British
mandate. The Permanent Court of International Justice at The Hague approved the League’s decision.
Later, Turkey established friendly relations with Iraq and signed the Frontier and Friendship Treaty with
Britain and Iraq on June 6, 1926. By this treaty, Turkey gave up its territorial claims on the Vilayet of
Mosul. In return for this, she would receive a share from the Turkish Petroleum Company in Iraq. Ten
percent of Iraq’s oil was allocated to Turkey for 25 years. Finally, Mosul was lost to Iraq while it was under
the British mandate and stayed so until the 1930s.
183
LO 2 Continued
Another international challenge for Turkey was the Turkish-Greek Population Exchange. The population
exchange was proposed by Greece and was accepted during the first phase of the Lausanne Peace
Conference. The meetings about the population exchange were held between the two countries in 1925
but continued until 1930 since there were disputes on (a) the properties of the Greeks who left İzmir
during the latter days of the Independence War and those of the Greeks who were sent later, (b) the
Summary
properties of the Turks in Greece who were subjected to population exchange. The expulsion of the
Orthodox Patriarch from Turkey also created problems between Turkey and Greece. This issue was solved
when Basil Georgiadis succeeded Constantine as the Patriarch of the Orthodox people in Turkey in May
1925, and diplomatic relations started between two countries. The problem between the two countries
were resolved by the agreements on the properties and etablis question first with the Greek-Turkish
Economic Pact concluded on June 10, 1930 “after the Venizelos government agreed to pay 425,000
sterling to Turkey” to compensate the Turks for restoring to the Greeks the lands they had taken over in
İstanbul. Finally, the population exchange was solved without causing a new war between Turkey and
Greece. Both countries signed the Treaty of Friendship, Neutrality, Mediation and Arbitration on October
30, 1930 which provided for the resolution of bilateral disputes over the exchange of populations and at
the same time established friendly relations between the two countries.
The issue of the Ottoman debts was also another challenge for Turkey discussed in the Lausanne Peace
Conference. Upon Turkish claims, the debts were shared among the Ottoman successor states and Turkey’s
share for the Ottoman debts amounted to 84.6 and 5.8 million liras respectively. The Turkish governments
rejected this amount set by the treaty and did not pay the debts until 1929 sincethe meetings about the
payment responsibilities continued with the related parties. Finally, the League of Nations got involved
in this matter and “the Turkish debt was reduced to 8 million gold liras (80 million liras) and the annual
payments to 700.000 gold liras (7 million paper liras) starting to be paid in 1933.
While Turkey was trying to solve the issues left from Lausanne, she established friendly relations with
the neighboring countries. The treaties of friendship signed with Soviet Russia, Iraq, Syria, and Iran in
the 1920s secured the eastern borders of Turkey and opened the way for future economic and political
cooperation. Turkey also established friendly relations with the European countries in the 1920s. Some
of these countries were Turkey’s former enemies. However, especially the Italian territorial claims in the
Balkans and in the Mediterranean region even after the Paris Peace Conference had affected Turkey in the
1920s. Despite the international efforts to resolve the border issues in Europe, the aggressive policies of
Germany and Italy created tension in Europe in the 1930s and Mustafa Kemal tried to keep Turkey away
from this tension.
184
Comprehend Turkey’s Foreign Policy in the 1930s and

LO 3 her Active Participation in the Regional Politics: The
Balkan Entente (Pact) and The Sadabad Pact
Under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal, Turkey followed a peaceful foreign policy with both neighboring
countries and with her former enemies. This peaceful foreign policy created a peaceful environment for
Turkey to realize the reforms and revolutions in her efforts to build a modern nation state respectable in
the civilized world. Turkey’s peaceful foreign policy also contributed to the regional politics in a period
when the unresolved border issues, and heavy war damages of World War I created tension in Europe
Summary
including the Balkans and in the Mediterranean region. These disputes were between the countries
supporting the status quo and those which are anti-status quo. The first attempt to establish regional peace
was achieved through the Balkan Entente which was the product of mutual efforts of Venizelos, the Greek
Premier, and Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the President of the Turkish Republic. In support of the peace
keeping efforts, there was a series of Balkan conferences held with the participation of Albania, Bulgaria,
Romania, Yugoslavia, Greece, and Turkey in Athens in 1929, in Istanbul in 1931, and in Thessaloniki in
1932. The result of these conferences was the signing of the Balkan Entente or the Balkan Pact between
Turkey, Greece, Yugoslavia, and Romania in Athens on February 9, 1934. With this pact, they guaranteed
each other’s territorial integrity and independence and decided to settle disputes among the signatories
peacefully. Bulgaria, however, did not sign it until 1938 since she had territorial claims from Turkey and
Greece. This Pact was maintained until World War II. It became null after the Italian occupations in the
Balkans. Each signatory state had to take care of its own interests on its own.
Turkey’s contribution to the regional politics was not limited to the Balkans. She also played an active role
in contributing to peace with her neighboring countries in the east starting from the 1920s onward. The
Sadabad Pact was signed in 1937 between Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Afghanistan. Prior to this Pact, Turkey
established friendly relations with Syria by signing the Convention of Friendship and Good Neighborly
Relation, with Procés-Verbal of Signature, in Ankara on May 30, 1926 through France. This Convention
also covered Lebanon. Good relations were also established with Iraq via Britain when the Frontier and
Friendship Treaty was signed on June 5, 1926. Turkish-Iraq relations developed further when Iraq got
her independence from Britain in 1930. King Faisal of Iraq showed his intention of friendship and
cooperation by sending his prime minister Nuri al-Said to Turkey in 1931.
Turkey had close relations with Afghanistan at the time. Despite the geographical distance between the two
countries, their cultural and historical past brought them closer. Afghanistan and Iran were the two countries
who had recognized the TGNA government as the representative of Turkey during the Turkish War of
Independence. Relations with Iran and Afghanistan progressed throughout years. The Afghan Leader Gazi
Amanullah Khan was the first foreign leader to congratulate Mustafa Kemal after the Treaty of Lausanne
was signed. He had also applauded the declaration of the Turkish Republic. The Friendship and Cooperation
Agreement between Turkey and Afghanistan was signed on May 25, 1928 and Turkey sent doctors, teachers,
technicians, engineers, etc. to Afghanistan to help the process of restructuring and modernization.
Turkey signed the Treaty of Conciliation, Judicial Settlement and Arbitration with Iran on January 23,
1932 to determine the borders between the two countries. This treaty was going to be the first definitive
frontier treaty between the two and solved the centuries-old border issues. With these close relations in the
background, the representatives of Turkey, Iraq, and Iran met in Geneva upon Italy’s attack on Abyssinia
and signed a tripartite agreement on October 2, 1935. Nevertheless, this agreement was turned into a pact
later on due to the resolution of Iran-Iraq border problems in 1937. Iraq, Iran, Turkey, and Afghanistan
concluded the Sadabad Pact, which was signed on July 8, 1937 in Sad-Abad, the summer palace of the
Shah of Iran in Tehran. According to the Pact, the four states accepted “to preserve their common frontiers,
not to interfere in one another’s internal affairs, to commit no aggression against one another’s territory and
to consult together on all matters of common interest” (Hale, 2013, p.46). This Pact is important in terms
of being the first multilateral agreement to aim political solidarity in the Middle East region. However,
athough it survived World War II, it was almost forgotten after the war, and with the establishment of the
Baghdad Pact in 1955, it lost its impact.
185
Recognize Turkey’s Contribution to World Peace and

LO 4 her Membership in the League of Nations and other
international pacts and organizations
The foreign relations of Turkey were established on the bases of cooperation, mutual benefit, friendship
and non-aggression since the winners and losers of World War I were divided into camps as pro-status quo
or anti-revisionist and revisionist. The countries who favored pro-status quo or anti-revisionist position
wanted to preserve the peace terms determined at the Paris Peace Conference (1919-1920). The revisionist
countries, however, favored changes in the peace terms in their favor, and they pursued expansionist
Summary
policies. Although Turkey had many issues left from Lausanne, she was on the pro-status quo camp and
tried to solve her issues in peaceful terms and means. Following the Turkish War of Independence, Turkey
solved the problems by supporting and following a peaceful foreign policy with adherence to international
laws. This policy contributed to not only the regional but also the global peace. For example, Turkey’s
adherence to the international laws was better tested in the issues which could not be solved during
the Lausanne Peace Conference such as Mosul, Ottoman debts, the Straits and population exchange
between Greece and Turkey. Turkey even solved the Question of Alexandretta Sandjak peacefully which
was granated to Syria with the Treaty of Ankara. During the 1920s and the 1930s, Turkey became an
active opponent of “Appeasement” and supported the League of Nation’s policy of collective security.
Turkey’s peaceful foreign policy was not only implemented in the resolution of the issues concerning
Turkey but also in other issues concerning the regional and global peace. This stance was valuable in a
period when there were hard discussions on border issues, war compensations and colonialist claims.
These disputes, unfortunately, paved the way to World War II despite the existence of the League of
Nations as well as the existence of the Permanent Court of International Justice in The Hague. The post
war period in Europe hosted a series of meetings, conferences and treaties either bilateral or multilateral
to resolve the issues remaining from World War I. Locarno meetings held in 1925 with the participation
of Belgium, Czechoslovakia, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, and Poland were one of them. The
participants of these meetings signed the Locarno Pact on December 1, 1925 and agreed to keep the
German-Belgian and Franco-German frontiers as determined by the Treaty of Versailles.
Another meeting was held in Paris with the initiative taken by Frank B. Kellogg, the US Secretary of
State, and Aristide Briand, the French Minister for Foreign Affairs, to preserve peace. Collective security
that the major powers of Europe and the US cared so much about had become fragile in the late 1920s.
With the participation of the representatives from Germany, the US, Australia, Belgium, Britain and her
6 dominions (Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Irish Free Sate, and India), Czechoslovakia,
Italy, Japan, and Poland a pact was signed on August 27, 1928 in Paris. This pact, although named Kellogg-
Briand Pact with reference to the statesmen who initiated the talks, was also called Pact of Paris since it was
signed in Paris. It renounced war as an instrument of national policy. Turkey joined this Pact by signing
it on January 19, 1929.
The efforts to keep peace continued not only in the 1920s but also in the 1930s. The World Disarmament
Conference convened by the League of Nations in Geneva in February 1932 with representatives from 60
states. Preparation for this conference started in 1926 and the Turkish government accepted the invitation
of the League to join in the work of the ‘Preparatory Commission’ for the Disarmament Conference in
1928. Turkey joined the work of the Advisory Committee on ‘Traffic in Opium’ and later subscribed to
the International Opium Convention. The Disarmament Commission obtained initial agreements from
France, Italy, Spain, Japan, and Great Britain to limit the size of their navies, but no final agreement was
reached.
186
LO 4 Continued
Despite the efforts made to preserve peace on international level, the problems that arose in and within
the European countries proved that peace was very fragile in case problems arose because each problem
had the potential to be used as an excuse to employ arms in the name of self-defense, which might lead to
a full scale war. This was what happened in 1936 when a civil war broke in Spain between the Nationalists
lead by General Francisco Franco and the Republicans. Italy, Germany, and Soviet Union got directly
Summary
involved in this civil war. Italy and Germany supported Franco, while the Soviet Union supported the
Republicans. The civil war was not only limited to Spain. It also spread to the Mediterranean region.
Piracy rose piracy rose and the ships of every nation were attacked by the pirates whose identity were
not known. Even the submarines were attacked. Turkey was concerned since she lacked a powerful navy
including submarines to protect the borders at waters. Upon these attacks, the French government took
the initiative and called all concerned parties to a meeting on August 31. The conference was held at Nyon
with the participation of France, Britain, Bulgaria, Egypt, Greece, Romania, the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia,
and Turkey on September 10, 1937 to end piracy and insecurity in the Mediterranean. Italy and Germany
did not join the conference since they were part of this insecurity. The main goal of the conference was to
end the present state of insecurity in the Mediterranean and to ensure the use of the rules of international
law regarding shipping at seas.
Despite all these efforts to reserve peace in Europe, the tension rose when Germany sent troops into
the Rhineland in 1936, which had been previously demilitarized according to the terms of the Treaty of
Versailles. When this was protested, Germany used the Franco-Soviet alliance of 1935 as an excuse to
support her expansionist act. Moreover, despite the fact that Germany signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact in
1928, she did not end her disputes with Czechoslovakia in 1938 or with Poland in 1939 and occupied
these countries in September 1939. This act started World War II. Turkey, however, preserved its stance
on adherence to international law as in the cases concerning Mosul and Bozkurt-Lotus, the Straits, and
the Sandjak of İskenderun. She took action against the aggressive Italian policies by agreeing to implement
sanctions on Italy imposed by the League of Nations when Italy occupied Abyssinia in 1935. For this
reason, Turkey was invited to become a member of the League of Nations in 1932, and she herself applied
to become a member of the Permanent Court of International Justice at The Hague on June 10, 1935.
187
1 Which of the following defines Turkey’s 5 Which of the following events was the reason
foreign policy? for the foundation of the Balkan Pact and which
A. Realism. country did not participate in it?
B. “Peace at home, Peace in the World”. A. It was founded only for the economic
Test Yourself
C. Adherence to International Law cooperation among the Balkan countries, and

D. Foreign relations on a solid basis Bulgaria did not participate.
E. All of the above. B. It was founded only for the economic
cooperation among the Balkan countries, and
Romania did not participate.
2 According to the Treaty of Lausanne, what C. It was founded to enable cooperation in every
was the resolution on the issue of the Straits? field including the security of the borders
A. The control of the Straits was given to Turkey. among the Balkan states, and Bulgaria did not
B. The control of the Straits was given to the participate.
International Commission and the Straits were D. It is all about the security of the borders in the
demilitarized. Balkans and Greece did not participate.
C. Turkey gave the control of the Straits to the E. It was founded to ensure collaboration against
countries which had coasts around the Black France and Britain, and Greece did not
Sea. participate.
D. Turkey shared the rule of the Straits with the
neighbouring countries. 6 Which of the following was the first
E. The control of the Straits was given to the international co-operation in which Turkey
League of Nations. participated?
A. Turkey’s membership to the League of Nations.
3 The native Greeks of which city or region B. Turkey’s participation in the Kellogg-Briand
were not displaced in accordance with the Treaty Pact.
of Lausanne? C. Turkey’s participation in the World
A. Istanbul Disarmament Conference.
B. the Aegean Region D. Turkey’s signature of the Locarno Pact.
C. Western Thrace E. Turkey’s membership to the Permanent Court
D. İzmir of International Justice at The Hague.
E. Ankara
7 Why did Turkey join to the League of
4 What was Turkey’s foreign policy between Nations?
1920 and 1938? A. to defend Turkey against the ex-Soviet Unions’
A. to follow an irredentist policy towards the irredentist policy
foreign countries B. to restore Turkey’s role in Mosul
B. to establish a careful foreign policy towards the C. to establish close relations with Britain and
Allied Powers France
C. to establish foreign relations on the basis of D. to defend Turkey against Italian aggression in
cooperation for mutual benefit Ethiopia and to avoid similar moves in the
D. to sign treaties on the basis of only economic Middle East
benefit E. to ensure the inclusion of the Sandjak in
E. to maintain the pre-World War I status quo İskenderun to Turkey
188
8 Which of the following events first initiated 10 Which of the following events encouraged
the Turkish attempt to resolve the Sandjak of Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, and Turkey to form the
Alexandretta Question (Hatay Sorunu)? Sadabad Pact?
A. the French promise to Syria of its full A. the German aggression.
Test Yourself
independence and the unification of the state of B. the occupation of Manchuria by Japan.
Syria with the autonomous sandjaks including C. the Alexandretta Question.
Alexandretta (İskenderun) D. Italy’s attack on Abyssinia which threatened
B. the occupation of Abyssinia by Italy security in the Eastern Mediterranean.
C. the establishment of the Sadabat Pact E. Britain’s expansionist policy in the Middle
D. the acceptance of the Turkish thesis by the East.
League of Nations
E. the French fear of the Nazi and fascist threats in
the Mediterranean
9 Which of the following was not one of the

consequences of the Montreux Convention?
A. Turkey resumed full sovereignty on the Straits.
B. The Convention is a victory that increase
Turkey’s prestige in international relations.
C. The importance of Turkey increased in the
Mediterranean and in the Middle East.
D. Turkey gained political power to solve the
Alexandretta Question.
E. Turkey’s relation with the Soviet Russia
deteriorated.
189

1. E “The Turkish Foreign Policy during the 6. B If your answer is wrong, please review
section “Turkey’s Entrance to the Kellogg-
Post-Lausanne Period: Major International
Briand Pact”.
Challenges in the 1920s”.
2. B If your answer is wrong, please review section 7. D

“Turkey’s Foreign Policy in the 1930s and its
Active Participation in the Regional Politics
section “Turkey’s Membership to the League
and Peace: The Balkan Entente (Pact) and the
of Nations”.
Sadabad Pact” and “The Regime of the Straits
and the Montreux Convention”.

3. A 8. A If your answer is wrong, please review section
section “The Greek and Turkish Population
“Alexandretta Question”.
Exchange”.

4. B “The Turkish Foreign Policy during the 9. E If your answer is wrong, please review
section “The Regime of the Straits and the
Post-Lausanne Period: Major International
Montreux Convention”.
Challenges in the 1920s”.
5. C If your answer is wrong, please review section 10. D If your answer is wrong, please review section
“The Balkan Entente (Pact) (1934)”. “The Sadabad Pact (1937)”.
What were the main obstacles that prevented Turkey from

taking Mosul back?
One of the obstacles that prevented Turkey from taking Mosul back was the
British Mandate in Iraq and the Kingdom of Iraq that was founded by Britain
in 1921. Although the Turkish government made an effort to take Mosul back
at the Lausanne Peace Conference, a negotiated solution could not be reached
because of the British insistence on the idea that Mosul belonged to Iraq. It
was decided that this issue would be settled within nine months by direct
negotiations between Turkey and Britain. Meetings were held between Turkey
and Britain who acted on behalf of her mandate in Iraq in 1924. Since these
meetings could not find a solution, the problem was referred to the League of
Nations. This was another obstacle for Turkey since she was not a member of the
League, whereas Britain was. The League formed a commission for Mosul and
your turn 1 the commission granted Mosul to Iraq in 1925. During this time, the British
Air Force bombarded the Turkish city of Suleymaniye in August 1923 in order
to threaten Turkey and prevent her from declaring war to take Mosul back.
Moreover, Britain even provoked the Kurds in Turkey against the government
as in the example of Şeyh Sait Rebellion which broke out in February 1925
in order to weaken Ankara’s diplomatic position in the Mosul question. These
events took place especially after Turkey signed a Friendship Treaty with the
Soviet Russia in 1925. Britain thought that Turkey might declare war to Britain
with the Soviet help and try to take Mosul back. Turkey transferred the issue to
The Permanent Court of International Justice at The Hague. This attempt also
failed since the Court approved the League’s decision. These series of obstacles
prevented Turkey from taking Mosul back.
190
What were the important steps taken in solving the

problems between Turkey and Greece after the Turkish
War of Independence?

Turkey and Greece, who were at war (the Turkish War of Independence)
between 1919-1922, established friendly relations after solving the issues left
from the Lausanne Peace Conference. Among these issues, the population
exchange created tension between two countries until 1930. Both countries
signed the convention of “Concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish
Populations” comprising 19 articles during the first phase of the conference
on January 30, 1923. However, it took a long time to realize the population
exchange since the convention used general terms describing the Turks and
Greeks to be included in the exchange. They were to be “Turkish nationals of the
Greek Orthodox religion established in the Turkish territory and Greek nationals of
the Moslem religion established in the Greek territory” (League of Nations, Treaty
Series, 1925, p.77). Article 2 of the Convention described the populations
who would not be included in the population exchange. They were the Greek
inhabitants of Istanbul who resided there before October 30, 1918 (etablis)
and the Muslim inhabitants of Western Thrace “in the region to the east of the
frontier line laid down in 1913 by the Treaty of Bucharest.” (League of Nations,
Treaty Series, 1925, p.77). However, thousands of Greeks who had fled from
İzmir to Greece during the last days of the Turkish War of Independence were
not mentioned in the Convention, and this caused long disputes. Meetings
between Greece and Turkey were meant to solve this question, but they could
your turn 2 not reach a solution until 1930 when Venizelos, the Greek Premier, made a
peaceful explanation that he believed that Turkey is “a peace-loving country
that would not attack Greece…”. This speech normalized the relations. İsmet
İnönü, the Turkish Prime Minister, invited Venizelos to Turkey. Before he
came to Turkey, the Greek-Turkish Economic Pact was concluded on June
10, 1930 “after the Venizelos government agreed to pay 425,000 sterling to
Turkey” to compensate the Turks for the restoration of the lands they had
taken over in İstanbul to the Greeks. Moreover, Venizelos came to Turkey
and he was welcomed during his visits to Ankara and İstanbul in October
1930. The signing of the Treaty of Friendship, Neutrality, Mediation and
Arbitration (No. 2841) on October 30, 1930 (Hale, 2013, p.44) followed
this visit. This treaty provided the resolution of the bilateral disputes over the
exchange of populations. It also required both parties “not to enter into any
political or economic agreement or any alliance directed against the other
Party”. Moreover, both sides agreed to keep neutrality in case any disagreement
between one of them with another country and to solve the problems with
conciliation or to bring them to the attention of the Permanent Court of
International Justice when they could not find a solution (League of Nations,
Treaty Series, 1931-1932, p.11, 13, 15). İsmet İnönü also visited Greece in
1931; the friendly relations improved. Furthermore, Mustafa Kemal and
Venizelos jointly tried to form the Balkan Pact in 1934.
191
What were the international agreements/ treaties for

peaceful cooperation to which Turkey was a party by
signing them?
Turkey signed international agreements and treaties from the 1920s onward
to help preserve peace in the world and contribute to collective security. The
first of these agreements was the Kellogg-Briand Pact, also known as the Pact
of Paris since it was signed on August 27, 1928 in Paris. This pact renounced
war as an instrument of national policy. Turkey signed the Pact on January 19,
1929. This was the first participation in an international pact.
Another international agreement that Turkey signed was the World Disarmament
Conference convened by the League of Nations in Geneva in February 1932.
Preparations for this conference started in 1926 and the Turkish government
accepted the invitation of the League to join the ‘Preparatory Commission’ for
the Disarmament Conference in 1928. Turkey also contributed to the work
of the Advisory Committee on ‘Traffic in Opium’ and later subscribed to the
International Opium Convention. The Disarmament Commission obtained
initial agreements from France, Italy, Spain, Japan, and Great Britain to limit
the size of their navies, but no final agreement was reached.
Turkey attended the Nyon Conference in 1936 which was held after the
civil war started in Spain in 1936 and piracy rose in the Mediterranean. This
conference was held with the participation of France, Britain, Bulgaria, Egypt,
your turn 3 Greece, Romania, the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, and Turkey. The participants
signed an agreement on September 10, 1937 to end the present state of
insecurity in the Mediterranean. They wanted to ensure the strict use of the
rules of international law regarding shipping at the seas.
Turkey worked for the formation of the Balkan Pact in 1934 and the Sadabad
Pact in 1937. The Balkan Pact was signed on February 9, 1934 in Athens with
the participation of Turkey, Greece, Yugoslavia, and Romania. These countries
guaranteed each other’s territorial integrity and independence and decided to
settle disputes among the signatories peacefully. The Sadabad Pact was signed
on July 8, 1937 in Sad-Abad, the summer palace of the Shah of Iran in Tehran
with the participation of Iraq, Iran, Turkey, and Afghanistan. The participant
countries promised “to preserve their common frontiers, not to interfere in one
another’s internal affairs, to commit no aggression against one another’s territory,
and to consult together on all matters of common interest” (Hale, 2013, p.46).
As a result of her efforts to contribute to world peace by adopting a peaceful
foreign policy, by supporting collective security, and by being a party to the
international agreements, Turkey was awarded with an invitation to become a
member of the League of Nations in 1932.
192
What were the important steps taken in solving the

Question of Straits and the Alexandretta Question?

The Straits and the Alexandretta Question or the Sandjak of İskenderun Question
were important issues for Turkey in terms of her security and borders. The Sandjak
of Alexandretta was lost to Syria with the Treaty of Ankara in 1921. The Straits were
under the control of an international commission with the convention signed in
Lausanne.
The Sandjak of İskenderun was granted to Syria with important provisions
that Mustafa Kemal inserted to the Ankara Treaty before it was signed.
According to the provisions, the interests of the Turkish elements were
protected with a special administrative regime (autonomous) for the district
of Alexandretta (İskenderun) and the Turkish language was accepted as an
official language. France also agreed to “appoint officials of Turkish origin to
districts with Turkish majorities and provide facilities for the development
of Turkish culture” (Güçlü, 2001, p.596). The TGNA government signed
the Treaty of Ankara to drive a wedge in the Allied Block and accepted the
Sandjak to be within the borders of Syria with the Treaty signed between
Syria and Turkey in 1926. However, Mustafa Kemal was not willing to leave
the Sandjak to Syria. France did not keep her with the Treaty of Ankara
and the Sandjak of İskenderun was attached to the state of Aleppo in 1923.
Later, the Mandate Regime of France to Syria was approved by the League of
Nations in September 1923 and the Sandjak became part of the State of Syria
(existed between 1924-1930). All these moves taken by France in making
the Sandjak a part of Syria made it more difficult to join it with Turkey.
Turkey did not take action to take this Sandjak back from Syria until 1936
when France promised Syria ‘its full independence in three years’ time. Then,
your turn 4 Turkey denounced the 1926 Friendship Treaty with Syria and demanded the
Sandjak be given its own independence on October 9, 1936. The negotiations
started upon the application of Turkey’s appeal on the status of the Sandjak
and ended with a Franco-Turkish Agreement signed on January 26, 1937.
According to this agreement, the League of Nations would grant the status
of “entite distincte” to Alexandretta as a demilitarized region. It gave Syria
the right to control the Sandjak’s foreign relations, customs duties, and
currency. Moreover, this agreement also approved an election to be held by
15 April 1938. However, French activities and the Syrian intervention created
trouble in the region. The Turkish and French troops entered the Sandjak to
provide peace on July 5, 1938. The elections were held on August 24, 1938
and the new National Assembly was opened on September 2, 1938. Tayfur
Sökmen was elected the President of the new state established in the Sandjak.
He appointed Dr. Abdurrahman Bey as his prime minister. The Assembly
approved the decision of naming the new state Hatay and the Sandjak state
began to be called Hatay Bağımsız Devleti (the Independent State of Hatay).
The new State began using the Turkish flag as her flag. The Hatay Assembly,
then, unanimously decided to join the Turkish motherland on June 29, 1939
and petitioned Ankara for unification. The TGNA accepted the request made
by Hatay to join the motherland. Hatay, became the province of Hatay on
July 7, 1939. France agreed to the annexation in return for Turkey’s entry into
a non-aggression pact on July 23, 1939 followed by a similar agreement with
Britain. This agreement secured Turkey’s support for Britain and France in a
possible conflict with the Nazi Germany.
193
Continued.
The Straits were under the control of an international commission with the
Convention relating to “the Regime of the Straits” signed during the Lausanne
Peace Conference in 1923. The Straits commission was formed by Turkey,
France, Britain, Italy, Japan, Bulgaria, Greece, Romania, Soviet Russia, and
the Serb-Croat-Slovene State, and it was headed by Turkey. According to
the Convention, 15 kilometers on both shores of the Straits were accepted
as a demilitarized zone. Nevertheless, according to the treaty, the Turkish
administration would maintain a military unit of 12,000 soldiers to guarantee
the safety of Istanbul (The Treaties of Peace, 1924, p.1025-1033). However,
while the Straits were demilitarized and left defenseless, Turkey was exposed
to dangers when the aggressive policies of Germany and Italy began to disturb
the peace in Europe and in the Mediterranean region in the 1930s. Italy
fortified the Dodecanese Island in 1936 contrary to the treaty of arbitration
your turn 4 signed between Turkey and Italy. Similarly, Germany armed the Rhine region
by denying the conditions of the Versailles Treaty. What is more, Japan
attacked Manchuria and withrew from the League of Nations. Under these
distressing circumstances, Turkey applied to the League of Nations to present
her concerns about a possible threat she might receive from the Straits and
requested the control of the Straits to be transferred to Turkey on April 11,
1936. Turkey asked the signatories of Lausanne to resume her full sovereignty.
The League of Nations saw the justification in Turkey’s claim. Britain, the
Soviet Union, the Balkan Entente members and the Permanent Council
backed her request. These steps brought about the political and legal basis for
the Montreux Convention signed on July 20, 1936 in Switzerland. According
to the Montreux Convention, Turkey obtained the right to organize and arm
the Straits for her security in times of both war and peace. The convention also
allowed Turkey to close the straits to all warships in and during the times of
war and only permit merchant ships free passage. Turkey managed to resolve
the problem of Straits peacefully with adherence to international law.
194
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195
Chapter 6 Turkey and World War II
1 2
Learning Outcomes
explain the primary causes and facts about describe the foreign policy after Atatürk: ‘Active
World War II, Neutrality’ during World War II,
pinpoint the economic impact of World War II comprehend the reflections of state economic
3 on Turkey and identify the measures the state

took to alleviate the adverse effects,
4 measures on society and assess the growth of
popular discontent.
Key Terms
World War II
Chapter Outline Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan)
Introduction Allied Powers (Britain, France, the USA, and the
World War II: Causes and Facts Soviet Union)
Turkish Foreign Policy during World War II World War II Conferences
Wartime Politics and Society United Nations
Turkey Turns Face to the West Active Neutrality
State Measures for Economic Regulation İsmet İnönü
The Social Sphere: Alienation and Discontent Numan Menemencioğlu
Cairo and Yalta Conferences
Turkish economy during the 1940s
Popular discontent during the 1940s
Social effects of World War II
196
INTRODUCTION restrictions, remilitarized the Rhineland, occupied

The world had to face another total war in 1939 the Sudetenland and Anschluss, Austria on March
when the weapons of WW I had not cooled down 12, 1938. World War II officially began when Italy
yet. Spread to a great area (Asia, Europe, and the occupied Albania and Germany sent troops to
Pacific), World War II lasted until 1945. In reality, Czechoslovakia and attacked Poland on September
the events that prepared World War II began soon 1, 1939. Britain and France immediately declared
after World War I. The belligerents of WW I, war to Germany on September 3, 1939. Soon
Italy and Germany, were the main provocateurs after, the Soviet Russia joined the war by attacking
of this all-out war. Benito Mussolini, who came Finland. The belligerents, mainly Italy, Germany,
to power in Italy in 1922, was eager to establish a and Japan, formed the Axis Powers. On the other
colonial empire in the Mediterranean and Africa hand, Britain and France, later joined by the Soviet
believing that Italy was heir to the ancient Roman Russia and the USA, formed the Allied Powers to
Empire. Adolf Hitler founded National Socialism defend themselves against the irredentism of the
in Germany, which demanded a pure Germanic Axis Powers.
race to be dominant: an Aryan race who would World War II continued until 1945 and ended
be above all. To ensure total purity in the German by causing millions of military and civilian deaths.
society, Hitler and his followers caused the deaths The number of casualties of this war is high
of thousands who were considered non-Aryan. The because of the use of technologically developed
termination of non-Aryan peoples went on not weapons including the nuclear ones. The military
only in Germany but also in the countries occupied vehicles used on land, at sea, and in the air caused
by Germany during the war. the destruction of cities and nature and left many
The Bolsheviks also posed danger for the people homeless and large areas arid.
European peace since their territorial claims During the War, the politicians from Britain,
threatened the European and Asian countries. the USA, and the Soviet Russia came together in
Everyone sang praises of their own ideology. In such conferences held in different countries to decide
conditions, there were disagreements and political on both the strategies to be followed to eliminate
and ideological clashes in the world. The 1930s the Axis Powers and the plans to keep peace after
were the troubled years in the world. World War the war. This war ended when the Allied troops
II started with the Italian occupation of Ethiopia entered Germany and she had to surrender. The
on September 5, 1935 despite the protests against Japanese Empire surrendered when the two cities,
the occupation. In 1936, Germany sent troops into Hiroshima and Nagasaki, were bombed with
the Rhineland, which was demilitarized according atomic bombs.
to the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. The Spanish During the war, both the Axis and the Allied
Civil War drew more wedges between these Powers tried to convince or force the neutral
countries. The Civil War started when General countries to join the war on their side. Germany
Franco took over the rule of the country in 1936. wanted Turkey to either stay neutral or join the
The fight was between the Nationalists of Franco Axis Powers. On the other hand, the leaders of the
and the Republicans. Germany, Italy, and the Soviet Allied Powers tried to convince Turkey to side with
Russia were actively involved in this civil war by them. However, despite invitations or attempts to
supporting either side according to their ideological force or convince Turkey to join the war, Turkey
stance. As the tension increased in Europe, piracy in managed to stay neutral until the end of World War
the Mediterranean started as explained in Unit 5. In II and avoided any entanglement with Germany
fact, the tension spread to the Pacific as well. After and with other Axis Powers (Italy and Japan).
withdrawing from the League of Nations, Japan Soviet Russia was a threat for Turkey during
attacked Manchuria with an expansionist intent. the War since Joseph Stalin had his eyes on lands
To some, the Spanish Civil was considered as in Turkey. This was something Turkey had to deal
the rehearsal for WW II. Despite the fact that the with during the War. Toward the end of the War on
Treaty of Versailles had put serious limitations on February 23, 1945, Turkey declared war on Japan
Germany, Hitler, with complete disregard to these and Germany, which was a requirement to join the
197
Turkey and World War II
United Nations. Consequently, Turkey, a member Big farmers, importers, traders, and state officials
of the United Nations, took her place by the Allied in charge of government contracts and permits
Powers. Fortunately, Turkey never had to fight the exploited the conditions and gained profits. The
Axis Powers because the war had already turned government imposed the Wealth Tax (Varlık
against them and there was no need for the Turkish Vergisi) on November 11, 1942 to able to tax these
Army. The first section of this unit will cover the war profiteers. However, the haphazardly decided
causes and the events of WWII. amount of wealth tax caused bitter criticism and
Through WWII, Turkey remained de facto violations of justice in the country. Many of the
neutral although both the Allied and the Axis businessmen who were taxed were Non-muslims,
powers pressured her to join the war. By staying and they dominated trade in İstanbul and other
out of the war, Turkish leaders aimed at protecting cities. They were subject to tax rates ten times
Turkey’s security won in 1923 and saving it higher than those of Muslims and paid 55 per
from the destruction of the war since the bad cent of the total tax revenue. Although this tax was
experiences of WWI were still fresh in their minds. abolished in 1944, its negative impact continued
Turkish foreign policy during WWII was a policy and caused heartbreaks and resentment within the
which maintained the balance of power between non-Muslim communities in Turkey. After the
herself and the great powers, and it rejected to Wealth Tax, the Agricultural Products Tax (Toprak
be dependent on any of them. Turkey allied with Mahsulleri Vergisi) was accepted on June 4, 1943
Britain but developed friendly relations with aiming to target the owners of large commercial
Germany and Russia. She would gain practically lands who were enriched by their agricultural
nothing but would lose much by entering into the products during the war. In fact, this tax could not
war. The section entitled “Turkish Foreign Policy be collected from the farmers targeted as much as
during WWII” will first explain the premises of the planned, but it affected small subsistence farmers
Turkish foreign policy and then will account for until it was abolished in 1945. Furthermore,
the major events concerning the Turkish foreign there was a shortage of labor in towns and in the
policy from 1939 to 1945. countryside which originated from mobilization.
The salaries fell and state and private employees
In fact, after Atatürk, the foreign policy of
suffered much during the War. The standard of
Turkey was determined according to the World
living went down and was recovered only in the
politics. Following Atatürk’s death, İsmet İnönü
early 1950s. The policies that the government
who once served as Prime Minister to Atatürk, was
followed during World War II caused problems
elected as the President of Turkey on November
between the government and the people and the
11, 1938. When World War II started, Turkey
producers. The RPP government tried to win their
was under the Presidency of İsmet İnönü, and the
hearts by making changes after 1945. Following
governing party was the Republican People’s Party
World War II, Turkey went into a series of changes
(hereafter RPP). Turkey stayed neutral until the
in economy, politics, and social life. The last two
very end of the war and followed a peaceful foreign
sections of this unit will explain the effects of this
policy. Nevertheless, this war affected Turkey
war on Turkey and on the Turkish society.
and Turkish people who suffered from the war
politically, economically, and socially.
When the war started, the Turkish government WORLD WAR II: CAUSES AND
declared mobilization. As a result, production, FACTS
foreign trade, and government revenues fell, World War II started in 1939 and continued until
while military expenditures increased. President 1945. This war began despite all the efforts spent by
İsmet İnönü followed an authoritarian policy the European Powers to prevent it. Even though they
and dominated the cabinet. Economic problems tried hard, the nations involved in World War I could
and censorship imposed on the news created not prevent the border disputes and arms race. The
the opposition in Turkey. In the early years of belligerents of WW I caused most of the problems.
the war, the monetary and budgetary policies The founding of the League of Nations to provide
created a black market economy, and products solutions for possible disputes among the member
became available through non-official channels.
198
countries did not bear fruit. The countries such Struggle) while he was in prison. This book sheds
as Germany and Italy were against the status quo light on Hitler’s anti-semiticism and contains
established in Europe by the Paris Peace Conference information about his future policies. His political
and the Treaty of Versailles, while the countries rise to power continued. He became the chancellor
such as Britain, France, Belgium, Greece, and in Germany in 1933. He followed his policies such
Turkey were against the revisionism and supported that they became problems for Germany, Europe,
the policy of status quo in Europe. The years after and the whole world. He propagated nationalist
World War I witnessed ideological differences socialism, which demanded the presence of a pure
besides the economic struggles in the world. While Germanic race. This ideal created terror and horror
the Soviet Union was propagating Communism, when millions of Jews and Gypsies as well as the
Germany was propagating National Socialism, and disabled were killed in concentration camps. These
Italy was propagating Fascism. The radical policies camps were set up not only in Germany but also in
developed in Germany and Italy because World the countries occupied by Germany during World
War I caused heavy financial, economic, and War II, e.g, Auschwitz and Krakow camps in
social problems after the war. Benito Mussolini, a Poland. The members of the SS teams were mostly
journalist and the founder of the National Fascist responsible for these killings. The SS (Shutzstaffel)
Party (Partito Nazionale Fascista, PNF), came to was a paramilitary organization under Adolf Hitler
power in 1922. His government ruled Italy until and the Nazi Party, which was made up of the
1943 and established a dictatorship by removing armed party militants. The SS was divided into two
all political opposition through his secret police main groups under the administration of the Nazi
and by outlawing labor strikes. Mussolini tried politician Heinrich Luitpold Himmler in 1933.
to overcome the economic problems by inspiring The first one was the Secret State Police called the
the masses about the revival of the ancient Roman GESTAPO (Geheime Staatspolizei) established in
Empire in the Mediterranean and Africa claiming 1933. The second group also had two sub-sections:
Italy as heir to the ancient Empire. In Germany, The Waffen SS (the Armed SS Organization), the
on the other hand, Adolf Hitler, an Australian combat units within the German Army led by
who was a corporal in the German Army during army officers, and the Allgemeine SS in charge of
World War I, became a member of the German police duties and responsible for the racist killings.
Workers’ Party (Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, hereafter
DAP) in 1919. This changed his
life and consequently Germany’s
future too. Hitler became one of the
leading figures of DAP and used the
party as the basis for founding the
Nazi Party (Nationalsozialistische
Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, hereafter
NSDAP). NSDAP promoted
National Socialism in Germany
and proposed building a strong
nationalist, pro-military, Anti-
Semitic ideal for the working class.
Although Hitler was imprisoned as
a traitor for attempting to overthrow
the Bavarian government (the
democratic government established
in 1919 after World War I) in 1923,
he was released one year later and Figure 6.1 Adolf Hitler in one of the Nazi Party rallies
became a bitter opponent of the Source: http://100photos.time.com/photos/heinrich-hoffmann-hitler-
democratic regime in Germany. nazi-party-rally
He wrote his book Meinkampf (My
199
The Soviet Russia posed danger for the fragile Irish Free State, and India), Czechoslovakia, Italy,
peace in Europe. She had territorial claims Japan, Poland, and Turkey. To further the conflicts
covering some European and Asian countries. This and discontent in Europe, there was the Spanish
intention became a reality during and after World Civil War. When the Civil War started in Spain,
War II by the establishment of the Soviet Socialist it did not stay as a local conflict. It spread out as
Republics in the Soviet occupied countries. 1930s an international problem when Germany and Italy
were troubled years since every nation promoted backed the right wing General Francisco. Franco
her own political agenda and routed for her own came to power with a coup d’état he staged against
ideology. the left wing Republican government of Spain. He
overthrew Manuel Azana,
the Republican president
of Spain, on July 17, 1936
and took over the control
of the government. The
Soviet Russia was also
involved in this Civil
War by supporting the
Republicans. The tension
in Europe and in the
Mediterranean region
increased when the
mutual attacks spread
to the seas through
uncontrolled use of arms
and ships that violated
international rules.
Therefore, the Spanish
civil war that continued
until 1939 was accepted
as the rehearsal of World
Figure 6.2 A Chart showing the troubled years in the War II. On September 10, 1937, a conference was
1930s held in Nyon (Switzerland) with the participation
of France, Britain, Bulgaria, Romania, Yugoslavia,
Source: https://www.capitalfm.co.ke/news/2016/11/
Egypt, Greece, the Soviet Union, and Turkey. This
back-1930s-nationalism-historians-battle-comparison/
was to establish security in the Mediterranean and
During the interwar period, the politicians from to ensure the enforcement of the international law
Europe came together in conferences at different regarding shipping at seas, but these efforts failed.
times and signed treaties to solve their problems, In fact, the Nyon Conference was among the last
but these efforts failed. For example, the border international meetings which attempted to ensure
conflicts between Germany, Belgium, and France collective security and abide by international laws
continued even after the Locarno Pact was signed prior to the start of World War II.
in 1925 by the participation of the concerned Despite, the efforts to preserve peace in Europe
countries such as Britain, Czechoslovakia, Italy, with the treaties and mutual understanding, the
and Poland. Signing the Kellogg-Briand Pact (Pact Italian and German aggression increased tension in
of Paris) in 1928 “to renounce war as an instrument Europe, a fact which laid out the ground for World
of national policy” to supplement the Locarno Pact War II. Italy occupied Ethiopia on September 5,
did not work, nor did the attempt at ensuring 1935. The Western powers condemned Italy and
collective peace with the participation of the US, used economic sanctions against her while Hitler
Australia, Belgium, Britain and her 6 dominions supported this occupation since he had his similar
(Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, agenda. Then, Germany sent troops into the
200
Rhineland on March 7, 1936, contrary to the terms 29, 1938. Moreover, Britain and France had not
of the treaties of Versailles and Locarno. Mussolini protested when the Soviet Russia occupied Poland
and Hitler strengthened cooperation by the Rome- on September 17, 1939 soon after Germany
Berlin Axis agreement on October 25, 1936. The without a formal declaration of war. Interestingly,
Pact of Steel later formalized it between the two Soviet occupation of Poland was encouraged by
countries in 1939. At the same time, Germany the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, which approved the
and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, on division of Poland between Russia and Germany.
November 25, 1936 since there were clashes
between the Soviet Union and Japan especially
over Siberia and Mongolia. Italy was included in
the Anti-Comintern Pact a year later. The second
Pact was signed on November 6, 1937 forming an
alliance between these three countries. Hitler kept
increasing the tension in Europe. He remilitarized
the Rhineland and occupied the Sudetenland
region of Czechoslovakia and Anschluss Austria on
March 12, 1938. Italy occupied Albania on April
7, 1939. In fact, aggressive acts were not limited
to Europe; they spread to Asia also. The first one
was the Japanese occupation of Manchuria on
September 19, 1931.
Figure 6.4 Partition of Poland

Source: http://www.angelfire.com/sc3/frarochvia/
frankpoland.html
Interestingly, all of the countries who virtually

caused World War II by their inclination to
excessive rearmament were the members of the
League of Nations. Japan had withdrawn from
the League in 1933 rather than submit to its
judgment. Germany, Italy and Spain followed her
in 1937. The final significant act of the League
Figure 6.3 Newspaper placards announce the German
was to expel Soviet Russia from the union after
invasion of Poland, September 1, 1939
she invaded Finland in December 1939. In fact,
Source: https://edu.glogster.com/glog/world-war- the Soviet occupation of Finland was a sign of
ii/253b52dqjug self-assurance that came about, especially, after
the signing of a non-aggression pact called the
Finally, the rehearsed war officially began
Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact with Germany on
in 1939 when Germany sent troops to Prague
August 23, 1939. In this agreement, both parties
(Czechoslovakia) and occupied eastern Poland
had promised not to interfere in case the other
on September 1, 1939. These acts put Britain
went to war with another country. In addition,
and France into action, and they declared war
this alliance encouraged Hitler when he occupied
on Germany on September 3, 1939. Ironically
Poland believing that the Soviet Russia would not
enough, these were the countries with whom
raise any objections. Nevertheless, by 1941 these
Germany and Italy envisaged the transfer of the
two countries were at war when their mutual
Südet district of Czechoslovakia to Germany
interests conflicted in Europe and the Baltics. Soviet
with the Treaty of Munich signed on September
201
Russia attacked Finland on November 30, 1939; she further occupied Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and the
Romanian province of Bessarabia in July 1940 and established puppet regimes in the administrative style
of the SSRs, while forming her Baltic offensive against Germany with the military basis there.
Germany maintained aggressive policies and occupied Denmark and Norway between April-June 1940
and the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg in May 1940. At the same time, Italy and Germany
declared war on Russia on June 22, 1941. Italy occupied France on June 10, 1940 and declared war
on France and Britain. The German Army came to the aid of Italy and attacked France, and Paris fell
on 14 June. France had to surrender on June 22, 1940. It was all so speedily done for the Axis Powers that
they soon managed to get France to sign an armistice with Germany and accept the presence of German and
Italian armed forces. A puppet government, named, the Vichy Regime (Régime de Vichy) under Marshal
Philippe Pétain was formed to rule the occupied France. This government seemed officially neutral, but
it was aligned with Germany. It remained responsible for the civil administration of France as well as
the French Algeria. The Vichy government was in power until 1944 when the Allied Powers freed France.
Figure 6.5 Map detailing the German and Italian advances in France, 13-25 June, 1940
Source: https://ww2db.com/image.php?image_id=10542
Germany and Italy extended their influence and occupations to the Central, East, and South Europe
including the Balkans as well as Northern Africa. Germany began its bombing raids against England, an
event which was named the Battle of England. In 1940, these two European belligerent countries were
joined by Japan. Japan, who had pulled out of League of Nations, had already occupied Manchuria. She
was already leading the war in the Pacific and was conducting a fascist policy called Showa nationalis. The
likeminded three countries, Germany, Italy, and Japan signed a Tripartite Pact on September 27, 1940
which formed the Axis Powers of World War II. Germany, heartened by this new alliance, launched an
attack called Operation Barbarossa on Soviet Russia. This made Russia join the Allied nations who were
202
already at war with the Axis countries. The war be able understand the dimensions of the war, it
continued in Asia as well. The British and Soviet would be useful to examine the course of events at
troops jointly occupied Iran on August 25, 1941 in the battle fronts of World War II.
a military offensive called Operation Countenance.
This was to secure the Iranian
oil fields and to ensure supply
lines for the Soviets fighting
against the Axis Powers. On
the other hand, Bulgaria,
which stayed neutral until
March 1, 1941, joined the
Axis Powers to save itself
from the Soviet occupation.
Nevertheless, Bulgaria was
occupied by the Soviet troops
on September 8, 1944.
On December 7, 1941,
Japan launched a surprise
attack on the US Navy base at
Pearl Harbor. Upon President
Roosevelt’s receiving the Figure 6.6 German and Italian expansion 1938-1942
approval of the Congress, the Source: https://slideplayer.com/slide/7636626/
United States declared war
on Japan. The other members of the Axis Powers,
Germany and Italy then, declared war on the
United States. Thus, the United States, which had 1
stayed neutral until the Japanese attack, officially
What were the important steps that caused World
entered WWII as part of the Allied Powers.
War II?
World War II, which started in 1939,
continued until 1945 with the new participations
from Europe and Asia in the Allied and the Axis The Battle Fronts of World War II
Powers. The leaders of the Axis Powers, Adolf Soon after the German occupation of Poland,
Hitler of Germany, Benito Mussolini of Italy, and the Western Powers formed alliances against
Hideki Tojo, the Japanese Premier, and Hirohito, Germany and Italy. This made Europe the first and
the Emperor of Japan, ordered heavy attacks on one of the most fought fronts of World War II. On
the neighboring countries in Europe and Asia this front, named the Western Front, the German
as well as on the countries in Africa and Pacific. attacks from the land, sea, and air devastated the
Meanwhile, the politicians of the Allied Powers enemy cities. There were heavy casualties in the
tried to eliminate the Axis Powers by fighting Axis occupied countries such as Belgium, France,
either at battlefields or at conference tables. These Poland, Austria, and the Baltic countries. Most of
politicians were Winston Churchill, who had these causalities were caused by the bombardments
replaced Neville Chamberlain, the British Premier; and military land raids in which people who
Franklin Roosevelt, the President of United Sates; opposed the German forces were executed. German
and Joseph Stalin, the Premier of the Soviet airplanes bombarded the British cities including
Socialist Russia. London day and night between September 1940
However, these efforts were not enough, and and May 1941, which was called the Blitz by the
the war continued until 1945 costing millions of German.
human lives and massive destructions of nature. To
203
These air raids caused heavy casualties, killing

and wounding thousands of civilians. The British
air force could not respond to the German air raids,
but throughout the war, they were able to prevent
the German occupation of Britain. The German
air raids on Britain ended when Hitler decided to
launch an attack on the Soviet Russia.
The atrocities of the war encompassed the
civilians as well. Millions of innocent Jews in
Germany, Austria, and Poland were killed either by
the Allgemeine SS troops or by the attacks made on
them or by the use of gas rooms in concentration
camps where they were sent by the SS troops. These
atrocities became to be called the Jewish Genocide, Figure 6.8 Nazi guards round up arriving prisoners at
the Nazi Genocide, or the Holocaust. the Auschwitz concentration camp’s unloading ramp,
circa May/June 1944.
Source: https://allthatsinteresting.com/holocaust-
photos#18
Italian and German troops extended their

attacks to the Balkans after the Italian occupation
of Albania, Yugoslavia, and Greece after October
1940 with an excuse that the Soviet Russia
occupied Bessarabia. The Greeks were successful in
fighting against the Italian troops and forcing them
to retreat to Albania. Among the Balkan countries,
Bulgaria, as one of the Axis Powers, was safe until it
was occupied by the Soviet troops in 1944.
During the War, North Africa was one of
Figure 6.7 Firefighters at work in a bomb-damaged the domains of the Italians, which constituted
street in London after a Saturday night raid, 1941 the African Front of the War. The British forces
fought against the Italian occupation in North
Source: New Times Paris Bureau Collection/USIA/NARA
Africa. Africa had been previously colonized by
https://www.britannica.com/event/the-Blitz
the European powers. Libya was an Italian colony;
The Barbarossa Operation, Hitler’s plan to Egypt was a British colony; and Morocco, Tunisia
occupy the Soviet Union, began in June 1941. and Algeria were the French colonies. These
Then, the war extended to Asia while opening countries were involved in the North African
a new front, the Eastern Front. The Kingdom operations of the Allied and Axis powers from
of Hungary, which supported the Axis Powers, June 10, 1940 to May 13, 1943. The war started
joined this operation in July 1941 and helped in North Africa in June 1940 after Italy joined
the Nazis terminate the civilians in Russia. Italy World War II on the Axis side. Upon this, the
also sent troops to Russia since Hitler held the British forces in Egypt entered Libya, and this act
Operation Barbarossa as an ideological one against was followed by an Italian counter-offensive into
communism and a racist one against the Jews who Egypt in September 1940 and into Somalia later.
lived in Russia. All Russian cities, villages, and all The British counter-offensive came with Operation
settlements on the road to Moscow were destroyed, Compass, which defeated the Italian Army. Hitler,
and millions of civilians many of whom were the then, sent German troops to North Africa in
Jews living in Ukraine and in the other Russian February 1941 to strengthen the Italian initiative.
territories were killed. The German troops in North Africa, called the
Africa Korps, were under the command of Field
204
Marshall Erwin Rommel, who was called the ended in May 1943 when an Anglo-American
Desert Fox by his enemies, the Allied powers, due landing, Operation Torch, was launched in North-
to his successful operations. Rommel reinforced West Africa. The Italian and German forces had to
the Italian forces and launched an offensive surrender in northern Tunisia. The Anglo-British
named Operation Sonnenblume against the British. operations in North Africa indirectly aided the
However, when the United States entered the war Soviet Russia in their fight against the Germans.
and sent troops to back the British, Rommel had The German air forces were forced to divide their
to retreat to Tunisia. The African front during and attention between North Africa and Russia. The
after 1941 witnessed attacks and counterattacks Allied victory in North Africa brought down the
between the Allied and Axis powers and finally fascist government in Italy in 1943.
Figure 6.9 The Axis and Allied campaigns in North Africa, “the Operation Torch”
Source: https://infograph.venngage.com/p/110521/the-african-campaign
There were heavy military and civilian casualties in Asia and the Pacific. The war in Asia had started
between the Republic of China and Japan when Japan occupied Manchuria on September 19, 1931. This
was long before the actual beginning of World War II. The Japanese aggression turned into another war with
China on July 7, 1937. Encouraged by the Anti-Comintern Pact, Japan began to occupy Thailand and the
British colonies of Malaya, Singapore, and Hong Kong and created tension in a vast area stretching from
the Pacific Ocean and islands, the South West Pacific, South-East Asia to China. The actual Pacific front
opened when the Japanese launched a surprise attack on the US military and naval bases in Hawaii, Wake
Island, Guam, and the Philippines. The Japanese air raid on the US military naval bases at Pearl Harbor
in Hawaii on December 7, 1941 destroyed the US Pacific Fleet. This attack was executed without any
warning and caused the United States, which refrained from joining World War II from the beginning, to
enter the war officially on December 7, 1941 by declaring war on Japan. Then, Germany declared war on
the US on December 10, 1941. Despite the Japanese efforts to negotiate with the US, the latter did not
accept and used all forces to stop Japan in the Pacific. The United States, who had sent volunteers to help
Britain to fight against the Axis Powers on the Western Front in Europe and in North Africa, officially
joined the Allied Powers. The fighting on all fronts intensified and the course of war changed with the
participation of the United States. The balance of powers shifted in favor of the Allied Powers, and thus
they managed to defeat the Axis Powers.
205
Figure 6.10 Map noting the operations of the Japanese Navy First Air Fleet/Carrier Striking Force, 7 Dec 1941-12
Mar 1942 ww2dbase
Source: https://ww2db.com/image.php?image_id=6516
While the War was raging at all Fronts, the time, the German and Italian defeat in North
United Nations, was founded as an alliance of Africa in 1942 also weakened the Axis powers
countries. The need arose when it was realized that while empowering the Soviet Russia, which
the League of Nations was not powerful enough began to launch counterattacks against Germany.
to prevent conflicts and that it was unable to stop With these counterattacks, Russia accomplished
the War. The United Nations was founded in 1945 to (a) clean her territories from the German and
based on the principle of the sovereign equality of Hungarian forces; (b) occupy Hungary, Romania,
states. The constituent states were the US, the Soviet Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, and northern Norway
Union, France, China, and the United Kingdom. in 1944; (c) occupy Austria, the Danish island of
Turkey, also, participated in this organization. Bornholm, Manchuria, and Korea in 1945.
The Soviet occupations of these countries
The End of World War II remained permanent and caused conflicts between
Russia and her allies. On the Eastern Front, the
The course of World War II changed against
German forces surrendered to the Red Army of
the Axis countries after the United States entered
Soviet Russia on February 2, 1943. After three years
the war. The signs of the change manifested
of fighting in Africa, the German and Italian troops
themselves in the counterattacks of the US naval
surrendered to the Allied in Tunisia in May 1943.
forces against the Japanese fleet at the Battle of
The Allied forces occupied Sicily on July 9, 1943,
Midway, a tiny atoll in the Hawaiian Island chain,
and this was the downfall of the Fascist government
on June 4, 1942. The defeat of the Japanese fleet
in Italy. Mussolini was dismissed from his position
halted the Axis advance in the Pacific. At the same
as the prime minister on July 25 and was kept in
206
custody by the Italian King Victor Emmanuel III. other hand, there were conflicts among the Allied
The King agreed to an armistice with the allies on Powers when they met in Berlin, and they could
September 8, 1943. Italy was the first Axis Power to not agree on how to share Berlin.
break from the Pact, which seriously weakened the All in all, throughout World War II which
other members of the Pact: Germany and Japan. started in 1939 and continued until 1945, the
The war on the Western front continued since Axis Powers seemed powerful and had occupied
Germany stubbornly did not stop to fight. However, countries not only in Europe but also in Asia and
the Allied amphibious landing on the French Africa. This extended the war to these continents
coasts on June 6, 1944 with the combined forces and cost millions of lives of civilians and military
composed of the American, British, and Canadian personnel. Technologically developed weapons
soldiers was the beginning of the operation against of every kind including poisonous gas, as it was
the Axis Powers; it also marked the beginning of the used in World War I, and the atomic bombs made
end of World War II in Europe. This landing, called the air, water and land a hell for many innocent
the Normandy landing or the Operation D-Day, people. Cities were destroyed and many people
was planned to save France from the German were left homeless. The belligerents of the war
occupation. Paris was liberated on 25 August with ignored human and cultural values and none of
the help of the Free French Forces formed by the them were innocent in their crimes, especially the
Patriotic French led by General Charles de Gaulle. Axis Powers.
The Allied forces continued the operations on the
Western Front against Germany even though the
heavy German resistance in the Netherlands and
Italy slowed them. Meanwhile, there was a reaction
to Hitler in Germany, and Germany surrendered
to the Allied Powers on May 7, 1945 after
Hitler committed suicide on April 30. Italy, also,
surrendered on April 29, 1945 after the Italian
communist partisans executed Benito Mussolini
on April 28, 1945 while he was attempting to flee
to Switzerland.
Although the Allied Powers concluded World
War II in Europe, the course of the war in Asia-
Pacific was different. In fact, it began to change
in the favor of the Allied Powers with the defeats Figure 6.11 Newspaper headlines declaring the
of the Axis in 1944; Japan resisted and refused surrender of Germany
to surrender despite the Allied Powers’ call for it Source: https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-
on July 26, 1945. The United States, considering ve-day-flashback-world-war-ii-hitler-japan-0510-jm-
the heavy losses on the Pacific, decided to use 20150507-story.html
atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima
and Nagasaki on August 6 and August 9, 1945,
respectively. The bombs caused the death of 71.000 Conferences Held During World War II
civilians in Hiroshima and 50.000 in Nagasaki, the During the War, the Allied Powers held 23
heaviest of all civilian deaths in one day. Hirohito, meetings between 1941 and 1945 to ensure the
the Emperor of Japan, accepted to surrender to execution of the war and to determine the measures to
the Allies on August 15, 1945. An armistice was be taken to achieve victory. There were three meetings
signed at Tokyo Bay on the deck of the American in Washington. The first Washington Conference
battleship USS Missouri on September 2, 1945. This Arcadia was held between the British and the United
was the official end of World War II. Following the States delegations between December 22, 1941 and
war, tribunals were set up by the Allies to conduct February 14, 1942 to determine the war strategies.
trials against the Nazi Germans and the Japanese The discussions were on the US participation in
for the war crimes they had committed. On the an amphibious operation in North Africa and the
207
unification of all Allied forces in Europe under one the president of the United States; Churchill, the
command (European Theater of Operations). The premier of England; and Chiang Kai-shek, the head
foundation of the United Nations was also decided of nationalist government in China. İsmet İnönü,
in this conference. However, it was finalized by the President of the Turkish Republic, also joined
the decision of the delegates from 39 countries at in this conference. However, a definite conclusion
the Dumberton Oaks Conference in 1944 (21-29 could not be reached. Following this conference in
August). The Second Washington Conference was Cairo, Roosevelt and Churchill attended the Tehran
held on June 19-25, 1942 to discuss how the Allies Conference (23 November-1 December 1943).
would help the Soviets. The Third Washington They spoke of the operation overlord against Nazi
Conference, also called the Trident Conference, was Germany.
held between Roosevelt and Churchill on May 12-
26, 1943 to assess the problems of the ongoing war In addition to these conferences, four
upon the closure of the North African front. More conferences convened in Moscow during the War.
specifically, the following issues were dicussed The first conference was held in 1941, followed
in the conference: (a) using Turkish airports; (b) by others in 1942, 1943, and 1944. In the first
giving the USA, the USSR, England, and China Moscow Conference, held from Sepetember 29
the responsibility to protect peace in the post-war to October 1, 1941, Averell Harriman from the
period; and (c) including Turkey in the Balkan United States and Lord Beaverbrook of England
federation. met with Joseph Stalin. They assured Stalin of their
Another conference, the Anglo-American full support against the Nazi Germany. On August
Conference, was held in Casablanca between 12-17, 1942, the same politicians met in Moscow
January 14 and January 24, 1943. The participants again and accepted a plan allowing the Soviets to
of this conference decided not to make peace with launch an operation in North Africa and to land in
the Axis powers unless the leaders of these powers Northern France.
declared their unconditional surrender to the The Yalta Conference (Argonaut Conference) was
World. They also agreed to increase pressure on held in Crimea between February 4 and 11, 1945
Germany, organize a landing in Sicily to decrease where President Roosevelt, the British Premier
the Axis pressure on the Soviet Russia, and open a Churchill, and the Soviet Premier Stalin, the
second front in the Balkans by encouraging Turkey leaders of the big three Allies, participated. It was
to join the war on the Allied side. a conference held in the year when the war was
The Quebec Conference, which was held from coming to an end. The conference dealt with the
August 14 to 24, 1943, was also important in terms significant results of the war and thereafter. In the
of the decisions taken, especially, after the fall of conference, it was decided that Germany would
Mussolini’s fascist government in Italy. Churchill be divided into occupied zones by the US, British,
insisted on opening a second front in the Balkans French and Soviet armed forces. However, how
instead of France by encouraging the participation to make this division and how to compensate for
of Turkey on the Allied side. However, it was the war damages were the issues that remained
opened on the coast of Normandy in France. The unresolved. Stalin agreed to have elections and
responsibility for the organization and preparation democratic governments to be established in the
of this new front was left to Americans while they eastern European countries defeated or liberated.
continued the bombing of Germany and were The question of Poland was another issue that
getting ready to occupy Italy. Furthermore, a secret was discussed during the conference. Despite
agreement on sharing and exchanging information Churchill’s view, Stalin and Roosevelt accepted the
in the development of nuclear weapons was also principle of division of Eastern Poland in exchange
signed in the Quebec Conference. for concessions on Germany. The discussions also
covered the Far East. Stalin promised to join the
In order to evaluate the developments in the
fight against Japan three months after Germany’s
Far East, a conference convened in Cairo between
surrender, in exchange for Kuril Islands and the
November 22 and 26, 1943 between Roosevelt,
lands Russia lost in 1905 to Japan. Moreover, it
208
was decided that while Manchuria was to remain and became one of the founding members of the
under Chinese sovereignty, the status quo of the United Nations.
People’s Republic would be protected. Towards the end of the war, a conference was
During the Yalta Conference, a decision was held in Potsdam (Germany) between July 17 and
made to hold a conference in San Francisco for August 2, 1945 after the surrender of Germany on
the foundation of the United Nations. The Soviet May 7, 1945. This was the last major conference of
Union proposed the exclusion of the countries World War II in which the three major powers of
such as Turkey and the South American states who the Allied Powers, the United States, Britain, and
did not establish diplomatic ties with the Soviet the Soviet Russia, participated. President Truman,
Union. At the end of the negotiations, it was also who had replaced President Roosevelt after his
death, represented the United States. Unlike the
decided not to accept the countries who did not
previous conferences, the Potsdam Conference
declare war on Germany and Japan until March
focused on how to ensure peace. The topics
1945 into the United Nations. Upon this decision,
covered several issues such as the Polish Question;
Turkey cut her relations with Germany and Japan Germany, Austria, Eastern European countries; the
and declared war on both of these countries on Turkish Straights, etc. The following are some of
February 23, 1945. the discussions conducted and decisions taken in
the conference:
• The Soviet Russia signed a treaty with
Poland in which both parties agreed on
a formerly established demarcation line
between Poland and the USSR on August
16, 1945.
• The elimination of all the Nazi institutions
in Germany, the disarmament of the
majority of the German army and fleet,
the structuring of the the German war
industry according to the needs of the
peace economy, and the trial of the Nazi
war criminals would be among the top
priorties.
Figure 6.12 The leaders of the Allied Powers together
• Berlin was divided into four zones each
at the Yalta Conference. From left to right: W. Churchill,
controlled by one of the Allies. The war
Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Joseph Stalin.
reparations would be limited to their zones
Source: https://css.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/ of occupation.
world-war-ii-history/pictures/world-war-ii-political-
• Austria and its capital Vienna, as in the case
leaders/world-leaders-at-the-yalta-conference-1945
of Germany, were divided into four regions
of occupation divided between the Allies.
Following the Yalta conference, another • The developments in the way of democracy in
conference in San Francisco between April and June Italy since 1943 and their pulling out of the
1945took place at a time when Italy and Germany war and later siding with the Allies had lessened
surrendered. The San Francisco Conference was demands much simple for this country.
also the conference where the Organization of the
• The demands of the Soviet Union from the
United Nations was established. At this conference,
Italian colonies in the Mediterranean and
the participant states, which had veto power in the
the Red Sea were not taken seriously.
Security Council (China, France, USA, Russia
and Britain), were determined and the Charter of • The Soviet Russia had established satellite
the United Nations was concluded. Turkey, also, states in Eastern Europe. Romania,
joined the San Francisco Conference in April 1945 Bulgaria and Hungary, which were under
209
the military occupation of the Soviets, had communist-dominated governments. The participants
of the conference agreed to examine the developments in these countries, establish diplomatic
relations, and conclude peace treaties with these countries if and when possible.
• The countries on the Danube were under the military occupation of the USSR; therefore, the
Danube was effectively under the Soviet rule and control. In the conference, free use of the waters
of the Danube and its status was reestablished.
• Spain: Spain did not participate in the war; however, she was not accepted into the United Nations
either since she had cooperated with the Axis Powers.
• It was agreed that all Allied troops would be withdrawn from Iran.
• The status of the Straits would be subject to change since the existing agreements did not meet the
needs of the new conditions. The discussions on this issue would be concluded with conversations
and agreements between the Turkish government and the three states-namely the US, Britain, and
the USSR.
attention
On the issue of the Straits, the Soviet Union required for the free passage from the Straits. She claimed that
Turkey was weak and unable to provide the guarantees needed to control the Straits. Therefore, Stalin proposed
that the Straits of Turkey had to be put under a common control of Turkey and the Soviet Union. In short, the
Soviets were demanding bases in the Straits. Even though they were in favor of the Soviet’s free passage from the
Straits, the United States and Britain did not want to grant the Soviet Union her demands. The Soviet Union had
brought up the issue of the Straits in pre-Potsdam conferences and had repeated her demands on the revision of
the 1936 Montreux Convention. Additionally, the Soviets repeated their demands for the northeastern cities of
Kars and Ardahan, which directly threatened the Turkish sovereignty. Britain, Churchill in particular, defended
the Turkish views since they were well aware of what the Soviet expansion to the Mediterranean would cost to
the free world. The unreasonable demands of the Soviets and the ensuing psychological tug-of-war between the
Turkish Government and the Soviet Government led Turkey to come closer to the American polices.
TURKISH FOREIGN POLICY

DURING WWII
In 1938, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk advised his
followers, “A World War is near. In the course of
this war, international equilibrium will be entirely
destroyed. If during this period we act unwisely and
make the smallest mistake, we will be faced with an
even graver catastrophe than in the Armistice years”
(Deringil, 1989, pp. 1-3). During the post-Atatürk
era, the Turkish leaders took Atatürk’s advice since
they, too, were aware of the fact that Turkey had
no room for adventure. They sought to maintain
Turkey’s survival and sovereignity, which had been
Figure 6.13 Nazi leaders Hermann Göring (left) and won in 1923.
Rudolf Hess - both, at various points, the deputies In general, Turkish foreign policy can be
of Adolf Hitler - sit in the defendants’ box during the summarized with the following premises. These will
Nuremberg trials of Nazi war criminals, 1946. explain how Turkey looked upon foreign relations
Source: https://allthatsinteresting.com/holocaust- in the 1930s and 1940s.
photos#43
210
• Turkey had an important geopolitical Turkish Foreign Policy from 1939 to

location with both advantages and 1943
disadvantages. Its advantages allowed From the Lausanne treaty in 1923 to the
Turkey to have a strong voice in the Anglo-Franco-Turkish treaty in 1939, Turkey was
international area and attract strong friends. in a position of non-alignment. In this period, she
• The disadvantage of her geopolitical sought powerful friends. The Soviet Union filled
location was the possibility of confronting this position as a land power. On the other hand,
major world powers. Additionally, having Italy posed a major threat; Turkey looked for a
powerful friends might lead the country to friend as a naval power. This brought about the
be under their protection. Turkish-Anglo rapprochement.
• As a country in the crossroads, Turkey wanted
to maintain its freedom to act for her own
benefits. If power Blocs were formed in the Italy had already attacked Ottoman Tripolitania
world, Turkey would like to avoid joining in 1911 and later it made claims on Anatolia.
any one of them. She would like to keep her Its fortification of the Dodecanese islands in
distance to be equal to all of them. 1934 alarmed Turkey. After the Italian invasion
• Turkey would always be prepared to fight of Albania on April 8, 1939, Turkey aligned
for the defense of her rights and territories. itself with Britain.
She would agree to enter any war only for
self-defense. The Italian occupation of Albania in April 1939
• Bargaining, indeed, was an important tool made Turkey cooperate with France and Britain.
for her survival (Deringil, pp. 3-4). On May 12, 1939 Turkey signed a friendship
treaty with Britain, and a similar treaty between
attention Turkey and France followed on June 23, 1939.
The treaties with these western powers were seen
During WWII, İsmet İnönü was the as a defensive measure by the Turkish side. On the
President of Turkey. Şükrü Saraçoğlu became British side, they were meant to secure Turkey’s
the foreign minister to serve from 1939 to effective collaboration during the war since it was a
1942. When he became the Prime Minister, source of manpower.
Numan Menemencioğlu, who had been In August 1939, the Soviet-German Pact (the
secretary-general at the foreign office since Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact) was signed, which
1929, took over and served as the foreign meant the dividing of Eastern Europe. This pact and
minister until his forced resignation in June its implications shocked Turkey. This led Turkey
1944. Then, a new foreign minister, Hasan to sign the Anglo-Franco-Turkish Agreement that
Saka, replaced him. proposed mutual support on October 19, 1939.
The tripartite treaty granted Turkey a loan of £16
million in gold and a credit of £25 million for the
purchase of military equipment. Turkey also agreed
not to enter into war with the Soviet Union. The
treaty sought Turkey’s collaboration with France
and Britain if another European power launched a
war in the Mediterranean. At that point, in time, the
Italian threat in the Mediterranean was becoming
more visible. In March 1940, France proposed
an attack on Soviet oilfields in Baku in order to
prevent the Soviet supply of oil to Germany. This
Figure 6.14 Ismet İnönü at the Tahran Conference meant going over or through Turkey. However,
Source: https://www.tccb.gov.tr/cumhurbaskanlarimiz/
this plan was not realized. Had Turkey participated
ismet_inonu/
in the war, it would have been for the French
211
fleet to intervene in Italy in the Mediterranean. Barbarossa (original name Operation Fritz) was
Nevertheless, the collapse of France in June 1940 launched by Germany to invade the Soviet Union
changed plans. Italy entered the war in June 1940, on June 1941. Germany’s failure to defeat the
Germany occupied Romania, and Italy invaded Soviet troops, made Turkey believe that Germany
Greece from Albania in October 1940. These would not invade Turkey and the Middle East in
aggressive moves forced Turkey to comply with the the near future. Still, Turkey did not feel secure.
articles of the tripartite treaty. Nevertheless, she The ideal solution from Turkey’s point of view was
managed to maintain her active neutrality. to see both the Soviet Union and Germany not to
succeed in the war. If the Soviet Union became
successful, it would be the dominant power in
Germany’s successful Blitzkrieg (in Eastern Europe and thus it would demand its own
German, lightning war. It meant to create terms on the Straits. If the Soviet Union collapsed,
a psychological shock on the enemy power) Germany’s next victim would be Turkey. In order
tactics made Turkey change its defense plans. to avoid these, Turkey hoped that Germany and
Turkey did not want to be occupied by any the Allied powers would reach an agreement that
country from the Balkans since the war would hinder both Germany and the Soviet Union
reached Turkey’s borders when the German from holding a dominant position in the Eastern
occupied Greece and Bulgaria sided with Europe.
the Axis in 1941. Although it found herself In 1941, two major events affected Turkey’s
encircled by the Axis powers, Turkey was still position in the war. The French Vichy government
a neutral country in 1941. took control of Syria against the nationalist de
Gaul sympathizers in June and in July. There was
Churchill saw Turkey as a source of manpower an anti-British rebellion in Iraq in early April. The
while Germany wanted Turkey to be neutralized Syrian position was important for Turkey. There
first, and then take part on her camp. The was an attack from the Balkans or Caucasus on
German offensive in Greece and Yugoslavia and Turkey; Syria would be the connecting link with
its overrunning of Greece increased Turkey’s fear. the British forces in Palestine. If Iraq fell to the
The British defeat at Crete intensified such feelings German hands, then, Turkey would be surrounded
as that the next step would be Syria and Cyprus. by hostile forces and would be cut off from her
All these led to a decline of morale in Turkey. supply route from Basra. Turkey could not favor
The German position on the Balkans became Iraq’s occupation by Germany or its blockage by
very strong in the late spring. This necessitated Britain; therefore, she offered mediation between
Turkey to negotiate with Germany. Ribbentrop, Iraq and Britain. Fortunately, the revolt in Iraq
the German foreign minister, wanted Turkey to was suppressed in May 1941. Turkey offered
grant transit facilities for the German troops and mediation between the Vichy forces and the
equipment. In return, Turkey was promised the Gaullists in Syria. Britain urged Turkey to allow a
rectification of the frontiers near Edirne and the troop transfer through Turkey. Turkey refused this
possibility of getting one or another island in the request. Indeed, she had refused a similar German
Aegean Sea. Turkey refused to collaborate becasuse demand as well. The British-Soviet invasion of Iran
this would be against the agreement with Britain. took place in August of 1941. It should be noted
Indeed, Turkey kept Britain informed about the here that Iran was important for the British and
negotiations with Germany. Turkey had taken American supply to the Soviets.
measures to keep the mutual interests of Britain
and Turkey intact.
The Turkish-German Treaty of Friendship and
Non-Aggression was signed on June 18, 1941.
The agreement stipulated that each country would
respect the other’s territorial integrity and remain
neutral in all actions aimed directly or indirectly
against the other (Hale, 2002, p. 89). The Operation
212
attention In 1941, after the Japanese attack on Pearl

Harbor and the German penetration into the Soviet
Union, Turkey continued to hold on her neutrality.
In the 1930s, Germany had an important share in
In 1942, the Turkish foreign office spoke of its
Turkey’s foreign trade: 51 % of its imports and 31% policy as “active neutrality’ (Deringil, p.135). On
of its exports. In fact, when Turkey had signed an March 1942, İnönü explained the policy of strict
alliance treaty with Britain and France, she decreased neutrality: “We have taken all our precautions.
the volume of her trade with Germany. In June 1940, Our decisions for the future are open and clear.
when a long-term agreement with Britain failed, We will strive to stay out of the war. We willkeep
Turkey secured a new trade agreement with Germany. the of order business and if it proves impossible
The agreement was known as the Clodius agreement; to avoid war we will do our duty honorably…”
a name which was given after the German negotiator, (Deringil, 137). In addition, in 1942, Numan
Karl Clodius. According to the agreement, Germany Menemencioğlu became the foreign minister. He
would receive a maximum of 90,000 tons of chromium announced, “Turkey was equally loyal and friendly
in 1943 when the contract with the British ended, and to all opposing forces.” (Hale, 2002, p. 93).
45,000 tons in 1944. Under this agreement, Turkey When the USA joined Britain to support
would buy military and other essential equipment from the Soviet Union, Turkey was apprehensive of a
Germany. In the summer of 1942, Turkey received a Soviet dominance in Eastern Europe. Therefore,
loan of 100,000 million Reichsmarks from Germany in she balanced her relations between Britain and
order to buy arms from Germany. Turkey signed this Germany and maintained her active neutral policy.
agreement with Germany not only because the British In 1942, she was also worried that the Soviet
had turned the Turkish deal but also because İnönü did Union and Britain would come to an agreement
not want to provoke Germany by rejecting her demand with Germany and keep her out.
for chromium (Hale, 2002, p. 92.).
The Critical Years, from 1943 to 1945

1943 was the most critical year for Turkey. The
Allied Powers placed pressure on Turkey to join
their side. That year the Casablanca Conference
was held in Morocco, where President Roosevelt
and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill
met. They planned their future global military
strategies. Churchill brought the issue of using
the Turkish land as a base for military operations
and establishing a Turkish naval force in the
Mediterranean. The United States, accepted the
idea of Turkey’s being actively involved in the war
in principle. At the same time, Churchill made it
clear that he would tell the Turkish president that
if Turkey remained out of war, he would not try to
prevent the Soviet demands on the Straits.
attention
Turkey’s position effectively changed in October-

November 1942, when Germany was defeated at el-
Alamein and the Allies landed in Algeria and Morocco
effectively ending the Axis threat to the Middle East.
Figure 6.15 İsmet İnönü on the cover of the Time Furthermore, Germany surrendered at Stalingrad in
Magazine on May 19, 1941 The magazine caption reads February 1943. Having evaluated these developments,
“Allah be praised, I am deaf.” Turkey preferred Germany to reach an agreement with
Source: https://onedio.com/haber/time-dergisine-kapak- the Allied powers since she did not want the Soviet
olmus-10-turk-267301 Union to be dominant in Eastern Europe.
213
President İsmet İnönü and British Premiere Another conference in 1943 was the Moscow
Winston Churchill met in the presidential train in a Conference held on October 19, November 1, 1943.
small town of Adana, Yenice, on January 30, 1943. Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs Molotov, British
Churchill proposed to give 2115 tanks and 80,000 Minister of Foreign Affairs Anthony Eden, and the
barrels of fuel to the Turkish army. He said that United States foreign secretary Cordell Hull met
it was up to Turkey to decide whether or not to in Moscow. At the Conference, the Soviet Union
declare war against the Axis. İnönü was satisfied. A criticized Turkey for remaining neutral. According
concrete outcome of Adana meeting was the Adana to the Soviets, Turkish neutrality gave Germany the
List: the military equipment to be sent to Turkey in opportunity to maintain a small amount of military
order to have Turkey join the war. power in the Balkans and mobilize major troops on
the Soviet front. Joseph Stalin wanted Germany’s
position be weakened in the Balkans. At the same
Conference, Molotov made three demands: i) the
opening of the second front as of spring of 1944,
the latest, ii) Turkey’s joining the war immediately,
iii) the use of the Swedish air space. Moreover,
British and Soviet foreign ministers signed a secret
protocol on November 1, 1943 concerning Turkey.
Figure 6.16 İsmet İnönü and Winston Churchill The protocol aimed at bringing Turkey into the war
Source: http://www.ismetinonu.org.tr/uluslararasi- before the end of 1943, and the use of Turkish air
siyasette-kazanimlar/ bases and other facilities by the Allies. The United
States agreed with the idea of having Turkey join
Turkey and Britain knew that Germany was still the war and of using the Turkish airspace.
strong and could easily destroy Turkey. Mussolini’s When the Allies met again in one of the
fall in July 1943 increased Britain’s pressure on World War II conferences in Tehran between
Turkey. Churchill sought to lure Turkey with the
November and December, Churchill’s primary
promise of the island of Rhodes and other islands
aim was to secure the American and Soviet help
in the Aegean. The British plan for Rhodes failed;
in pressing Turkey to join the war. They all agreed
the island fell in the hands of Germany.
that it would be to their benefit if this happened.
However, both the United States and the Soviet
Union were of the opinion that Turkey was not
ready to join the war. The issue of the Straits was
also discussed. Churchill, disappointed by Turkish
neutrality, said that he would personally favor
a change in the regime of the Straits. Churchill’s
attitude encouraged the Soviet Union in her later
demands on Turkey.
The Cairo Summit in 1943 increased the
amount of pressure on Turkey. Churchill warned
İnönü that Turkey would find herself in isolation
after the war. İnönü said again that the real danger
for Turkey was her entrance to the war unprepared.
İnönü proposed a two staged plan: a stage of
preparation and a stage of co-operation. Churchill
Figure 6.17 Turkish Prime Minister Şükrü Saraçoğlu on criticized Turkey for her taking the delivery of the
the cover of the Time Magazine-June 1943 aircrafts very slowly and learning how to use them.
The magazine caption reads, “In the lexicon of İnönü asked for more modern aircrafts. President
neutrality, the final word is war.” Roosevelt did not favor Turkey’s entrance to the
Source: https://onedio.com/haber/time-dergisine-kapak- war, but he was not against it either unless the US
olmus-10-turk-267301 had to supply military aid. The Cairo Conference
214
resulted in postponing the definite date of Turkey’s Turkey had to make changes in her foreign
entry into the war. Nevertheless, Turkey accepted relations in the early months of 1944. Decisions
to enter the war in principle. were taken in order to appease both the British
Numan Menemencioğlu, the Turkish Minister and the Soviet Union. Therefore, she broke her
of Foreign Affairs, proposed three conditions to diplomatic relations with Germany. Britain
enter the war: the creation of a common strategy considered this as the first step for Turkey to be
with the Allied forces so that the military power in war. Churcill assumed that breaking diplomatic
could be shifted to the Balkans from Italy, the relations would lead German vengeance attacks
strengthening of the anti-aircraft systems of Turkey on Turkey, which in turn, would lead Turkey to
so as to protect the large cities, a period of one join the Allies. The Soviet press criticized Turkey’s
or two months in order to persuade the Turkish half-measure of breaking diplomatic relations with
public about entering the war and to negotiate Germany. In order to satisfy the Soviet Union,
with the governments who were not present in the Turkey banned Pan-Turanian activities. Indeed,
Cairo Conference. a journalist, Falih Rıfkı Atay, wrote that racists
and Turanists were a threat to national unity and
After the Cairo Conference, a British military
Turkey’s security (Deringil, p. 174). The banning
mission arrived in Ankara in January 1944.
of Pan-Turanism was an indication of the rejection
Menemencioğlu was obsessed with the idea that the
of racism. In fact, president İnönü had made it
British and the Soviets would have an agreement.
clear that Turkish nationalists were not racist. The
The chromium issue was on the table. The Allies
minister of Foreign Affairs Numan Menemencioğlu
objected to Turkey’s chromium export to Germany.
resigned since he was known to be pro-German.
In January and February 1944, Turkey had
increased the shipment of chromium to Germany attention
from 13,564 tons to 56,649 tons (Deringil, p. 168)
Turkish foreign minister Numan Pan-Turanism or Turanism is an early 19th
Menemencioğlu said that Turkey would not stop century movement, which propagated a
her chromium export to Germany. At the TGNA, strong political and cultural attachment with
he made it clear that Turkey had had an alliance all the Turkic, Tartar, and Uralic peoples. The
with Britain since 1939. She had not been neutral ideology was the brainchild of the Young
because she was an ally. He further stated that Turks to counter the Pan-Slavic movement
Turkey’s export of chromium to Germany was not that started in the imperial Russia.
unethical since she had already offered to export
chromium to Britain, but she was refused.
During the time when Germany was on the

verge of defeating the Soviet Union, pan-
Turkish propaganda flourished. Indeed, a
pan-Turkish committee was founded in July
1941. When it became clear that Germany
almost lost the war, pan-Turkism was
suppressed in May 1944.
In October 1944 in Moscow, Churchill and

the British Foreign Office had different points of
view. The diplomats of the Foreign Office argued
that Turkey was important for Britain’s long-term
Figure 6.18 Numan Menemencioğlu and Winston interests and that Turkey was weary of the demands
Churchill in the Adana Meeting the Soviets made on the Straits. Churchill, on the
Source: https://twitter.com/trdispolitika/ other hand, objected to this view since he did
status/832313676451475456 not see Turkey as indispensable to Britain. He
215
defended the idea that the Montreux Convention states. Even though Turkey maintained her relations
was obsolete and he did not object to the Soviet’s with Germany on a neutral basis, she refused the
free passage to the Straits. Nazi pressure to deport the Jews in her land to
The Yalta Conference convened in February Eastern Europe for extermination. Furthermore,
1945. Turkey was worried that Churchill would history notes the efforts of the Turkish diplomats
make concessions to the Soviet Union as he had been to save the European Jews and provide safety for
angry at Turkey. Nevertheless, Churchill defended them in Turkey. In the Turkish press, it was said that
Turkey’s position as he came to terms with the Turkey with her active neutrality policy avoided
Foreign Office at Yalta. The question of the Straits invasion and destruction. Additionally, Turkey had
was raised again and all three powers agreed that the not been a burden to anyone. The policies followed
1936 Montreux Convention needed to be revised. by Turkey, they argued, protected the Caucasus
Turkey was also given a deadline to declare war on and the Black Sea.
the AxiPowers, which was May 1 if she wanted to While the Turkish press took such a tone,
be invited to the United Nations conference. Hasan the Soviet media was harsh on Turkey. Indeed, it
Saka, the foreign minister of Turkey, informed the started an anti-Turkish campaign. In early March,
Turkish Grand National Assembly of this decision. it went further and announced that the Turco-
Finally, on February 23, 1945, Turkey declared war Soviet friendship pact of 1925 would not be
on both Germany and Japan. In fact, at this time, renewed. Molotov, the Soviet foreign minister, said
the Soviet armies were not far away from Berlin that Turkey had to agree to a frontier rectification
and the Anglo-American forces were getting close along her eastern border. The Soviets asked for Kars
to Cologne. Turkish troops were not involved in and Ardahan, which had been ceded to Turkey in
active fighting and the declaration of war remained the time of their weakness. Molotov continued his
symbolic. Turkish newspaper headlines announced attacks on Turkey by saying that Turkey was weak
that Turkey was invited to join the United Nations to defend the Straits by herself. Therefore, she had
as a loyal ally. to grant bases to the Soviet Union for joint defense.
He demanded that the Montreux Convention be
revised and give greater control over the Straits
to the Soviet Union. Turkey was also accused of
not declaring war immediately after breaking her
diplomatic relations with Germany. There were
also other criticisms that Turkey had not allowed
ships to go through the Straits that could bear
supplies to the Soviet Union.
2
Which policies did Turkey pursue during WWII?
In conclusion, as Germany expanded its new

empire, Turkey continued to be neutral. The
Figure 6.19 Newspaper headlines announcing Turkey’s country had been through a gruesome war to gain
entry to war her independence. She was a newly established
Source: http://www.covenant.idc.ac.il/en/vol3/issue1/ Republic with a bitter taste of World War I.
turkeys_invitations_to_nazi-persecuted.html Therefore, she considered herself ill prepared for
another war. Both the Allies and the Axis Powers
After declaring war on the Axis powers, the wanted Turkey to side with their forces. However,
Turkish press also said that Turkey had never been Turkey maintained a balanced neutral policy
strictly neutral since she tended to act along with with all these powers. She kept good relations
the Allied Powers who represented the democratic with Britain throughout the war and signed non-
216
aggression agreements with Germany. It was 30% to 50%. Military conscription further harmed
mostly Britain, who urged Turkey to enter the war; the economy by the ensuing labor deficiency,
however, Turkey could resist the British insistence which decreased agricultural production by about
and remained neutral. When the Soviets defeated 42% and caused a decline in manufacturing by
Germany at Stalingrad on November 1942, the 50%. The volume of international trade contracted
allied pressure on Turkey increased, but she still significantly as well. These conditions led
managed to keep herself out of the war. The Allies, predictably to shortage of goods, enormous price
then, sought to establish bases in Turkey for their increases, inflation, hoarding, black marketing,
troops and aircraft. Germany, in return, threatened profiteering, and corruption. At the end of the
Turkey by stating that if a single allied fighter plane war, almost all segments of society deeply suffered
arrived at her land, that would mean war. and felt alienated by the measures the state took to
In general, Turkey followed a balanced policy regulate the economy and cover the war expenses.
between the Allied and the Axis. However, at the
Conference in Cairo held in December 1943, the State Measures for Economic
pressure increased and the Allies made it clear that
Regulation
if Turkey stayed out of war, she would completely
be isolated during the post-war era. This meant The impact of World War II necessitated the
that Turkey would not get help if the Soviet state to intervene in all the sectors of economy.
Union made demands on Turkish borders or the An all-encompassing new law, temporary taxes
Straits. Throughout 1944, Turkey continued to stay and supervisory agencies formed the backbone
neutral; however, she broke her diplomatic relations of war time economic regulations to raise funds,
with Germany in August. In February 1945, at the mitigate shortage of goods, curb price increases and
Yalta Conference, future changes in the Montreux inflation, combat the black market, and prevent
convention were agreed upon. February 23, 1945 war profiteering.
Turkey officially declared war on Germany. This act
ensured that Turkey would qualify as a founding The National Protection Law (Milli
member of the United Nations. Korunma Kanunu)
There are disagreements in the interpretation The Turkish Parliament passed the National
of Turkey’s neutrality during the war. President Protection Law on January 18, 1940, which fully
İnönü and his team managed to keep Turkey out legitimized all possible interventions and actions
of a devastating war, which would, in eventuality, of the state in economic matters. This law became
delayed many political, social and economic the legal foothold of all the economic measures
developments in the country. and gave the government extensive rights to
control economic life. The government alone
STATE AND SOCIETY IN TURKEY came to control the relations of production, labor,
DURING WORLD WAR II supply, distribution, rationing, consumption, and
foreign trade. Domestic issues received attention
World War II years stood at the crux of the
first. The administration enforced a fixed price
1940s, and its multiple effects on Turkey were
policy on commodities in order to prevent
responsible for most of the shifts experienced in
uncontrolled price increases; however, this resulted
several categories during the decade. The economic
in the pulling of several goods from the market
distress caused by the war lay at the root of the
and created shortages. The government, with this
challenges in this era and essentially halted the
Law, received the right to confiscate corporations
industrial development plans of the preceding
that did not meet the expected levels of production
period. Military mobilization for defense increased
and to buy goods below value price and distribute
the numbers of the Turkish army from 120.000 to
them without profit. The law also entitled the
1.5 million and the maintenance of this force meant
government to implement forced labor when
an enormous economic burden on the budget.
deemed necessary, and especially the mining sector
Among other measures, the state had to raise the
made use of the National Protection Law. During
share of the Ministry of National Defense from
the years between 1942 and 1946, some big cities
217
exercised a commodity pass practice, which meant data. Payments were expected within fifteen days
buying a certain good only in restricted and set of the assessment and an additional two weeks
amounts recorded on a card. In those four years, were allowed to pay the determined amount with
the staple food of bread was rationed with utmost high interest rates. After thirty days, the taxpayer
caution and consumers could buy it only with a would be subject to confiscation of property, arrest
bread-rationing card (ekmek karnesi). In terms or deportation to work camps as forced labor.
of international trade, the government tried to On paper, the Capital Tax made no distinctions
combat the problems by setting up quotas for according to religious belonging, ethnicity or
foreign exchange and by particularly discouraging regional differences. In application, however, a
imports. The National Protection Law remained separate treatment for Muslims and non-Muslims
in effect far beyond the World War II years. It transpired. The commissions prepared different
was abrogated on September 10, 1960, after the lists for the two groups, and the tax rates for non-
military coup in the same year. Muslims were almost ten times higher than those
required from Muslims or foreigners, a rate, which
was quite often beyond their ability to pay. When
the lists were announced, 70% of the total debt fell
on Istanbul, 87% of whose population was non-
muslim. The enforcement of the tax was notably
uneven. Muslims mostly paid the relatively minor
amounts as patriotic duty or as a way to escape
any sort of punishment. The payments from
foreigners were quite erratic as consuls intervened
for cancellations or rate reductions. The tax
collection was strictly applied to non-Muslims who
contributed the largest amount in the total of the
levied sum, namely 280.000 TL out of 315.000 TL.
The Capital Tax was repealed on March 15, 1944.
Figure 6.20 Bread rationing practice in the media
Source: https://tarihnedio.com/yil-1942-ellerde-karne-
akillarda-soru-kalpte-korku/
The Capital Tax (Varlık Vergisi)

The Capital Tax (Varlık Vergisi), passed on
November 11, 1942, was a non-repetitive levy from
the affluent segments of society and constituted in
essence a wealth tax. It would be applicable to big
farmers, estate and property owners, entrepreneurs,
corporations, and several individuals paying
income taxes. The proclaimed purpose of the
tax was raising funds for defense in case of a
participation in World War II. Additionally, it was
supposed to establish a financial levelling with the
sectors in society that had increased their prosperity
due to war profiteering. The Capital Tax sought
no statement of wealth, and the public received Figure 6.21 Non-Muslims auctioning off their goods to
only a few guidelines for the rates. Committees pay the Capital Tax
comprised of local peers and government financial
Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
officers determined the liable parties and their
commons/e/e0/Vergisiauctions.png
tax debt mostly based on guesswork and limited
218
proceeds. Commissions of Estimation (tahmin

komisyonları) set up in province and town centers
In times of economic hardship, especially
would be responsible for assessing the tax amounts.
for the need to cover the costs of war, one
Failing to pay the taxes or delivering deficient sums
of the means of raising revenue for states is
would entail three months’ jail sentence or a heavy
increasing the existing taxes or instituting
fine of 250 TL. The Agricultural Products Tax was
emergency levies. The World War II years
repealed on January 23, 1946.
were no different in that respect. Major
players in World War II issued similar
taxes on excessive profits made during the
war such as the “wealth tax” in the United
States, the “excess profit tax” in the Great
Britain, and the “profit transfer regulation”
(Gewinnabführungsverordnung) in Germany.
The Agricultural Products Tax (Toprak

Figure 6.22Turkish villagers in 1943 subjected to the
Mahsulleri Vergisi) Agricultural Products Tax
By the onset of the 1940s, Turkey was
Source: https://img-s2.onedio.com/id-
still predominantly an agrarian country with
5a5b3be6e44059341d7d4a8f/rev-0/raw/s-
approximately 76% of its population living in
97d7a660b1d9cd1a700e1b9357450d482b187422.jpg
villages and conducting farming. Despite the
industrialization efforts of the previous decade,
agricultural production continued to form the New Public Agencies
core of the economy. This also meant a quite In addition to the National Protection
significant base of taxpayers. Therefore, in addition Law granting the state complete control over
to the Capital Tax, which rather levied cash from the economy and the temporary taxes, the
urban areas, the state introduced the Agricultural government also established new public agencies
Products Tax on June 4, 1943 in order to benefit to regulate economic measures and supervise
from rural areas as well. The tax was to be collected their implementation. The Undersecreteriat for
in cash or kind and in a ratio of 8-12% depending Provisions (İaşe Teşkilatı/Müsteşarlığı), the Trade
on the type of the crop. Again, according to the Office (Ticaret Ofisi), and the Petroleum Office
variety of the produce, two modes of determining (Petrol Ofisi) were the major ones, all of which were
the tax amounts existed. The first method would founded on February 18, 1941 and operated under
require the liable parties to provide a written the Ministry of Trade. The Undersecreteriat for
statement of the expected quantity of the harvest, Provisions strove to combat food shortages caused
which the wardens of measurement and estimation by the effects of the war with several subsidiary
(ölçü ve tahmin memurları) would then inspect branches in multiple cities and regions. The main
before reaping. The second method demanded responsibility of this organization was to produce
on-the-spot measuring of the produce after the food and fuel supplies, store them, and ensure
harvest by these wardens. The payments, which their fair distribution and use under emergency
the government overwhelmingly preferred, obliged conditions. The Trade Office primarily served to
the tax payer to arrange the transport of the goods control imports, prevent monopolies, and avert
to the collection points. Due to problems arising profiteering. The duty of the Petroleum Office was
in levying and due to confusions resulting from the valorization of petroleum and its derivative
different rates for products, the tax underwent products and the management of their storage,
revision on April 26, 1944. The tax rate became delivery and distribution throughout the country.
fixed at 10% for all sorts of crops and the
estimation method of the impending harvest was
set as the only mode of calculating the outstanding
219
rural front, the Agricultural Products Tax became a

heavy burden on the small peasantry, impoverishing
them on top of the hardships of military
conscription, requisition of animals, and forced
labor. Furthermore, many interpreted the tax as the
return of the Ottoman tithe (aşar), which had been
lifted in 1925. Provincial large landowners, who
were against the implementation of the Agricultural
Figure 6.23 The very first logo of the Petroleum Office Products tax to begin with, also became alienated
in 1941 when openly blamed for the deterioration of rural
Source: https://www.petrolofisi.com.tr/tarihce conditions. The discontent brewing in almost
all sectors of society, which suffered under the
economic impact of World War II and the ensuing
The Social Sphere: Alienation and policies, rested at the heart of the process leading
Discontent to the formation of opposition parties and the
The war’s impact was detrimental on diverse eventual change in the governmental power holders
social strata and caused intense public unease. in Turkey.
Both urban and rural sectors suffered keenly due
to policy choices and their intended or unintended
outcomes. By the end of the war, the vast majority Side Effects of Socio-Economic
of the populace felt alienated and resentful. Conditions and Disruption of Public
Order
The intolerable economic conditions and the
Reflections of State Economic
resultant poverty had several repercussions on social
Measures life, leading to the instability and disintegration of
The National Protection Law in general public order in general. The gravity of financial
angered the masses who eventually lost trust in circumstances and destitution disrupted family
the government for not being able to mitigate life, and marriages started falling apart. Violence
the unbearable economic conditions despite the became visible on streets, and skirmishes or fights
vast authority the law granted the state and the grew into everyday scenes. Crimes, especially
sacrifices it imposed on the people. The Capital Tax petty theft, increased tremendously due to lack
allowed cash flow into the treasury and helped some of provisions and means. Despair steered some
decrease in wholesale prices in the short term. In women to prostitution, which exploded during
the long run, though, it damaged the confidence of the World War II years. Foreclosure suits and
most entrepreneurs in the state, entailed hesitancy penal proceedings in courts skyrocketed due the
in investment, and thus curbed private enterprise. increased number of crimes committed or the
Although the tax was instituted to correct inflation inability to pay the assessed taxes.Penitentiaries
and excessive profits, it also seemed to serve to erase became overcrowded and the authorities neglected
the commercial inequalities between non-Muslim the proper provision of prisoners’ needs, especially
and Muslim groups and alter the balance in favor food, as feeding the population at large was
of the latter. However, the Muslim business holders already a considerable challenge. Public health
felt insecure as well, thinking they might be next massively deteriorated due to diminished hygiene
in line. Inflation, the decline in purchasing power, and malnutrition. Diseases such as typhoid,
and the limited availability of basic goods crushed tuberculosis, malaria, leishmaniosis, and trachoma
other urban sectors, especially the salaried groups started spreading and proved to be difficult to
with fixed incomes, beyond endurance. In addition contain because of the limited availability of
to these adversities, many urbanites felt aggravated medication.
by witnessing others enriched through hoarding, Conversations about the war and related steady
speculation, and black marketing – problems the routines hegemonized everyday life psychologically
state tried to avert but with little success. On the and practically. The confines of the martial law in big
220
cities, daily dim-outs, regular defense instructions

at schools in case of active warfare, propaganda on
prudence and frugality dominated the population’s
minds and influenced their conduct. Piety
escalated in the era with people trying to find
spiritual comfort and strength for coping with the
hardships they experienced. Different opinions
on current circumstances underlined intellectual
polarities of the time and furthermore politicized
the young generation.
The plight of the people during the

World War II years has been depicted
in various Turkish novels which present
a portrait of the problems experienced in
multiple respects. Some examples among
too many are: Sonsuz Panayır by Halide
Edip Adıvar, Garipler Sokağı by Oktay
Akbal, Matmazel Noraliya’nın Koltuğu by
Peyami Safa, Panorama by Yakup Kadri
Karaosmanoğlu, Havada Bulut Yok by
Cevdet Kudret, Namusçular by Kemal Tahir,
Emir Bey’in Kızları by Ayla Kutlu, Karartma Figure 6.24 Lightbulbs in trams were changed to dark
Geceleri by Rıfat Ilgaz, Rezil Dünya by Faik colored ones due to dim-outs.
Baysal, 72. Koğuş by Orhan Kemal. Source: https://goo.gl/images/DuHnfo
3
What sort of a chain reaction might you detect in
evaluating the impact of World War II on Turkey?
221
What were the important steps

LO 1 that caused World War II?
World War II started in Europe upon border clashes among the European countries, mainly between
Germany and France. The border problems combined with the economic problems caused by previous
war expenditures as well as war compensations created radical governments in Europe. Germany and
Italy were the two of them. Benito Mussolini, who came to power in Italy in 1922, was eager to establish
a colonial empire in the Mediterranean and Africa assuming Italy as heir to the ancient Roman Empire.
Summary
Adolf Hitler founded the National Socialism in Germany, which demanded the pure Germanic race
(Aryan race) be dominant. This outlook created terror by executing thousands of non Aryan people
not only in Germany but also in the countries which were occupied by Germany during the war. The
road to World War II started with the Italian occupation of Ethiopia on September 5, 1935, which took
place despite the protests. Germany sent troops into the Rhineland in 1936, which had been previously
demilitarized according to the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. In the South, the Spanish Civil War started
in 1936, which increased tension in Europe and in the Mediterranean region. The fight was between the
Nationalists of Franco and the Republicans. Germany, Italy, and the Soviet Russia were actively involved
in this civil war by supporting either side according to their ideological stance. Later, Hitler remilitarized
the Rhineland, occupied the Sudetenland and Anschluss in Austria on March 12, 1938, despite the fact
that the Treaty of Versailles had stated stick rules, Italy occupied Albania, and Germany sent troops to
Czechoslovakia, and attacked Poland. This was the beginning of World War II. Then, Britain and France
declared war to Germany on September 3, 1939. Soon after, the Soviet Russia joined the war by attacking
Finland. This was the time when the belligerents of World War I allied themselves as the Axis Powers with
Italy, Germany, and Japan being on one side. On the other side, mainly Britain and France established
the Allied Powers. Later, the United States of America joined the Allied Powers by declaring war on Japan
on December 7, 1941 after the surprise Japanese attacks on the US military naval basis at Pearl Harbor
in Hawaii. Germany maintained aggressive policies and occupied Denmark and Norway between April
to June 1940 and the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg in May 1940. At the same time, Italy and
Germany declared war on Russia on June 22, 1941. Italy had occupied France on June 10, 1940 and
declared war on France and Britain. The German Army came to the aid of Italy and attacked France.
Paris fell on June 14. France had to surrender on June 22, 1940. It was all so speedily done by the Axis
Powers that they soon managed to get France to sign an armistice with Germany and accept the presence
of German and Italian armed forces. Germany and Italy extended their influence and occupations to
Central, East and South of Europe, including the Balkans, as well as Northern Africa. Germany began
its bombing raids against England, an event which was named the Battle of England. In 1940, these two
European belligerent countries were joined by Japan. However, when the United States entered the war
and sent troops to back the British, the balance of war changed. The African front during and after 1941,
witnessed attacks and counterattacks between the Allied and Axis powers and this front, finally ended in
May 1943 when an Anglo-American landing, Operation Torch, was launched in North-West Africa. The
Italian and German forces were forced to surrender in northern Tunisia. The Allied victory in North Africa
brought down the fascist government in Italy in 1943.
The war with the Axis on the Western front continued since Germany kept figting. However, the Allied
amphibious landing on the French coasts on June 6, 1944 with a combined forces composed of the
American, British and Canadian soldiers was the beginning of the operation against the Axis Powers, and
it was also the beginning of the end of World War II in Europe. This landing liberated Paris on August 25
with the help of the Free French Forces formed by the Patriotic French led by General Charles de Gaulle.
Afterwards, the Allied forces continued the operations on the Western Front against Germany despite the
heavy German resistance in the Netherlands and Italy. Germany had to surrender on May 7, 1945 after
Hitler committed suicide on April 30. Italy also accepted to surrender on April 29, 1945 after Benito
Mussolini was executed by the Italian communist partisans on April 28, 1945 while he was attempting
to flee to Switzerland.
222
LO 1 Continued
Once the War was over in Europe, the Allied Powers forced Japan to surrender but the latter refused to
do so. The United States, in an effort to end the War, dropped atomic bombs on two Japanese cities,
Hiroshima and Nagasaki, on August 6 and August 9, 1945, respectively. Hirohito, the Emperor of Japan,
accepted to surrender on August 15, 1945. An armistice was signed at Tokyo Bay on the deck of the
American battleship USS Missouri on September 2, 1945. This was the official end of World War II.
Summary
World War II between 1939 and 1945 caused millions of civilian and military casulties. The use of
technologically developed weapons including the atomic weapons, military vehicles used on land, at
sea and in the air intensified the casulties. The cities and nature were destroyed and left many people
homeless. During the War, the politicians from Britain, USA, and the Soviet Russia came together in
conferences held in different countries to decide on both the military strategies to be followed to eliminate
the Axis Powers and to make plans to preserve peace following the war.
Describe the Foreign policy after

LO 2 Atatürk: ‘Active Neutrality’
during World War II
Before and during WWII Turkey sought to maintain its sovereign status won in 1923. It pursued a balanced
policy. Turkish leaders were aware of the fact that Turkish geopolitical location had both advantages and
disadvantages. As a country at the crossroad, Turkey avoided being part of any power block. Turkish
leaders knew the capacity of Turkey’s own resources very well. They felt the need to be prepared to fight to
defend Turkey’s rights and territories. She would only enter a war only in self defense, and she would use
tough bargaining strategies if necessary for her survival. Up until 1943, Turkey did not declare war on the
Axis powers. She sometimes pursued a strict neutral policy and at other times an active neutrality. Turkey
did not want either Germany or the USSR to win the war. If Germany won, Turkey would be under
attack from the Nazi Germany. If the USSR won, she would make demands on the Turkish territory and
make claims on the Straits. In 1943, Turkey declared war on Germany and Japan and cut her diplomatic
relationship with Germany. She was forced to act with the Allies since she was threatened by being left
in isolotion after the War. Joining the war even in its last stages earned Turkey the right to be one of the
founding members of the United Nations.
223
Pinpoint the economic impact of World War

LO 3 II on Turkey and identify the measures the
state took to alleviate the adverse effect,
The World War II years caused serious distress on Turkish economy. Military mobilization for defense,
costs of maintaining the army, labor deficiency, the decrease in agricultural production, the decline in
manufacturing, and the contraction of the international trade volume marked the era economically.
These circumstances entailed a shortage of goods, a huge increase in prices, steep inflation, hoarding,
black marketing, profiteering, and corruption. The state acted by interceding in all segments of the
Summary
economy through a new law, temporary taxes, and regulatory agencies in order to raise funds, relieve
shortages, curb prices, restrain inflation, combat the black market, and prevent war profiteering. The
National Protection Law allowed the government alone to control production, labor, supply, distribution,
rationing, consumption, and foreign trade. The Capital Tax made the prosperous segments of society liable
for a one-time wealth tax. The Agricultural Products Tax collected revenues from the rural areas. New
public agencies operating under the Ministry of Trade helped the government to control and administer
the economic measures and policies. The Undersecreteriat for Provisions was responsible for securing
food and fuel supplies and guaranteeing their appropriate allocation and utilization under emergency
conditions. The duty of the Trade Office was chiefly the control imports, the prevention of monopolies,
and the obstruction of profiteering. The task of the Petroleum Office was the valorization of petroleum
and its derivative products and the management of their storage, transport and distribution.
Comprehend the reflections of state

LO 4 economic measures on society and assess
the growth of popular discontent.
At the end of the war, almost all segments of society in both urban and rural settings had deeply suffered
and felt a resentful alienation. The National Protection Law entailed a loss of trust in the government for its
limited success in alleviating the economic conditions. The Capital Tax damaged the confidence of Muslim
and non-Muslim entrepreneurial groups and curbed the private enterprise. Other urban sectors, particularly
the fixed wage earners, experienced a sharp decline in living standards. The Agricultural Products Tax
became a heavy burden on the small peasantry and disgruntled big landowners. The agonizing economic
conditions and impoverishment disrupted public order in multiple aspects. Disturbances in family lives,
increases in crimes and violence, rise in prostitution, swelling in court cases, the overcrowding of prisons
became rule of the day. Dwindling hygiene and malnourishment impaired public health. Pathogen
growth increased incidences of disease, which were hard to treat because of the limited availability medical
supplies. People found themselves psychologically, practically, and intellectually preoccupied with the war
as well. The discontent brewing in almost all sectors of society, which suffered under the economic impact
of World War II and the ensuing policies, rested at the heart of the process leading to the formation of
opposition parties and the eventual change in the governmental power holders in Turkey.
224
1 Britain and France declared war on Germany 6 Which of the following was less decisive for
in response to the ………. Turkish foreign policy during WWII?
Which of the following completes the sentence A. the Italian invasion of Albania
above?
B. the Tripartite treaty in 1939
Test Yourself
A. Soviet invasion of Finland. C. the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour
B. Italian invasion of Ethiopia. D. the Cairo Conference
C. German invasion of Poland. E. the Yalta Conference
D. German invasion of Austria.
E. German invasion of Czechoslovakia.
7 Which of the following policies did Turkey
not pursue during WWII?
2 What event officially led the United States to
join World War II? A. full belligerency
B. active neutrality
A. the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor
C. de facto neutrality
B. Germany’s breaking the non-aggression pact
D. balance politics
C. the German bombing of London
E. realist policies
D. the German occupation of France
E. the sinking of the U.S.S. Greer
8 Which one is not one of the measures taken
to combat the economic problems during the
3 Which of the following was accepted as the World War II years?
beginning of the end of World War II in Europe?
A. the implementation of the Capital Tax
A. the US occupation of Iceland in 1940. B. the promulgation of the National Protection Law
B. the Soviet occupation of Vienna in April 1945 C. the establishment of the Trade Office
C. Hitler’s suicide on April 30, 1945 D. the lifting of the Tithe Tax
D. the Allied Forces’ landing on the cost of France E. the implementation of the Agricultural
in 1944. Products Tax
E. The surrender of Germany in May 1945
9 Which of the following is not one of the

4 Which of the following is not one of the reflections of the economic conditions and policies
Conferences convened during World War II? of the World War II years on the social domain?
A. Paris Conference A. loss of trust in the government
B. Potsdam Conference
B. disruption of public order
C. Yalta Conference
C. decrease in court cases
D. Moscow Conference
D. deterioration of public health
E. San Francisco Conference
E. decline of private enterprise
5 What was Turkey apprehensive about during

WWII, ? 10 Which of the following was not one of the
economic consequences of World War II in Turkey?
A. to be invaded from the Balkans
B. USSR’s dominant position in the Eastern A. increase in trade
Europe B. rise in prices
C. Germany’s influence in the Middle East C. decrease in production
D. Entering the war unprepared D. surfacing of black marketing
E. all of the above E. decline in labor force
225
If your answer is wrong, please review the

1. C If your answer is wrong, please review the 6. C
section “Turkish Foreign Policy During
section “World War II: Cause and Facts.”
WWII.”
Suggested answers for “Your turn” Answer Key for “Test Yourself”

2. A If your answer is wrong, please review the 7. A
section “Turkish Foreign Policy During
section “World War II: Cause and Facts.”
WWII.”

3. D If your answer is wrong, please review the 8. D
section “State Measures for Economic
sub-section “The End of World War II.”
Regulation.”
If your answer is wrong, please review the If your answer is wrong, please review the
4. A 9. C
sub-section “Conferences Held During section “The Social Sphere: Alienation and
World War II.” Discontent.”
If your answer is wrong, please review the If your answer is wrong, please review the
5. E section “Turkish Foreign Policy During
10. A
section “State Measures for Economic
WWII.” Regulation.”
What were the important events that led the

World War II?
The important events that caused World War II started with the Italian
occupation of Ethiopia on September 5, 1935, which took place despite the
protests. Germany sent troops into the Rhineland in 1936, which had been
previously demilitarized according to the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. On
the other side, the Civil War in Spain, which started in 1936, also increased
tension in Europe and in the Mediterranean region. This was because Germany,
Italy, and the Soviet Russia were involved in this civil war by supporting either
your turn 1 side according to their ideological stance. Later, despite the fact that the Treaty
of Versailles had put serious limitations, Hitler remilitarized the Rhineland
and occupied the Sudetenland and Anschluss Austria on March 12, 1938.
Italy occupied Albania, and Germany sent troops to Czechoslovakia and
attacked Poland on September 1, 1939. Then Britain and France declared war
to Germany on September 3, 1939 and World War I began officially.
226
Which policies did Turkey pursue during WWII?

Turkish foreign policy during WWII can be summarized as follows: Turkey
sought to remain neutral throughout the war. At least she maintained a de
facto neutrality up until 1943; then she accepted to declare war on Germany.
Turkey pursued a balanced policy. She allied with France and Britain against
the Italian expansion. They signed a tripartite treaty in 1939. Turkey did not
want Germany and USSR to win the war. She rather wanted an agreement
reached between the Allied and Germany. Turkey did not like USSR’s
expansion in the Eastern Europe and thus causing possible claims on the
Straits. She avoided entering the war, and pursued a realistic foreign policy.
your turn 2
The Turkish administrators knew that the strategic location of the country
could easily cause the downfall of the country. Turkey did not want to lose
what she had gained during Atatürk’s days. The administrators were aware
of the fact that their economic and military powers after a long war of
Independence could not compete with either camp, the Allied and the Axis.
However, Turkey would manage to defend herself if she was attacked. Turkey
showed diplomatic skills to preserve her interests. The president, İsmet İnönü,
and his team, were farsighted for the post-war world and thus managed to be
on the winning side.
What sort of a chain reaction might you detect in

evaluating the impact of World War II on Turkey?
A chain reaction affecting the economic, social, and political spheres in

succession can be identified during the World War II years in Turkey. The war
upset the economic field first due to the prohibitive costs of the precautionary
military defense measures on the budget and the labor shortage stemming
from conscription. Additionally, the ensuing factors such as the decline in
production, a shortage of goods, price increases, high inflation, stockpiling
and black marketing hurt the economy further. The chief means to cope with
the situation was the implementation of temporary taxes and unprecedented
your turn 3
practices under the National Protection Law. The burden of the state
measures and the circumstances in general weighed heavily on the population
and unsettled the social sphere. Public order lost stability and popular
discontent started brewing among all segments of society. The alienation and
dissatisfaction of several social segments in the end found reflection in the
political sphere in the form of the establishment of opposition parties and an
eventual change in the government.
227
References
Akar, R. (2000). Aşkale yolcuları: varlık vergisi ve Metinsoy, M. (2008). İkinci dünya savaşı’nda türkiye:
çalışma kampları. İstanbul: Belge Yayınları. gündelik yaşamda devlet ve toplum. İstanbul:
Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları.
Akşin, S. (2007). Kısa Türkiye tarihi. İstanbul: Türkiye
İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları. Natkiel, R. (2000). Atlas of world war II. New York:
Barnes & Noble, Inc.
Avcıoğlu, D. (1968). Türkiye’nin düzeni. dün, bugün,
yarın. Ankara: Bilgi Yayınevi. Ökte, F. (1951). Varlık Vergisi Faciası. İstanbul:
Nebioğlu Yayınevi.
Bakar, B. (2013). İstanbul’da Ekmek Karnesi Uygulaması,
Karne ve Ekmak Suistimalleri (1942-1946). Yakın Özkan, M. S. & Temizer, A. (2009). İkinci dünya
dönem Türkiye araştırmaları, Vol.12, No.24. savaşı yıllarında karaborsacılık. Uluslararası Sosyal
Araştırmalar Dergisi, 2 (9), pp. 319-325.
Bali, R. N. (2005a). Bir Türkleştirme serüveni (1923-
1945). İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları. Öztürk, İ. M. (2013). İkinci dünya savaşı türkiye’sinde
olağanüstü ekonomik kararlar: milli korunma
Bali, R. N. (2005b). The “Varlık Vergisi” affair: a study
kanunu ve varlık vergisi. Ankara Üniversitesi Dil-
of its legacy, selected documents. İstanbul: Isis Press.
Tarih ve Coğrafya Fakültesi Tarih Araştırmaları
Baydar, E. (1978). İkinci dünya savaşı içinde Türk Dergisi, Vol.32, No.54, pp. 135-166.
bütçeleri. Ankara: Maliye Bakanlığı Tetkik Kurulu
Palmer, R. R. (1965). A history of the modern world (3rd
Yayını No:195.
Ed.). New York, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.
Boratav, Korkut. (2006). Türkiye’de Devletçilik.
Pamuk, Ş. (2009). Osmanlıdan Cumhuriyete
Ankara: İmge Kitabevi.
küreselleşme, iktisat politikaları ve büyüme.
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2007. Ankara: İmge Kitabevi.
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Fakülteler Matbaası.
Tezel, Y. S. (2002). Cumhuriyet döneminin iktisadi
Çakmak, H. (2008). Türk dış politikası (1919-2012). tarihi (1923-1950). İstanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt
Ankara: Platin Yayınları. Yayınları
Deringil, S. (1989). Turkish foreign policy during The Encyclopedia of Weapons of World War II (1998). Chris
the Second World War: an ‘active’ neutrality. Bishop (Ed.). London: Barnes & Noble, Inc.
Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1989.
Weinberg, G. L. (1994). A world at arms a global
Dokuyan, S. (2013). İkinci dünya savaşı sırasında history of world war II. Cambridge: Cambridge
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Yenal, O. (2018). Cumhuriyet’in iktisat tarihi.
Gözcü, A. (2018). İkinci dünya savaşı Türkiye’sinde İstanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları.
ekonomik durumun sosyal hayata etkilerine dair
Yerasimos, S. (1976). Azgelişmişlik sürecinde türkiye.
bazı tespitler. Ankara Üniversitesi Türk İnkılap
ı. dünya savaşından 1971’e. İstanbul: Gözlem
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Yayınları.
Hale, W. (2002). Turkish foreign policy: 1774-2000.
Zürcher, E. J. (1993). Turkey: A modern history.
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Holmes, R. (2000). World War II in photographs.
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İnci, İ. (2012). İkinci dünya savaşı yıllarında türkiye’de Further Reading
varlık vergisi uygulaması. CBÜ Sosyal Bilimler Barlas, D., Yılmaz, Ş. (2016). Managing the transition from
Dergisi,Vol.10, No.2. Pax Britannica to Pax Americana: Turkey’s relations
Keyder, Ç. (1982). Dünya ekonomisi içinde Türkiye with Britain and the US in a turbulent era (1929–47).
(1923-1929). Ankara: Yurt Yayınevi. Turkish Studies, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 449-473.
228
Transition to the Multi-Party
System and the Democrat Party
Chapter 7 Era: 1945-1960
explain the process of the transition to the
1 2
Learning Outcomes
multi-party system, the establishment of the

explain the factors that led the transition from Democrat Party, and the accommodation of the
the single-party to the multi-party system, Republican People’s Party to the new system,
3 explain the success of the Democrat Party in

the 1950 Elections and its coming to power, 4 outline the political, economic, and foreign
policies of the Democrat Party,
5 explain the background of the military

intervention of May 27, 1960.

Introduction Land Reform Bill
Transition to the Multi-Party System, 1945-1950 The Proposal of the Four
The Democrat Party Takes the Power, 1950-1954 The Republican People’s Party
Worsening Economy and the Democrat The Democrat Party
Party’s Shift to Authoritarianism, 1954-1960 İsmet İnönü
Adnan Menderes
The Democrat Party and the Military
Celâl Bayar
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INTRODUCTION National Assembly (TGNA). The said elections

Following the end of World War II, Turkey’s were held on May 14, 1950. The Democrat
political system underwent a fundamental Party gained an overwhelming victory over the
transformation; the single-party system, which had Republican People’s Party that had transformed
continued officially since 1931 was replaced by itself to accommodate the new circumstances and
a multi-party system. The factors that compelled the newworldview and had liberalized its program.
such transformation were mainly two: domestic The Democrat Party’ s coming into power through
and international. Domestic factors were the democratically held elections signified a turning point
result of the discontent that arose among the in the political history of contemporary Turkey. A
various segments of the society during the war different type of political elite came to power by the
years. Especially, economic difficulties experienced 1950 elections. Politically, the Democrat Party put
during the war caused the rise of a widespread pressure on the Republican People’s Party as soon
discontent among the rural and urban population. as it came to power. Additionally, it attempted to
International factors, on the other hand, emanated take under control the army and the bureaucracy
from the changing international conditions. World considered the stronghold of the opposition party.
War II ended with the victory of liberal states over In economy, it adopted a liberal policy based on
the Axis powers; namely, Germany, Italy, and agricultural development. In foreign policy, it
Japan. Yet, on the victorious side, there was also spent all of its efforts for the continuation of the
the Soviet Union, a socialist state. As soon as the integration with the Western alliance system.
war was over, the Soviet state took a menacing Joining the NATO was one of the major goals of its
attitude toward Turkey demanding revisions in its foreign policy. In the elections held at the end of its
borders and changes in the status of the Straits. first four years of incumbency, the Democrat Party
In face of the Soviet threat, Turkey began to was able to increase popular support owing to the
approach the liberal states led by the United States. economic boom between 1950-1953. The second
As political, economic, and military competition half of the 1950s was not equally favorable for the
between liberal and socialist states increased by the Democrats in economy. Financial deficit appeared
rise of the bipolar world in 1947, Turkey began as the most serious problem for the government.
to accommodate to the political, economic and Politically, the Democrat Party increasingly
military system of the West. became authoritarian. As a means of preserving
The process of the political transformation the political power, Adnan Menderes, the Prime
began as early as May 1945. Yet, political Minister, increasingly resorted to religious rhetoric
competition in the real sense began when the through which he mobilized the popular base of
Democrat Party was founded in January 1946. his party.
As soon as it was founded, the Democrat Party’s The worsened economic conditions and
liberal discourse took considerable support from increased authoritarianism caused the rise of
the press, businessmen, the intelligentsia, and the widespread discontent against the Democrat
general public. The Republican People’s Party, Party’s rule, especially in urban centers. The
not confronted with a serious challenge as it opposition became stronger as it was illustrated in
had monopolized the political scene for almost the 1957 elections. The pressure of the government
two decades, was keen to maintain its power. on the press, universities, bureaucracy, and the
The transitional period, thus, witnessed the rise opposition parties increased tenfold toward the
of tension between the two parties frequently. end of the 1950s. The Democrats were suspicious
Whether the new system would continue or be of the Republican People’s Party’s activities;
disrupted by the efforts of the Republican People’s they claimed that the opposition party was in
Party’s hardliners who did not favor such change search of provoking a military coup against
had emerged as a critical question by 1947. The the government. They led the formation of an
President İsmet İnönü’s interventions in favor of investigation committee to search this claim. This
change guaranteed the continuation of the multi- sparked the protests against the Democrat Party.
party system. In order to ensure fair elections, a Soon, the military intervened and overthrew the
series of legislations passed by the Turkish Grand Democrat Party rule. Thus, a period that started
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Transition to the Multi-Party System and the Democrat Party Era, 1945-1960
with a change of power through democratically their living standards. They were poorer at the
held elections ended in a military intervention, a end of the war compared to its beginning. The
first in the history of the Turkish Republic. discontent of the traders and landowners posed
the most serious challenge to the government. The
civil-military bureaucracy, the intellectuals, and
TRANSITION TO THE MULTI- this particular group had formed the backbone
PARTY SYSTEM, 1945-1950 of the Republican People’s Party’s power. Despite
The first signal of the change in the political the fact that they benefited from the wartime
system from single-party to multi-party came on economic situation and that they were among the
May 19, 1945 when the President İsmet İnönü economically advantaged, they were scared of the
stated that steps would be taken in the direction immense state power that could and did impose
of democracy. This statement was made shortly harsh measures such as the Wealth Tax or the Tax
after the San Francisco conference which had been for Agricultural Products (See Chapter II). For
convened in April 1945. The conference resulted the large landowners, the government’s attempt to
in the establishment of the United Nations. distribute land to the farmers was another reason
Turkey, as a founding member of the conference, for their further alienation from the Republican
signed the United Nations’ Charter committing to People’s Party (see below). Consequently, as a
democratic ideals. Yet, the causes of the transition result of the socio-economic developments during
from a single-party to a multi-party system were World War II, a widespread discontent arose that
more deep-rooted and complicated. Domestic and was entirely directed against the government which
international factors together brought about such a had been ruling the country without opposition
fundamental change in 1945. for many years.
Domestic Factors International Factors

The domestic factors emanated from the International factors that forced the political
widespread discontent experienced by different transformation in Turkey were mainly two. First,
segments of the society during the war. One World War II ended with the victory of the liberal/
of the groups was the peasantry who formed democrat states (United States and Britain) over
approximately 80 % of the population. The peasants the fascistic/dictatorial ones (Germany, Italy and
were mostly small farmers. From the establishment Japan). The United States emerged as a dominant
of the Republic until World War II, the living world power from the war. Its values such as liberal
conditions of the citizens in the rural areas did not democracy impressed and influenced Turkey. Yet,
improve much. Furthermore, the war years were they were not sufficient to lead to a transformation
catastrophic for this group. Extraordinary measures in the political system. The second factor was the
taken during the world war by the government had Soviet hostility that Turkey felt very strongly as soon
adverse effects on the peasantry. The conscription as the war ended. The Soviet Union had emerged as
of the male population, the drafting of animals, the the paramount power in the region where Turkey
forced purchases from producers at below-market was situated. Disturbed by the Turkish neutrality
prices, and the imposition of the compulsory during the war, the Soviet leadership attempted
labor worsened the socio-economic situation of to put pressure on Turkey through irreconcilable
the peasantry (Karaömerlioğlu, 2006, 94-95). At demands beginning from early 1945. In February,
the end of the war, the peasantry was probably the Joseph Stalin, the Soviet ruler, expressed to his British
most alienated social group from the government. and American counterparts the Soviet intention
Similarly, wage and salary earners in the urban for a revision of the Montreux Convention, which
centers were displeased about the wartime economic had given Turkey full sovereignty on the Straits.
conditions as their incomes dramatically declined. Then, the Soviet state raised the same issue directly
Their income was frozen by the government. As with the Turkish government. Later, in March
the price index continuously increased during the 1945, it communicated to Turkish authorities
war, they experienced hardships in maintaining that it would not renew the Treaty of Friendship
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and Non-Aggression with Turkey that had been the and economic reforms that would make it friendly
basis of good relations between the two states since to their side in the emerging competition with the
1920s. The Soviet authorities did not make any new Soviet Union (Vanderlippe, 2005, pp. 127-134). As
demands or suggestions for the renewal of the Treaty a result, they encouraged Turkey to follow a liberal
in their communication. The conditions for the economic policy favoring the private enterprise on
renewal of the Treaty were discussed in conversations one hand and observed closely the transformation of
between the ministers of foreign affairs of the its political system to a multi-party one on the other.
two states in June 1945. There were mainly two The transformation of its economic and political
demands of the Soviets: first, the restoration of the system seemed inevitable for Turkey in order to
areas in northeastern Anatolia (Kars and Ardahan) end her isolation and receive strong political and
which had been within the Russian borders between economic support in the newly shaped international
1878 and 1918 and, second, the establishment of arena in the aftermath of World War II.
a joint Turkish-Russian defense force on the Straits
(Zürcher, 1993, pp. 217-218).
Kars, Ardahan and Batum were known as the Explain the reasons that led to the transition
Three Provinces, Elviye-i Selâse. Following from a signle-party to a multi-party system
the defeat of the Ottoman state by Russia in Turkey at the end of World War II.
in the 1877-1878 War, they became part
of the Russian Empire, and following the The Process of Transition to
withdrawal of Russia from World War I, they
the Multi-Party System and the
were restored to the Ottoman Empire by the
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk signed in 1918.
Establishment of the Democrat
Party
The course of events that would eventually
These demands were considered as the violation result in the establishment of the Democrat Party
of the Turkish national sovereignty; therefore, as the most challenging opposition party against
they were rejected. Yet, Turkey was in an isolated the Republican People’s Party began when the
position after the war. It was in need of a strong plenary debates on the proposal of a Land Reform
alliance that could be deterrent to the Soviet Bill started in May 1945.
demands. To this effect, the support from Britain
and, especially from United States, was seen very
crucial. attention
Beginning from the fall of 1945, Britain and the
United States had already been convinced that Turkey The first party of the multi-party era was
should not be left alone against the Soviet aggression the National Development Party, not the
as it was strategically in a position to prevent the Democrat Party, (see below)
Soviet expansion in the eastern Mediterranean and
the Middle East. They were in fear of the creation
of a regime friendly to the Soviets if Turkey was The main goal of the proposal was the
not supported. At the same time, the Turkish distribution of land to landless peasants and to
government proceeded to attempt to convince, peasants who had insufficient land on the condition
especially, the United States to expand its long-term that they cultivated these lands themselves. The
commitment to the security of the region and to land to be distributed was to be taken from large
have closer economic relations with Turkey. Britain private estates who owned land over 5000 dönüms
and the United States were convinced that Turkey (1235.5 acres; 5000000 square meters), from state-
could stay out of the Soviet influence by political owned lands and from lands owned by religious
foundations. If the total lands distributed were not
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enough, the government would expropriate more land from the properties over 2,000 dönüms (494.2acres;
2000000 square meters). Furthermore, according to Article 17 of the proposed Law, in densely populated
areas where the state and the municipality lands and the lands of the religious foundations were insufficient
to distribute, properties of 200 dönüms (49.42 acres; 200000 square meters) would be subjected to
expropriation. In such areas, the landowners were to choose and retain only a minimum of 50 dönüms
(12. 35 acres: 50000 square meters) for their own use. If enacted, this law had the potential of eliminating
medium sized farms and, therefore, the class of big landowners in Turkey (Karpat, 1959, pp. 117-119;
Vanderlippe, 2005, p. 115; Hershlag, 1968, p. 157).
Figure 7.1 Stamps commemorating the land reform Bill

Source: http://ciftciyi-topraklandirma-kanunu.nedir.org/
There were heated discussions in the Assembly over the bill by two main groups: those who supported the
Bill and those who vehemently criticized it. The stiff opposition against the Bill came mainly from deputies
who had connections with big landowners or who were big landowners themselves. Their spokesman was
Adnan Menderes, a large landowner from Aydın.They claimed that the Bill was violating the right to private
property granted under the Constitution. It would impede investment in agriculture and lead to insufficient
farming, as it did not pay attention to the production capacity of the farms and the means of cultivation
(Karpat, 1959, pp. 119-120; Zürcher, 1993, pp. 219-220). The discussions on the Land Reform Bill
sometimes turned into the criticism of the single-party system. On June 7, 1945, four opposition members of
the Assembly; namely, Adnan Menderes, Celâl Bayar, Refik Koraltan, and Fuat Köprülü submitted a proposal
to the Republican People’s Party Parliamentary group -known as the Proposal of the Four (Dörtlü Takrir).
This document demanded the full implementation of the Constitution and the removal of all restrictions on
civil liberties for the realization of a fully democratic state. The emphasis was that Turkey had to take its place
among the world’s democracies and conform to the new global accord that had been shaped by the victory of
the democracies in World War II. The memorandum called for three particular changes:
• The Grand National Assembly of Turkey should use its authority to search for measures to
implement the spirit of the Constitution as the foundation of the national sovereignty.
• The exercise of political rights and liberties of citizens granted in the Constitution must be ensured.
• All efforts of the Republican People’s Party must be concentrated on conforming to the above
principles.
The proposal ended with a statement calling on the Republican People’s Party to fulfill the promise made
by President İnönü to take steps in the direction of democracy in May 1945 (Vanderlippe, 2005, p. 119-120)
This proposal was rejected after heated discussions at the Republican People’s Party Parliamentary
group on the ground that the proper place to discuss such demands was not the group but the National
Assembly. In the meantime, the Land Reform Bill was enacted. Amidst the uncertainty whether the
dissidents in the Republican People’s Party would break away from the party and establish a new one, Nuri
Demirağ, a reputed businessman, applied for permission to the government to form his own part in July
1945. The permission was granted in August and the National Development Party (Millî Kalkınma Partisi)
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was officially founded on September 5 as the first Bayar to discuss the party that the dissidents
party of the multi-party period. On the other were working on to establish. They reached an
hand, the dissidents within the Republican People’s agreement. The establishment of the new party was
Party continued their opposition. They repeatedly allowed by İnönü on the condition that it would
call for democratic reforms during the discussions respect Atatürk’s principles, especially, secularism.
in the National Assembly. Two of them, Adnan The new party was officially registered with the
Menderes and Fuat Köprülü, began to express their
name Democrat Party on January 7, 1946 (Ahmad,
views and criticize the government in independent
1977, pp. 12-13; Vanderlippe, 2005, pp. 120-125;
newspapers, mainly, in Tan and Vatan.
Sarıbay, p. 121).
Tan was a leftist newspaper. Its editors were

Zekeriya and Sabiha Sertel. Vatan was a
liberal newspaper. Its editor was a famous
journalist, Ahmet Emin Yalman. Both
took a critical approach toward the single-
party regime and fiercely supported the
liberalization of the political system in Turkey
They were expelled from the party on the

grounds that their critical views were violating the
party discipline. Soon after, Refik Koraltan was
also expelled from the party as he reacted to the
expulsion of Menderes and Köprülü. In his speech
of November 1, 1945 to the National Assembly,
İsmet İnönü alluded to the lack of an opposition Figure 7.2 Newspaper headlines on the establishment
of the Democrat Party
party as the main shortcoming of the democracy
in Turkey. He also announced that the general Source: http://www.sessiztarih.net/2014/05/demokrat-
parti-donemi-1950-1960-ic.html
elections in 1947 would be free and direct.
The Democrat Party’s program was more similar
attention to than different from that of the Republican
People’s Party program. It adopted the six Kemalist
Until 1946, the elections had been held as principles although it interpreted them differently.
indirect two-stage elections where eligible The party’s main goal was stated as the achievement
voters elected the secondary voters who of democracy in the sense of (1) curbing the
voted for actual deputies. government’s authority and increasing individual
freedom, (2) ensuring that political power
emanated from people, and (3) providing a greater
Early in December, Celâl Bayar, who was the respect to the rule of law (Ahmad, 1977, p. 13). The
only dissident that was not expelled from the new party also called for changes in the Association
party, resigned from the Republican People’s Party. Law (Dernekler Kanunu), in election laws, and for
His resignation was considered a signal for the the autonomy of universities. As for the economic
formation of a new party with other dissidents. policies, the new party put emphasis on private
As a matter of fact, work on the program of the sector. It supported industry as well as the private
new party had already begun at the time of his sector. Its program suggested the gradual transfer of
resignation. On this occasion, İnönü invited state enterprises to the private sector. Government
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7
control on trade and investment was to be reduced. Party and the Democrat Party, the recently
The agricultural sector was to be prominent in established Turkish Socialist Party (Türkiye
the economic development of Turkey. From the Sosyalist Partisi) and the Socialist Workers and
economic point of view, the Democrat Party’s Peasant Party of Turkey (Türkiye Sosyalist Emekçi
ve Köylü Partisi) competed in the elections. Yet,
program reflected the influence of landowners,
only the People’s Party (395 seats), the Democrats
traders, and manufacturers (Vanderlippe, 2005, (66 seats) and 4 Independents gained the right
pp. 138-139). of representation in the National Assembly.
Accusations of electoral fraud arose immediately
attention after the elections. The Republican People’s Party’s
success was explained by a wide scale vote rigging.
These segments of the society were among the The Democrats argued that they had actually won
elements that constituted the social basis of the
279 seats while the Republican People’s Party’s
real seats were only 186. As a matter of fact, the
single-party rule. Their support to the Democrat
elections were held under the control of local and
Party made the Republican People’s Party a heavily
provincial administrators of the single-party rule.
bureaucratic party dominated by bureaucrats and
They were mostly members of the Republican
former officers.
People’s Party. In the elections, there was not
the basic guarantee of the right to vote by secret
ballot; in other words, the voting process was
Soon after its establishment, the Democrat Party open, while tabulation, in many cases, was secret
disseminated its national organization to include (Eroğul, 1987, pp. 104-105; Zürcher, 1993, p.
16 provincial branches by March 1946. Support to 222). The debatable results of the elections caused
the new party grew rapidly. The Republican People’s tension between the two parties.
Party leadership realized that the new party was The tension between the two parties continued
going to be a serious challenge to its power. As a as İsmet İnönü appointedRecep Peker, a hard-liner
response to the growing support for the Democrat in the party and the defender of the single-party
Party, it convened an extraordinary congress in May system, as Prime Minister. The discussions on
1946. The congress took a number of measures for the budget of 1947 demonstrated the extent of
liberalization. Lifting the ban on the formation of the tension. The members of the Democrat Party
associations and political parties based on class harshly attacked the economic measures taken by
interest, adopting direct elections and abolishing the the cabinet known as the September 7 Decisions.
position of the permanent leadership of the party
were among such measures. The proposition of laws
granding the press more freedom, and allowing the The September 7 Decisions were the
universities some degree of autonomuy followed measures taken for the liberalization of
these measures. The most critical decision taken in the economy. They relaxed the restrictions
the congress was the change in the time of the general on imports and facilitated foreign trade.
elections, which had previously been scheduled to Devaluation of the Turkish Lira was also
be held in 1947. They were brought to July 1946, among the measures (see Chapter II).
one year ahead of schedule.
At the end of the speech given by Adnan
From the 1946 Elections to the Menderes, who was the spokesman for the
Declaration of July 12,1947 Democrats, Recep Peker, the Prime Minister, did
The Democrats were not happy with the not respond to his critics. Instead, he described
decision of holding the elections one year early. him as a psychopath. This caused anger and rage
They protested and considered to boycott the among the Democrats who left the Assembly in
elections as they had done in the municipal protest and boycotted its proceedings for a while.
elections, a few months earlier. Finally, they In January 1947, the Democrat Party convened its
decided to participate. The elections were held first congress. It adopted a document called the Pact
on July 21, 1946. Besides the Republican People’s of Freedom (Hürriyet Misâkı). This pact called for:
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• the amendment of the electoral law in a way that would provide the supervision of elections by
an independent judiciary rather than by the partisan bureaucracy,
• the separation of the presidency of the Republic and party chairmanship not to consolidate the
two in one person,
• the abolishment of all laws that they considered unconstitutional and anti-democratic.
If these demands were rejected, the Democrat Party would have the right to boycott the Assembly and
take the struggle ‘to the bosom of the nation’ (Ahmad, 1977, p. 21; Eroğul, 1987, p. 105). Political tension
continued to mount. President İnönü held a series of meetings with Celâl Bayar and Recep Peker to ease
the tension between the parties and improve the relations between the government and the opposition.
On July 12, he issued a formal statement which would be known as the July 12 Declaration. In this
statement, he declared that the Democrat Party was not an insurgent opposition but a legitimate political
party, contrary to the claims of the Recep Peker government. He maintained that he would treat both the
government and the opposition impartially as the President.
attention
This declaration was issued on the same day as the Treaty of Assistance (Türkiye’ye Yapılacak
Yardım Hakkında Anlaşma) made with the United States. İnönü demonstrated his commitment
to the multi-party system as a part of the integration with the liberal values of the United States.
This declaration signified the end of the Recep Peker government and the defeat of the hardliners
in the Republican People’s Party led by him. A few months later, he resigned from his post and was
succeeded by a moderate figure Hasan Saka who then was the minister of foreign affairs.
Figure 7.3 Party banners during the 1950 elections: Peoples Republican Party (left) Democrat Party (Right)
Source: http://www.incisozluk.com.tr/w/1950-se%C3%A7imleri-chp-afi%C5%9Fi/
Reforming the Republican People’s Party- Splitting of the Democrat Party

Winning over the hard-liners within the party made the moderates more influential in the Republican
People’s Party. This facilitated the adaptation of the party to multi-party politics, which necessitated change
not only in the party organization but also in its approach toward social and economic issues. The Seventh
Congress that convened in November 1947 was the floor for the discussions on the direction of change in
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the party. The congress adopted changes in the party since the 1920s. The rise of the bipolar world and
constitution and redefined the party’s ideology Turkey’s move into the Western/capitalist camp
to reflect its liberal stance in social and economic after the World War II exacerbated this outlook.
issues. This was done by the reinterpretation of some Parties in competition, mainly the Republican
of the principles that were represented by the six People’s Party and the Democrat Party, were both
arrows in the emblem. For example, revolutionism distant from leftist ideologies; yet, as their programs
that was interpreted as the permanent imposition resembled each other day by day, they attempted
of reforms from above in a revolutionary manner to ‘distinguish themselves by tarring each other
was redefined as advocating change through with the brush of communism.’ In the Republican
evolution. In other words, reforms only acceptable People’s Party, some elements viewed the emerging
to the people would be implemented within the opposition as communist. On the grounds of this
new understanding. Ètatism was another principle assumption, a nationalist mob invaded the offices
that was redefined. A more liberal definition of of the leftist Tan newspaper, which supported the
this principle that meant the encouragement of Democrat Party and criticized the government.
private enterprise as a priority was accepted in the They destroyed its printing presses (Zürcher, 1993,
congress (see Chapter II). The issue of secularism p. 222-223). The hostile attitude of the government
was the most controversial one. It became a matter toward the leftists continued after the adoption
of heated debate. The decision of the Congress and consolidation of the multi-party system. The
was to abandon the militant understanding of two socialist parties, the Socialist Party of Turkey
secularism implemented in the 1920s and 1930s (Türkiye Sosyalist Partisi) and the Socialist Workers
and adopt a moderate approach toward religion. and Peasants Party of Turkey (Türkiye Emekçi ve
This was seen as a requirement for broadening Köylü Partisi) were closed down soon after their
the party’s appeal in a multi-party system and foundation (Timur, 1991, p. 81). The Seventh
responding effectively to the Democrats’ playing of Congress of the Republican People’s Party called
the religious card. It was clear for the Democrats for tougher legal measures against activities that
as well as the Republicans that religion would be aimed to promote class conflict as a basis of the
a political factor in competitive politics. While socialist cause. At the end of 1947, the issue of leftist
the Republican People’s Party was renovating itself activities and communist propaganda in the public
by altering its organization and reinterpreting its education system was in the National Assembly.
ideology, its main rival, the Democrat Party was The discussions concentrated on professors at
divided. A group of dissidents left the party in Language, History and Geography Faculty of
July 1948 by criticizing the party’s leadership for Ankara University and on the communist influence
being moderate and compromising against the in the Village Institutes. Eventually, a witch-hunt
Republican People’s Party. Led by Marshal Fevzi targeting three professors at the Ankara University
Çakmak, one of the heroes of the Turkish War of began in 1948. Accused of spreading communist
Independence and longtime Chief of the General propaganda, these professors were put on trial and
Staff, they founded a Party named the Nation dismissed from their positions.
Party (Millet Partisi) in order to form a genuine
opposition against the Republican People’s Party.
It advocated liberalism in economy, demanded fair
and free elections, better relations with the Muslim The professors dismissed from their positions
world and end of government intervention in were Behice Boran; Niyazi Berkes, both
sociologists, and Pertev Naili Boratav, a folklorist.
religious affairs (Vanderlippe, 2005, p. 175).
Multi-Party System and the Left In 1949, Sabahattin Ali, a novelist and known
Leftist ideologies such as socialism and for his leftist ideas, was murdered. The Village
communism had been treated with suspicion and Institutes were another target in this process. These
interpreted as the instrument of the Soviet Union institutes had been established in order to train
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young villagers as teachers in 1940. They were seen supervision, secret ballots and open tabulation
as a medium to remove illiteracy and spread the by the opposition. In order to put pressure on
ideals of the Republican regime. Their graduates the government for the enactment of the law,
viewed themselves as the carriers of progressive the Democrat Party adopted a declaration in its
ideas in the villages, fighting to end ignorance and Second Congress that convened in June 1949
superstition (Vanderlippe, 2005, p. 183). After - called the National Hostility Oath (Millî
1946, they were attacked on the grounds that they Husumet Andı). This declaration stated that if
were under communist influence. As a result, their the ruling party received power through corrupt
curriculum was changed to focus more on Turkish election tactics, the Turkish nation would not
culture and less on practical matters. Furthermore, accept it as the legitimate representative of the
co-educational training was abolished; the girls nation and respond with rebellion. Both the
Democrat Party and the Nation Party boycotted
were segregated and sent to different institutions
by-elections in October 1949 in order to put
(Karpat, 1959, pp. 379-380).
more pressure on the government for the new
electoral law. Tension increased between the
Changes in the Religious Policy government and the opposition when there were
The suppression of the leftists coincided with few months left for the elections. Eventually, the
the increasing demand to introduce Islamic government established a commission formed
instruction in public schools in order to fight by judges and lawyers, with members from the
communism, ignorance, and extremism. In the major parties to prepare a new election law. In
Seventh Congress of the Republican People’s Party February, the new electoral law that answered
all the demands of the opposition i.e., judicial
in 1947, secularism was among the redefined
supervision, secret ballots and open tabulation,
principles (see above). The changing attitude of
was enacted in the Assembly (Eroğul, 1987, pp.
the government toward religion became obvious,
106-107; Vanderlippe, 2005, p. 195).
especially in 1949, in the areas of public education
and public religious observances (Vanderlippe,
2005, p. 184). In January, Şemsettin Günaltay,
known for his Islamist sympathies, was appointed 2
as the Prime Minister. Soon after his appointment,
the new government introduced elective courses How was the political life shaped during
on Islam in the primary schools. The establishment the transitional years of the multi-party
of the Preacher and Prayer Schools (İmam-Hatip system?
Okulları) soon followed. In the same year, the
Faculty of Divinity of Ankara University was THE DEMOCRAT PARTY TAKES
founded. The government stated that the main OVER THE POWER, 1950-1954
goal of religious education was to provide religious The 1950 elections were held under the new
training in accordance with secularism. This was to law on May 14, 1950. The elections resulted in an
prevent the spread of obscurantism and religious overwhelming victory of the Democrat Party over
fanaticism (Vanderlippe, 2005, pp. 190-191). As other parties, particularly, the Republican People’s
these moves came a year before the elections, the Party. The Democrat Party won over 53 % total
opposition claimed that they were manipulations votes while the Republican People’s Party received
of the government to get electoral support. over 39 %. The winning party received 408 seats
The enactment of a new electoral law that out of 487 parliamentary seats as the electoral
would guarantee free and fair elections was system called for majority distribution of seats in
the most important issue for the opposition in the National Assembly. The Republican People’s
general and the Democrat Party in particular. The Party received 69 seats and the Nation Party only 1.
new election law was expected to allow judicial
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7
Figure 7.4 Celal Bayar and Adnan Menderes on election trail

Source: https://demokratlar4.blogspot.com/2013/05/kadim-demokrat-partinin-slogan-ve.html
The success of the Democrat Party in the elections became possible by channeling the popular discontent
against the Republican People’s Party, the single party government. Prior to the elections, The Democrat Party
was able to bring together various types of opposition from different economic and cultural backgrounds
whose common denominator was the discontent they felt toward the Republican People’s Party rule. Among
the discontented groups, there were the landowners, businessmen, small-producers, landless peasants and
industrial workers. During the transitional era to the multi-party system, the Democrats strove much of their
efforts to prove that they were genuinely different from the Republican People’s Party. In between 1946-1950
and even later, they claimed to represent a vision and a program that was different from that of their rivals in
four major areas:
1. They were critical of the alliance behind the Ottoman-Turkish modernization; namely, the state
bureaucracy and intelligentsia.
2. They distanced themselves from the militant secularism views of the 1920s and 1930s.
3. They demonstrated themselves as staunch supporters of private enterprise.
4. They sanctified the ballot. ‘Popular will (millî irade)’ was frequently emphasized in their discourse,
declarations, and speeches. The main indicator of People’s will was the act of voting according to
the Democrats. This was, actually, their vision of democracy (Kasaba, 1993, pp. 54-55).
In this regard, the 1950 elections signified not only change of power through democratic means but also the
coming of a different political elite to power in Turkey. The representatives of the Democrat Party, compared to
those of the Republican People’s Party, were younger, had local roots in their constituencies, and had a background
in commerce or law. Contrary to the Republican People’s Party, there were not many representatives with a
bureaucratic and/or military background in the Democrat Party (Zürcher, 1993, p. 231).
Political Developments During the First Democrat Party’s Incumbency,

1950-1954
The National Assembly elected Celâl Bayar as President.
Adnan Menderes became the Prime Minister. The new The Decmocrats had a deep fear of İsmet
government was announced on May 22. During the initial İnönü, who was considered to have
years of its rule, the Democrat Party government was relatively great influence on mainly the army and
liberal in political and economic issues. Yet, its relation with bureaucracy. The Democrats felt insecure
the main opposition party was strained in general. Its greatest although they had acquired political power
fear at the beginning was a coup staged by the military. The in the elections. This situation has been
state apparatus and the Republican People’s Party had almost defined as Paşa Faktörü.
merged in the single-party era; bureaucracy was considered as
the extension of the party. For this reason, the Democrats did not have confidence in the bureaucracy and the
military despite the change of power.
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7
In June, as a measure, the Democrat party The Democrat Party and Religious
government unexpectedly replaced the chief of staff, Reaction
his deputy, the commanders of the four branches of Strained relations with the opposition coincided
the armed forces and the army commanders by officers with the rise of the ‘Islamic reaction.’ Although
who were considered loyal to their government. As the Democrat Party did not tolerate the Islamic
this threat was neutralized and the Democrats won the fundamentalist currents, it had a lenient approach
municipal elections and the elections for provincial toward religious activities. It led the abrogation of
assemblies in the next three months, they took the the legislation prohibiting the reading of the ezan,
control of the administration at all levels. call to prayer, in Arabic soon after they took over. It
Although the Democrat Party achieved to take also introduced the regular Koran recitals over the
control of administration, it did not abstain from Ankara and Istanbul radios and strengthened the
attacking the opposition parties that criticized organization of the Presidency of Religious Affairs
its policies on occasions. The Democrat Party (Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı).The number of mosques
leaders considered that representing the majority and preacher schools increased considerably
of the population was good enough to legitimize during the Democrat Party’s rule. There was also
their actions. As a result, this interpretation of unprecedented rise in the religious publications,
democracy became the source of the repression books, and journals. The DP’s local congresses
of the opposition. The Democrat Party launched and national conventions became the stages for
attacks against the Republican People’s Party in reactionary manifestations such as the return to
July 1951. Its parliamentary group decided to fez, veil, Arabic script, polygamy, depriving women
liquidate all the assets of the Republican People’s of the right to vote, not permitting women to
Party and transferred them to the treasury. hold government jobs, separate schools for boys
and girls, reintroduction of the Şeriat (Islamic
Legal Code), modifying the secular Civil Code,
The Republican People’s Party was a rich etc. The resurgence of religious brotherhoods and
party. Its assets included Mustafa Kemal fundamentalist religious movements were tolerated,
Atatürk’s personal legacy as well as the if not encouraged. Furthermore, notables having
possessions of the People’s Houses (Halk connections with religious orders, especially from
Evleri) and People’s Rooms (Halk Odaları), eastern Anatolia, were regularly elected as deputies
which were closed down in 1951. to the National Assembly on Democrat Party
tickets during its incumbency (Sarıbay, 1991, p.
128). Contemporary observers and the opposition
Another opposition party, the Nation Party, viewed both the religious revival and the reactionary
also became a target for the Democrat Party. On manifestations as the consequences of the
the ground that it was against Atatürk’s reforms, it Democrat Party’s religious policy that was designed
was closed down in 1954. to increase its popular support. The Democrat
Party government was criticized for its tolerance
of reactionary Islam and its lack of determination
to protect the secular reforms of Atatürk. Yet, the
Democrat Party leadership demonstrated that it
would not tolerate fanatical Islam in some cases.
For example, when the followers of the Ticani
sect destroyed Atatürk’s statutes and portraits,
the Democrat Party government attempted to
suppress the religious fanaticism by rounding
up the members and the leader of the sect. It
Figure 7.5 Headlines on reading of the call to prayer in also enacted the ‘Law for the Protection of the
Arabic Memory of Atatürk (Atatürk Aleyhine İşlenen Suçlar
Source: http://www.islamveihsan.com/turkce-ezanin- Hakkında Kanun) which gave the government
tarihi-ve-mustafa-armagan-ile-soylesi.html ‘greater powers to deal with those who challenged
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the [Kemalist] reforms. After an attempt at the reputed journalist Ahmet EminYalman’s life by a religious
reactionary in November 1952, the Democrat Party government took a series of measures against religious
reactionaries. Among these measures, the enactment of the Law for Protecting the Freedom of Conscience
and of Gathering (Vicdan ve Toplanma Hürriyetinin Koruması Kanunu) was the most important. This law
‘prohibited the use of religion or the appeal to religious sentiments by political parties’. In other words,
‘this legislation introduced further penalties for the abuse of religion by individuals and associations to
obtain political and personal benefits’ (Azak, 2010, p. 110; Ahmad, 1977, p. 369).
Figure 7.6 President Celal Bayar at the Susurluk Şugar Factory ceremony –laying the first cement
Source: https://www.haberturk.com/susurluk-seker-fabrikasi-nda-son-durum-1628472-ekonomi/2
Economic Developments
A new economic policy, change from ètatism to liberalism, had already been adopted under the
impacts of domestic and international circumstances during the transition to the multi-party system.
Initial implementations of this policy, which aimed economic integration with the Western countries,
took place during the last years of the Republican People’s Party’s rule. The Democrat Party maintained the
liberal policies as it became the ruling party. As soon as it came to power, the Democrat Party government
entirely liberalized foreign trade, attempted to remove all barriers standing in the way of private enterprise
and enacted laws for the encouragement of foreign investment in Turkey (Eroğul, 1987, pp. 110-111).
What distinguished the Democrats’ economic policies from their predecessors was their strong emphasis
on agricultural development. Agricultural production more than doubled until 1953. Behind this increase
was the mechanization of agriculture. Credits provided by the United States were mostly used to import
machinery, especially tractors. In approximately four years, from 1948 to 1952, the number of tractors
increased from 1,750 to 30,000. As a result, more areas could be cultivated. The government distributed
the state-owned lands and opened the communal pastures to peasants and larger farmers in order to
extend the areas of cultivation. At the same time, the amount of the credit extended by the state-owned
Agricultural Bank (Ziraat Bankası) increased considerably. Favorable weather conditions in between 1950-
1953 were also helpful in this regard. Yet, the demand for agricultural products in the international market
was the most important drive for the agricultural expansion in this period. The Korean War increased the
demand for wheat, cotton, and some other export items (Pamuk, 2008, p. 281-282).
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Figure 7.7 Road construction efforts in the early years of the Democrat Party rule
Source: http://blog.nakliyepark.com/cumhuriyetin-ilk-yillarinda-karayollari-ulasimi/
The agriculture-based economic development was accompanied by the expansion of road network.
The Democrat Party, contrary to the Republican People’s Party, invested in the highways rather than the
railways. It established the General Directorate of Highways (Karayolları Genel Müdürlüğü) to expand
the road network in order to connect villages to urban centers. Roads were considered to provide more
effective marketing and distribution of goods (Zürcher, 1993, pp. 235-236). Because of the expansion of
the road network, the number of imported cars and trucks rose tremendously (from 53,000 to 137,000).
The mechanization of agriculture caused the start of mass migration from the countryside to the towns
and cities, a very characteristic of the Democratic Party era. The expansion of road network facilitated such
migration. Over a million of people migrated to urban centers with the hope of finding jobs, especially
in industry. Yet, the capacity of industrial enterprises was not large enough to hire all migrants who were
mostly unskilled laborers. Neither was the infrastructure of the cities sufficiently developed to offer them
settlement places. They mostly built squatter houses overnight. They lacked water, electricity, roads or sewers
(Zürcher, 1993, p. 237).
Foreign Policy of the Democrat Party

The Democrat Party’s foreign policy was the continuation of what had been adopted by the Republican
People’s Party during the transition era to the multi-party system. Integration with the West, specifically
with the United States-led alliance was at the core of this policy. Both President Celâl Bayar and Prime
Minister Adnan Menderes were supporters of strong relations with the United States. The immediate goal
of the Democrat Party government in foreign policy was to join the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO) and being a part of the Western security system as a measure against the Soviet Union.
NATO (The North Atlantic Treaty Organization)

was established by the United States, Canada,
and several European states in 1949 to create a
collective security against the Soviet Union. The
signatory states agreed that attack on one of them
would be considered an attack to all. They were
to consult each other about threats and defense
issues.
Figure 7.8 Headlines about the NATO membership
Source: http://www.gazetebilkent.com/2014/04/20/
turkiyenin-natoya-girisi
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7
Figure 7.9 Turkish troops in the Korean War

Source: http://www.wikitarih.com/kore-savasi-ve-turk-askeri/
Soon after it came to power, the Democrat Party government applied for membership to NATO. To this
end, the Democrat Party government offered to contribute troops to an international expeditionary force
sent by the United Nations to South Korea that was under the threat of invasion by the North Korea. This
contribution, as claimed by the Turkish leaders, ‘proved Turkey’s commitment to international collective
security and its alliance with the West, as well as its suitability for partnership in NATO’ (Vanderlippe,
2005, p. 207). As a result, NATO extended an offer of membership to Turkey and Greece in October
1951. Finally, Turkey became a full member of the organization in February 1952, which was seen as a
great achievement by the government and opposition as they considered that Turkey would be more secure
against the Soviet Union by this membership. In addition, the flow of Western aid and loans that would
contribute to the modernization of Turkey was guaranteed (Zürcher, 1993, p. 246). In accordance with
the goals of the Western alliance, Turkey took a leading role in two regional alliances formed as a part of
the attempts to encircle the Soviet Union. The first alliance was the Balkan Pact which was formed by
Turkey, Greece, and Yugoslavia in 1953-1954. Yet, this alliance would not last long as the Cyprus question
fell on agenda by mid-1954. Conflicting claims of Turkey and Greece on Cyprus deteriorated the relations
between the two states and left the Balkan alliance only on paper.
Cyprus had been under British domination since 1878. It was strategically important since it was
in close proximity of Europe and the Middle East. The island had been home to both Turkish and
Greek descendants who existed together for centuries. After the World War II, the Cypriot Greeks
demanded complete withdrawal of the British from the island and union with Greece (Enosis).
Soon after the conclusion of the Balkan Pact, Greece brought the Cyprus issue to the United
Nations that caused direct involvement of Turkey. Turkey viewed enosis as a threat to its security
and a manifestation of Greek irredentism. Thus, the Cyprus issue became a national issue for both
Greece and Turkey. From 1954 onwards, it became a source of friction between the two states.
The second alliance was the Baghdad Pact aiming to provide a regional defense alliance in the Middle
East. It was signed between Turkey and Iraq in February 1955. Later, Great Britain, Iran and Pakistan
joined this alliance while the United States became an observer. This alliance proved inefficient by the end
of the 1950s as the Iraqi king was overthrown and killed because of a nationalist coup. Iraq withdrew from
the Baghdad Pact. What was left of the Pact was renamed Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) in 1960.
The United States became a full member of this organization.
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The 1954 Elections Democrat Party Faces Economic

The May 2, 1954 elections were held when the Hardships
general conditions were favorable for the Democrat At the end of the Korean War, international
Party government. Economic growth was rapid demand for agricultural products decreased.
in its first incumbency. Welfare of the population Accordingly, the prices of agricultural items
had relatively increased in the past four years. The declined. Agricultural yields also declined due to the
government’s control of the bureaucracy, the press, unfavorable weather conditions. The Democrat Party
and the universities had been tightened in recent government initiated a large price support program
months. At the same time, the Democrat Party for agricultural products, especially for wheat. It
government had attempted to weaken the opposition continued to exempt agricultural incomes from taxes
by repressive measures beginning from its early months in addition to granting subsidies, which became a
in government. Turkey had been a more integral heavy burden on the economy (Hershlag, 1968, p.
part of the Western alliance system as a result of the 163). This move was particularly for maintaining
Democrat Party’s foreign policy by 1954. Under these the support of the agricultural producers who
circumstances, the victory of the Democrats in the formed two-thirds of the electorate. As this support
election was not surprising. Their victory was greater program was financed by printing money, it caused
than the one in 1950; they received over 58 % of the inflation. At the same time, the government was
general votes (503 seats) while the main opposition faced with a foreign exchange crisis because of the
party took only 35 % (31 seats). The third participant increasing trade deficit (Pamuk, 2008, p. 282).
party was the Republican Nation Party (Cumhuriyetçi The government brought restrictions on imported
Millet Partisi) which had been founded instead of the commodities, which led to shortages of consumer
closed Nation Party (Millet Partisi) in 1954. It received goods in the domestic market. In addition, it
approximately 5 % of the votes and 5 seats, all from fixed the permissible profit margins and founded
the province of Kırşehir. an office with the aim of controlling the prices. It
further brought restrictions to foreign travel and
foreign exchange. Yet, such measures caused further
shortages of goods in the market. Profiteering and
3 speculation spread. The government began to
Write the main characteristics of political, eco- consider extraordinary measures in order to control
nomic, and foreign policies of the Democrat the situation in mid-1955. In May 1956, it enacted
Party government during its first incumbency. the National Defense Law (Millî Korunma Kanunu)
which ‘gave the government the power to regulate
the economy, along with increased power to regulate
the distribution and pricing of goods and services’
WORSENING ECONOMY AND
(Ahmad, 1977, pp. 138-139). Yet, interventionist
THE DEMOCRATPARTY’S SHIFT measures did not bring stability and confidence
TO AUTORITARIAN RULE 1954- to economy but strengthened black market and
1960 profiteering. In the meantime, the government
From the beginning of its second incumbency sought for foreign loans, mainly from the IMF.
until its overthrow by the military intervention on Yet, the terms for providing loans to Turkey were
May 27, 1960, the Democrat Party government heavy. Some of the requirements were devaluation,
was faced with serious challenges in its rule. One of ending artificial pricing and subsidies, especially
the challenges emanated from economy. Favorable to agricultural sector, and removing import and
conditions that enabled the growth of economy had export restrictions. Although the Democrat Party
come to an end even before the 1954 elections. As government was reluctant to meet these conditions,
economic problems could not be solved and, actually, finally, they had to reach an agreement with the IMF
increased, the Democratic Party politically adopted in 1958. They accepted to implement an IMF backed
more and more authoritarian measures against the stabilization program meant a huge devaluation of
opposition that gained strength against it rule. the Turkish Lira, reducing its exchange rate more
than three fold. The positive effects of this loan would
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be temporary, however. At the time of the military away from the party and founded the Freedom
intervention that ended the Democrat Party rule, Party (Hürriyet Partisi) in December 1955. It was
Turkish economy still showed a downhill trend. supported by the wealthy businessmen who were
discontented with the Democrat Party’s economic
policy and were in search of an economic policy
The Democrat Party’s Growing based on planning to which Adnan Menderes was
Authoritarianism completely against. Authoritarian measures of the
Politically, the Democrat Party responded to government continued into 1956. The press law
worsening economic conditions by resorting to was re-amended to further tighten the government’s
authoritarian rule. This tendency had actually control on the press. At the same time, political
started before the 1954 election; however, its extent meetings were prohibited. The only exemption was
tremendously increased during its second and third the electoral meetings (Zürcher, 1993, p. 242).
(after 1957) incumbencies. As a symbolic example The Democrat Party government announced
of this tendency, one can mention the splitting of that the general elections would be held as early
the province of Malatya into two since they had elections in October 1957, a year before the
voted for the opposition in the 1954 elections. scheduled time. Amidst the economic crisis and
Similarly, the province of Kırşehir was demoted political tension, the Democrats were able to
into a district (Eroğul, 1987, p. 112). Following win the elections but with a major setback. Their
the elections, the Democrat Party government votes decreased by approximately 10 % (47,3 %)
took several measures against the opposition. The while the main opposition party, the Republican
Press Law had already been tightened before the People’s Party increased its votes to 40,6 %. The
elections. What followed was the amendment to spread of the opposition was actually challenging
the Electoral Law. According to the new regulation, to the Democrat party government. Following
a candidate rejected by one party could not stand the elections and, especially in 1958, when the
for election in another party in a coming election. the economic conditions were at its worst and
Furthermore, opposition parties could not put up dissatisfaction with the government was rising, the
mixed lists, in other words, they could not form Democrat Party leadership began to increasingly
electoral cooperation between themselves. The appeal to religious sentiments of the population.
opposition parties were also banned from using The Democrats began to frequently emphasize
the state radio; the party in power, however, would the number of mosques and religious schools that
continue to use it. In July, the assembly enacted a had been founded during their incumbency. The
law that made the bureaucracy more dependent to Islamists abused the situation to curse Atatürk’s
the executive. The law stipulated that the executive reforms. The opposition against the Democrats,
could suspend, and after a period of suspension especially the Republicans, was constantly accused
retire civil servants, including university professors of being communists and nonbelievers. On the
and judges who had twenty-five years of service other hand, the democrats were criticized by the
or were over sixty years old (Ahmad, 1977, p. 53; Republicans for undermining the principle of
Sarıbay, 1991, p. 126). Opposing journalists were secularism. Tension between the government and
imprisoned and/or heavily fined. the opposition gradually increased in the months
The opposition against the authoritarianism following the elections. In order to consolidate his
of the Democrat Party government and to Prime popular support and broaden the Democrat Party’s
Minister Adnan Menderes started to grow in 1955. base, Adnan Menderes launched a mobilization by
Economic difficulties, inflation and shortage of founding the Fatherland Front (Vatan Cephesi) in
goods led the rise of discontent among the urban 1957. Joining the front was claimed to be a religious
population, mostly, salaried people. The growing and national duty. The names of those who joined
authoritarianism of the government became a the Front was read the radio. Yet, among them were
matter of concern for the intellectuals, bureaucrats, the names of babies, the deceased, and fictitious
and military officers. A group of liberal deputies people. The campaign lasted a year. The survival of
within the Democrat Party also was disturbed by Adnan Menderes from an airplane crash at London’s
the authoritarian line of their party. They broke Gatwick Airport in 1959 was exploited for political
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ends by using religious terminology. Menderes was Tension between the government and the
defined as ‘a superhuman figure, chosen by God to opposition increased toward the end of the 1950s.
lead his people’ (Zürcher, 1993, pp. 250-251). In April 1959, the supporters of the government
Besides using religion for political ends, attacked the opposition leader, İsmet İnönü,
the Democrat Party government increased its during his visit to Uşak. In April 1960, he was
repressive measures toward the opposition after stopped to hold a meeting in Kayseri by troops. At
the 1957 elections. As they had the majority in the about the same time, the Democrat Party made a
Assembly, they brought regulations that restricted decision to launch a parliamentary investigation on
the freedom of the opposition. For example, the opposition, specifically the Republican People’s
according to the new regulations, the ministers Party, on the basis that it was instigating a military
were no longer responsible for responding to intervention. On April 18, 1960, fifteen hard-liner
the oral questioning of the opposition deputies; Democrat Party deputies formed a commission that
parliamentary immunity could easily be removed; would be known as the Investigation Commission
the upper limits of fines and suspensions given (Tahkikat Komisyonu) in order to carry out these
to the deputies became higher. In August 1958, investigations. On April 27, a law regulating the
threatening the opposition parties, the Democrat authority of the commission was enacted. The
Party parliamentary group proclaimed that it was commission was vested upon the authority of
legitimate to eliminate an illegitimate opposition, prosecutors. ‘It could impose censorship on the
The opposition tightened its ranks in face of such press, order seizure of newspapers and journals,
a threat. In October, the Republican Nation confiscate printing houses, ban all kinds of
Party merged with the Peasant’s Party of Turkey meetings and demonstrations, take all measures
(Türkiye Köylü Partisi). Together, they founded the and decisions it sees fit, and make use of all
Republican Peasant Nation Party (Cumhuriyetçi governmental resources.’ Its investigations would
Köylü Millet Partisi). In November, the Freedom be held secret. Individuals who did not abide by
Party merged with the Republican People’s Party its decisions would be jailed without the right of
that was attempting to acquire a new identity based recourse to appeal (Eroğul, 1987, pp. 117-118).
on social justice, economic welfare, and democratic The report of the commission on its findings was
safeguards. In the Fourteenth Congress in January to be concluded within three months. During this
1959, the party adopted the Manifesto of Primary time, political activity outside of the Assembly was
Targets (İlk Hedefler Beyannamesi). The Manifesto prohibited (Zürcher, 1993, p. 250).
called for security guarantees in the elections, the The law professors at Ankara and İstanbul
establishment of a Senate, the foundation of a universities denounced the establishment of the
constitutional court to control the constitutionality investigation commission as unconstitutional.
of legislature, autonomy for universities, freedom Disciplinary action was taken against them on the
of press to be guaranteed by the constitution and basis that they were engaged in politics. This action
the principle of social justice to be made a part of sparked student demonstrations in İstanbul and
the constitution (Eroğul, 1987, pp. 116-117). Ankara beginning in April 28, 1960. Martial law
was declared by the government in both cities. As
demonstrations continued, universities were closed
attention down temporarily. The press could not report on
these domestic events due to strict censorship;
Lack of checks and balances seemed to be the most yet, they wrote extensively about the student
important problem of the political life in Turkey as demonstration in South Korea that brought down
the Democrat Party’s authoritarian rule grew. Based the Korean President and enabled the restoration
on its electoral majority, the party believed that it of democracy in South Korea. The demonstrations
had the right to do whatever it wanted without any continued in May. The government used the army
constitutional restraints. to suppress these demonstrations. This, in turn,
led to the silent demonstration of the cadets of
the War Academy in Ankara on May 21, 1960.
The new martial law measures were introduced by
247
7
the government. The demonstration of the cadets the Democrats with the military did not end. A
incited the conspirators in the army to act. They reform program that would transform the army
feared that their conspiratorial activities aiming and make it suitable for democratic policies fell on
at military intervention might be uncovered (see the agenda with the appointment of Seyfi Kurtbek
the explanations in the following sections). They as the Minister of Defense in 1952. A reformation
decided to act on May 25, before Adnan Menderes in the army that would make promotion more
left for Greece. His visit was postponed, however. flexible was one of the expectations of the junior
On May 25, Adnan Menderes launched a new tour officers from the Democrat Party government.
with a speech in Eskişehir in which he announced that The President and the Prime Minister committed
the Investigation Committee had finished its work and themselves to the fulfillment of the program that
it would shortly present its findings. Two days later, had been prepared by the Minister of Defense but
a coup by the army overthrew the Democrat Party they eventually decided to postpone it. Therefore,
government (Ahmad, 1977, pp. 64-66). the program was shelved and the Minister of
Defense resigned in July 1953.
Change in the Structure of the

4
Army
Discuss the Democrat Party’s way of rule Withstanding these political concerns and
from the mid-1950s to 1960? changes, the army began to undergo fundamental
changes as Turkey joined NATO in 1952. Until
the NATO membership, the Turkish army had
been the least changed institution in the state
THE DEMOCRAT PARTY AND system. Its equipment, strategy, and mentality
THE MILITARY remained the same as they had been in the Balkan
Wars, the First World War and the Turkish War of
Junior officers, colonels, majors and captains
Independence. Military aid for the modernization
led the military intervention of May 27, 1960.
and mechanization of the Turkish army and
What drove them in particular and the army in
American assistance for training military personnel
general to such an act against the Democrat Party?
brought about structural changes in the armed
The role of the military was a major concern for the
forces. Junior officers acquired prominent roles
Democrats since the establishment of the multi-
unprecedented in the history of contemporary
party political system. They saw the armed forces
Turkey. This was specifically true for the staff
as sympathetic to the Republican People’s Party
officers who were capable of learning modern and
because of the fact that İsmet İnönü, the former
nuclear warfare. As a result, younger officers with
president and a hero of the National Struggle, was
expertise in engineering or communications began
a former general who had been respected greatly
to take up the most vital positions in the army.
by the military. Yet, during the election of 1946,
These officers were partly trained in the United
junior officers seemed to extend their support
States through NATO exchange programs. They
to the Democrat Party. They were discontented
realized that, in comparison to the Western allies,
with the Republican People’s Party’s rule, like
the society in Turkey , in general, and the Turkish
many segments of the society, as they had suffered
army, in particular, were behind many aspects of
great deprivation during World War II (Ahmad,
the modern and innovative social and economic
1977, p. 148). The Democrat Party’s distrust of
changes. In short, Turkey’s membership of NATO
the military continued after it came to power. In
organized the military along with technological
order to ensure the control of the army, it purged
lines rather than the existing divisions based on
its top hierarchy including the Chief of Staff and
rank and socio-economic status (Ahmad, 1977,
commanders whose loyalty was seen as doubtful
pp. 153-154; Zürcher, 1993, p. 250).
to the new government. Yet, the discomfort of
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7
The Road to Military Intervention they took control over the Personnel Office (Erkân
The organization of groups among junior Şubesi) in the military. They approached Cemal
officers with the aim of overthrowing the Democrat Gürsel, the Commander of the Land Forces to
Party government started in the mid-1950s. This lead the conspiracy. They began to occupy the key
was the time when the economic difficulties positions such as the Army Personnel Office and
began and the inflation hard hit the wage earners the Command of the Presidential Guard with his
inhabiting in the urban centers. Junior officers help. However, Gürsel’s permanent leave in the
were disappointed with the Democrat Party’s rule early days of May 1960 disrupted their activities.
as their reform expectations had not been met. They considered some generals as replacements
They felt that they were neglected, especially when for Gürsel, who refused their offer. Yet, the
they compared themselves to their counterparts in generals who had been offered the leadership of
the NATO countries. They did not earn much to the conspiracy did not inform the government.
live comfortably. This brought about loss of social Finally, Cemal Madanoğlu, a major-general and
prestige. The economic policy of the Democrat Chief of Logistics on the General Staff accepted
Party made them poorer; in other words, they the offer; however, having no active command was
were in the losing end while certain segments of a handicap for the conspirators. Yet, Madanoğlu
the society became richer. The government did would be the main actor in the organization of
not increase their salaries to sustain their living in the military intervention, although its head would
face of inflation. In brief, the economic conditions seem to be Cemal Gürsel as he was a senior officer
and loss of prestige led the rise of great discontent and higher in rank than Madanoğlu.
among junior officers. The Democrat Party government was actually
The politicization of this discontent occurred apprehensive about a military intervention. The
in the context of political circumstances besides ‘Nine Officers’ Conspiracy’ was alarming to
the economic ones in the mid-1950s. Struggle them. In July 1958, the Iraqi monarchy strongly
and tension between the Democrat Party and supported by Adnan Menderes was overthrown by
the Republican People’s Party became a catalyst a military coup. This increased the apprehension
in transforming their discontent into a search to of the Democrats. In September 1958, Adnan
overthrow the government. The officers began to Menderes accused the Republican People’s Party
become involved in inter-party struggle by joining of provoking an Iraqi type of revolution in Turkey.
the opposition after their retirement. This was seen Student demonstrations that began at the end
as a sign of the disturbance and dissatisfaction in of April 1960 and the subsequent declaration of
the military against the government. More critical martial law in İstanbul and Ankara demonstrated
signs came when nine serving officers were arrested that the Democrat Party government began to
in İstanbul for their involvement in a conspiracy lose their control of the events. Apprehensive
against the government in December 1957. Yet, about military intervention, the government’s
the government did not conduct a thorough precaution was the promise of new and higher
investigation as it considered it might alienate the pay scales for officers. It also promised them to
armed forces. As a result, the trial of the officers improve their living conditions by providing fair
was short lived, which eventually resulted in their priced, comfortable quarters for them. At the time
release. The only convicted in their trial was the of the military intervention on May 27, 1960, the
informer himself (Ahmad, 1977, pp. 155-156). Prime Minister, Adnan Menderes, was on a tour
in western Anatolia where he had a wide popular
As the case of the ‘Nine Officers’ Conspiracy’
support. When the military announced its seizure
was closed, the conspiratorial activities continued
of power, there was not any resistance from neither
with great secrecy in the military. The conspirators
the Democrat Party politicians nor the loyalist
sought for a senior officer, a general, to lead their
troops. The military takeover was carried out
movement. At the same time, they realized that
almost without bloodshed.
their efforts would not yield a positive result unless
249
7
Figure 7.10 Headlines on the military takeover

Source: https://galeri.uludagsozluk.com/r/27-may%C4%B1s-1960-1357241/
The public in Turkey became aware of the military takeover by a radio declaration read by Colonel
Alpaslan Türkeş, one of the conspirators. In the declaration, the reasons for the military takeover of the
power were stated as the crisis into which the democracy in Turkey had fallen and as the political conditions
which brought the country on the brink of fratricide. It was emphasized that the purposes of the army by
taking such an initiative were:
• to extricate the parties from the irreconcilable situation into which they had fallen,
• to establish an above-party rule,
• to hold just and free democratic elections as soon as possible and to give back the political power
to the winning party (Ahmad, 1977, pp. 157-161).
Write the main causes of the military intervention of May 27, 960 by considering
the Democrat Party-military relationship and the declaration of the intervention.
250
77
Explain the factors that led to the transition from the

LO 1 single-party to multi-party system
The transition to the multi-party system after the World War II occurred because of the intersection of
domestic factors with international ones. Domestic factors emanated from the widespread discontent that
had risen during World War II. Policies that the government adopted in order to finance the war mobilization
caused the alienation of the various segments of the society, such as, peasants, merchants, salaried people and
landowners, from the single-party regime. Fundamental changes took place in the international balance of
Summary
power at the end of the war. The United States emerged as the dominant power of the capitalist world and
the representative of liberal values in economy and politics. On the other hand, the Soviet Union appeared
as the leader of the socialist countries. At the end of the war, Turkey was in an isolated position as it had
followed a neutral foreign policy during the war. As soon as the war was over, Turkey faced threats from the
Soviet Union. The Soviets did not renew the Treaty of Friendship that had been continuing since 1920s
with Turkey. In addition, they demanded revision in the status of the Straits as well as some sections of land
from Turkey. In order to end her isolation and countervail the Soviet threat, Turkey approached the West,
specifically the United States. It attempted to get its diplomatic support. As the rivalry increased between
the United States-led capitalist world and the Soviet Union, Turkey’s location gained importance for the
strategic goals of the United States. It extended diplomatic and economic support to Turkey as well as
recommendations about political and economic transformation. Under these circumstances, transition to a
multi-party system became possible in the aftermath of World War II.
Explain the process of the transition to the multi-party system, the

LO 2 establishment of the Democrat Party, and the accommodation of the
Republican People’s Party to the new system.
Turkey pledged itself to democratic ideals as it had become a founding member of the United Nations.
President İsmet İnönü declared that steps would be taken in the direction of democracy soon after signing
the Charter of the United Nations. This process started as the Land Reform Bill was discussed in the
National Assembly. The discussions over the Bill were heated and brought about the questioning of the
single-party system. Before its enactment, four deputies submitted a proposal to the Republican People’s
Party Parliamentary group demanding the full implementation of the constitution and the removal of all
barriers before civil liberties for the establishment of a democratic regime. This signified the beginning
of the opposition within the Republican People’s Party, which eventually resulted in the establishment of
the Democrat Party in January 1946. Yet, the Democrat Party was not the first party of the multi-party
system; before it, the National Development Party had officially been founded in September 1945.
The Democrat Party’s program was not fundamentally different from that of the Republican People’s Party.
It declared its commitment to Kemalist principles although it interpreted them slightly differently. Its
difference appeared in its liberalization discourse demanding the establishment of a democratic rule in the
full sense. As the multi-party system based on political competition and the popular will became the main
determining factors as to who would get the power, the Republican People’s Party began to accommodate
its organization and ideology into new circumstances, especially after the 1946 elections. It reinterpreted
Kemalist principles, because of which ètatism, secularism, and revolutionism were re-defined in a way to
compete effectively with the Democrat Party. Its program increasingly resembled the Democrat Party’s
program. After 1947, it launched a liberalization program in economic and religious issues.
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7
Explain the success of the Democrat Party in the

LO 3 1950 Elections and its coming to power
The main reason of the Democrat Party’s success in ending the long Republican People’s Party’s rule
in the 1950 elections lay in its ability to channel the widespread discontent against its rival party. Its
discourse was more persuasive as its rival had been in power since the 1920s and the people were tired
of its long rule. It also had the advantages of having its constituencies from the localities, which made
it closer to the populace. In addition, the Democrat Party demonstrated itself to be different from the
Republican People’s Party especially in two fields: economy and religion. It vehemently criticized the
Summary
ètatist economic policy of the Republican People’s Party and its implementations of secularism in almost
a militant manner in the 1930s. It convinced the majority of the population that if it took the power, it
would have a moderate approach toward religion and effectively implement an economic policy favoring
private enterprise.
Outline the political, economic, and

LO 4 foreign policies of the Democrat Party
Politically, the Democrat Party government was in distrust of the military and bureaucracy from the
early days of its incumbency. This distrust emanated from the consideration that they were under the
influence of the Republican People’s Party, specifically, its head, İsmet İnönü. As a result, its relation with
the opposition party was strained in general. The leader of the Democrat Party did not tolerate criticism
from the very beginning; being elected by the majority of the votes was considered as a legitimizing tool
for all his actions. Repressive measures were taken against the opposition based on majoritarian rule.
Such measures would tremendously increase in the second half of the 1950s. Tension with the opposition
increased. The Democrat Party leadership would attempt at criminalizing the opposition.
In economy, the Democrat Party favored free enterprise. Its development strategy was based on agriculture.
It supported big landowners, medium and small farmers through cheap credits while liberalizing foreign
trade in favor of merchants. Financial sources were mostly spent for mechanization in agriculture. This
brought about a considerable increase in the size of the cultivated areas and agricultural production. By
the mid-1950s, it had been understood that this strategy could not be maintained as the financial deficit
dramatically increased and the need for agricultural products decreased. Yet, the government continued
to support agricultural products through price supports and subsidies for electoral reasons. To this end,
it printed money, which led to inflation. At the same time, it took measures to decrease inflation by
implementing price controls. In addition, it attempted to restrict import as a means of decreasing financial
deficit. Both measures caused shortage of goods in the urban centers, which in return caused discontent
against the government. The adoption of the National Defense Law, which gave extensive authority to
the government to deal with the situation, did not yield the expected results. Finally, the Democrat Party
government attempted to reach an agreement with the IMF as a solution to economic problems. In
1958, they made an agreement, it did not lesson the economic problems when the Democrat Party was
overthrown by military intervention in May 1960,
In foreign policy, the Democrat Party aimed full integration with the West, specifically with the United
States. In order to guarantee its security against the Soviet threat, it applied for NATO membership. To this
end, it sent troops to South Korea demonstrating its commitment to international collective security against
a communist threat. It was accepted to NATO in 1952. The Democrat Party government, then, took a
leading role in the development of the two regional alliances aiming to encircle the Soviet Union: one for the
Balkans and another for the Middle East. These were proven to be unsuccessful attempts in the long run.
252
7
Explain the background of the military

LO 5 intervention of May 27, 1960
The Democrat Party was suspicious of a military intervention as soon as it took to power. For this reason,
it purged the top hierarchy of the army and appointed commanders loyal to it to critical posts. A reform
of the army was to be followed; yet, for unknown reasons, such reformation was not realized. In the
meantime, the army began to undergo a structural change following Turkey’s membership to NATO.
Modernization and mechanization of the army led junior officers to become increasingly important in
this new set up. Younger officers with the knowledge of engineering and communication took up the
Summary
vital positions in the military. Such officers had been to the United States as part of their training. There,
they found the opportunity to compare not only their army but also their socio-economic status with
those of their Western counterparts/allies. They were one of the most affected groups from the worsening
economic conditions in the country. Their salaries were low and, accordingly, their social prestige was
diminishing in contrast to the vital positions they acquired in the army. Their expectation from the
Democrat Party government was a reform in the army through which they would have better living
conditions. Amidst economic problems and increasing political tension in the country, groups aiming to
overthrow the government began to appear in the military. In 1957, one such group was discovered; yet,
it was not investigated thoroughly. Following this event, conspiratorial groups acted with great secrecy
and they prepared for intervention. The military takeover came when the government adopted repressive
measures as the only way of dealing with its opponents and the economy was in dire straits. The reasons of
the military intervention were declared to be the crisis into which democracy had fallen and the political
situation that brought the country on the brink of a civil war.
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7
1 Which of the following was not among the 4 The Pact of Freedom …………………….
factors that led to the transition from a single-party
to a multi-party system in Turkey in the aftermath Which of the following completes the sentence
of World War II? above?
A. was the document that the Democrat Party adopted
A. Turkey’s commitment to democratic ideals as for calling the democratization of the political life
Test Yourself
it became the founding member of the United B. was the document adopted by the Republican
Nations People’s Party for accommodating the party to
B. the need to end the isolation in international new political circumstances
politics after World War II C. was the declaration for the integration with
C. the consideration that time was convenient to Western democracies
change the system D. was the declaration of the foundation of the
D. the widespread discontent against the single- socialist parties emphasizing the freedom of
party system the working class from the capitalists
E. the ending of World War II with the victory of E. was the declaration of the dissidents within the
the liberal states Republican People’s Party stating the need for
more reforms in the party
2 Which of the following was not among the 5 Which of the following was among the
segments of the society alienated from the single- characteristics that the multi-party system acquired
party rule at the end of World War II? toward the 1950 elections?
A. Peasantry A. The parties in competition fundamentally
B. Traders differed in their programs and ideologies.
C. Landowners B. Leftist organizations/parties were banned; the
D. Salary earners system was closed to left.
E. Military C. The spectrum of political parties was wide so as
to represent all sorts of ideologies.
D. Exploiting religion for political ends was
3 The Democrat Party …………………….... strictly forbidden.
Which of the following completes the sentence E. Military involvement was frequent in the system.
above?
A. was founded by a discontented group of people 6 The Democrat Party won an overwhelming
representing the interests of the bureaucracy victory over the Republican People’s Party (in
B. was founded by a group of people who left power since 1923) in the 1950 elections. One of
the Republican People’s Party as it increasingly the factors that explains this victory rests upon
approached to the West in foreign policy its socio-cultural characteristics that remarkably
C. had a program fundamentally different from differentiated it from the Republican People’s
the Republican People’s Party at its foundation Party.
D. stated as its main goal the achievement of Which of the following cannot be considered
democracy in Turkey among the socio-cultural characteristics of the
E. supported the ètatist approach in economy Democratic Party?
A. The Democrats distanced themselves from
the reforms, especially the secular ones, of the
1920s-1930s.
B. The Democrats had local roots in their
constituencies.
C. The Democrats were mostly men of free
professions representing the countryside more
than the urban centers.
D. The Democrats were of overwhelmingly
bureaucratic and military origin.
E. The Democrats were culturally more akin
to peasants who formed the majority of the
population.
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7
7 Which of the following cannot be 9 Which of the following cannot be claimed to

considered as one of the explanations for the non- be one of the consequences of the economic policy
tolerant attitude of the Democrat Party toward of the Democrat Party in between 1950-1954?
the Republican People’s Party during its first
incumbency? A. Agricultural production increased.
Test Yourself
B. Financial support was mostly extended for
A. the identification of the Republican People’s
industrial investment.
Party with the military and bureaucracy to
which the Democrat Party had not confidence C. Domestic market grew because of the
expansion of road network.
B. the supposed influence of İsmet İnönü over the
military D. Urbanization increased.
C. the belief that representing the majority was E. Import of motor vehicles considerably
sufficient to legitimize all their actions increased.
D. the dislike of criticism
E. the fundamental difference in the program and 10 Which of the following was not among the
ideology of the two parties reasons as to why Turkey’s entry into NATO was
seen as a great success by both the government and
the opposition?
8 Which of the following cannot be claimed
about the religious development during the first A. It was seen as a security guarantee against the
incumbency of the Democrat Party? Soviet threat.
B. It was seen as providing a major alliance
A. State intervention in religious affairs was
against Greece that was the main rival of
completely ended.
Turkey competing for supremacy on Eastern
B. Reactionary movements became visible. Mediterranean.
C. The Presidency of Religious Affairs was C. It was seen as a guarantee for the flow of
strengthened. Western aid and loans.
D. Fundamentalist currents were tolerated by the D. It implicitly proved that Western countries
government. accepted Turkey on equal terms.
E. There was religious revival in terms of the E. It provided almost full military integration of
increase in religious publications. Turkey into the Western alliance system.
255
7
If your answer is wrong, please review If your answer is wrong, please review
1. C 6. D
section “The Transition to the Multi-Party section “The Democrat Party Takes the
System, 1945-1950”. Power”.
2. E If your answer is wrong, please review 7. E If your answer is wrong, please review
section “Domestic Factors”. section “Political Developments during the
First Democrat Part’s Incumbency, 1950-
1954”.
3. D If your answer is wrong, please review If your answer is wrong, please review
8. A
section “The Process of the Transition to the section “The Democrat Party and Religious
Multi-Party System and the Establishment Reaction”.
of the Democrat Party”.

4. A 9. B If your answer is wrong, please review
section “From the 1946 Elections to the
section “Economic Developments”.
Declaration of July 12th 1947”.

5. B If your answer is wrong, please review 10. B
section “Toward the 1950 Elections”. section “Foreign Policy of the Democrat
Party”.
Explain the reasons that led the transition from a single-party to a

multi-party system in Turkey at the end of World War II.
Domestically, the widespread discontent emanated from the wartime policies

of the government became a forcing factor for the change of the political
your turn 1 system in the aftermath of World War II. Segments of the society such as
peasants, merchants, wage earners, state employees, and landowners were
all discontented, especially about the economic policy of the governments
during the war. The change in the balance of power and Turkey’s search for
approaching the United States in face of the threat coming from the Soviet
Union formed the international factor that stimulated the change in the
political system. At the end of the war, Turkey was in a position of being
isolated. This made it unsecured in the emerging new world order based on
the competition between the United States and the Soviet Union. As it was
threatened by the Soviet Union, it spent its efforts to be a part of the Western
alliance led by the United States. The domestic pressure from the discontented
segments of the society and the efforts to get a secured position in the emerging
international order were the main drives of the transformation of the single-
party system into a multi-party one.
256
7
How was the political life shaped during the transitional years of the
multi-party system?

During the transitional years of the multi-party system, two characteristics
of the political life were evident. First, tension was constant among the
your turn 2 main political parties, which were the Republican People’s Party and the
Democrat Party. There was a fierce competition for power between these two
parties. It was not based on the ideological or political differences; in their
programs, they were very much similar. As they resembled each other, both
parties, especially the Democrat Party, needed to raise the tension in order to
expand its popular base by channeling the discontent against the party in the
government. As a result, the power-opposition relationship did not develop
peacefully. Secondly, the political life in the multi-party system was closed to
leftist currents from its very beginning. Left was identified with socialism and
communism by both the Republicans and the Democrats. It was seen as the
scapegoat of all maladies and leftists were considered as serving the cause of
the Soviet Union. As a result, the leftist parties were closed down and leftist
individuals were criminalized.
Write the main characteristics of political, economic, and foreign

policies of the Democrat Party government during its first
incumbency.
Politically, the Democrat Party was relatively liberal in its first incumbency. Yet,
it did not tolerate its political rivals on some occasions and followed repressive/
your turn 3 authoritarian measures against them. Examples are the liquidation of the
possessions of the Republican People’s Party and the closing of the Nation Party
in case. Economically, the Democrat Party government followed a liberal policy
in which the restrictions on foreign trade were removed. It viewed agricultural
development as the strategy for economic development. It modernized and
mechanized agriculture. As the international demand for agricultural products
was high and weather conditions were favorable in its first incumbency, economy
grew considerably. One can even mention an economic boom in between 1950-
1953. In foreign policy, the Democrat Party maintained the cause of diplomatic
and military integration with the West. The most notable development in
this regard was the membership to NATO in 1952. Besides, Turkey led the
development of the regional alliances in the Balkans and the Middle East as the
extension of the Western alliance system.
257
7
Discuss the Democrat Party’s way of rule from the mid-1950s to

1960?
It can be defined as authoritarian. As the economic growth came to a halt and

the difficulties that caused the discontent of the population arose, especially
your turn 4 in urban centers, the Democratic Party increasingly adopted authoritarian/
repressive measures in maintaining its rule. Its relationship with the opposition
parties deteriorated further. It limited the freedom of press and put pressure
on bureaucracy and judiciary. Its leadership began to use religion for political
ends increasingly while denouncing the main opposition as non-believers. The
creation of the Fatherland Front demonstrated the extent of the authoritarian
measures that the Democrat Party leadership took as it polarized the society
between their supporters and non-supporters. In addition, the formation of
the Investigation Commission demonstrated the intention of the government
to use its power as a sword of Damocles over the opposition.
Write the main causes of the military intervention of May 27, 1960
by considering the Democrat Party-military relationship and the
declaration of the intervention.
The Democrat Party did not trust the military; yet, the junior officers who
led the organization of the military intervention had supported it in the
your turn 5 elections. Their expectation was a reform in the army that would facilitate
their promotion. As this group of officers underwent the NATO training,
they got vital positions in the army. Yet, there was not any improvement
in their economic or social status. The worsening economic and political
circumstances of the mid-1950s became a catalyst in politicizing their
discontent about the Democrat Party’s rule. They began to form juntas to
overthrow the government. They did it on May 27, 1960 on the basis that
democracy was in crisis and the country was on the brink of fratricide due to
the polarization between the Democrats and non-Democrats.
258
7
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Karaömerlioğlu, M., A. (2006). Turkey’s ‘return’ to
Vanderlippe, J. M. (2005). The politics of Turkish
multi-party politics: A social reinterpretation. East
democracy İsmet İnönü and the formation of the
European Quarterly, XL (1), pp. 89-107.
multi-party system 1938-1950. Albany: State
Karpat, K., H. (1959). Turkey’s politics the transition University of New York Press.
to a multi-party system. Princeton: Princeton
Zürcher, E. J. (1993). Turkey a modern history,
University Press.
London: I. B. Tauris & Co. Ltd.
Kasaba, R. (1993). Populism and Democracy in
Turkey. In E. Goldberg, R. Kasaba and J.
Migdal (Eds.), Rules and rights in the Middle East:
Democracy, law and society, (pp. 43-68). Seattle:
University of Washington Press.
259
Chapter 8 Turkey between Two Military
Interventions, 1960-1980
1 2
demonstrate the characteristics of the 1961
Learning Outcomes
explain the process of returning to civilian Constitution in terms of the changes it brought
politics, to the political system,
3
demonstrate how the political fragmentation
outline the characteristics of the political life in
the 1960s,
4 in the 1970s drifted Turkey into a quagmire of
political violence and economic crisis,
5
overview the characteristics of the political
order that was founded after the military
intervention of September 12, 1980.
Key Terms
National Unity Committee
Cemal Gürsel
Alpaslan Türkeş
Chapter Outline The 1961 Constitution
From the Military Intervention back to the Civilian Justice Party
Politics, 1960-1961 Süleyman Demirel
Political Life from 1961 to 1980 Republican People’s Party
Economic Developments in the 1960s and 1970s Bülent Ecevit
The Military Intervention of September 12, 1980 Nationalist Action Party
and its Aftermath National Salvation Party
Cyprus
Nationalist Front
Import-Substitution
National Security Council
Kenan Evren
260
8
INTRODUCTION transpired. Economic and political instability

The National Unity Committee (Millî Birlik eventually resulted in another military intervention
Komitesi) took up the political power immediately on March 12, 1971. It was not in a form of direct
after the military intervention. The Committee was military takeover but of an intervention through a
led by Cemal Gürsel and consisted of 38 members memorandum demanding reforms. As a result, the
who were mostly junior officers. The Committee Justice Party government resigned. Until the 1973
gave the professors of law from Istanbul University elections, a cabinet formed of technocrats ruled
the task of preparing a constitution, which would the country. They were occupied with reforming
allow transition back to civilian politics. Yet, not the economy and establishing law and order by
all members of the Committee agreed on the suppressing leftist currents.
restoration of power to civilian politicians. The In the 1973 elections, the Republican People’s
Committee was actually divided into moderates Party, which adopted a center-left ideology, gained
who wanted to restore power to civilian authorities the majority of votes, but this was not enough to rule
immediately and radicals who wanted to carry by itself. Therefore, it formed a coalition government
out fundamental reforms that would necessitate with the National Salvation Party. In the nine months
a prolonged military rule. The Committee ousted in which this government was in rule, the popularity
the radicals in November 1960 and opened the of Bülent Ecevit, the leader of the Republican People’s
way for the restoration of the civilian politics. A Party, was on the rise constantly. It made its peak when
new constitution was prepared. It aimed to prevent Turkey directly intervened in Cyprus to prevent a fait
the restoration of power to a single political party. accompli by Greece and Greek Cypriots. The Coalition
The rationale of the new Constitution based itself was broken up in the aftermath. As the Republican
on strengthening institutional checks and balances. People’s Party failed to establish a government,
The army would also be given a constitutional role other parties represented in the Parliament formed
in this respect. Bans on political activities were a coalition called the Nationalist Front government.
lifted in January 1961. The new Constitution was Led by the Justice Party, this government could not
accepted by a referendum in July. The elections develop policies to overcome the mounting economic
were held in October. Meanwhile, the verdicts problems and stop political violence. The economic
of the trials of the Democrats at Yassıada were crisis would deepen and political violence would
announced. disseminate throughout the second half of the 1970s.
Accordingly, with the new electoral system The economic crisis was mainly the result of
based on proportional representation, there was the economic policy based on import substitution
no party that had a singular majority with the industrialization. It led to industrial growth in the
election results. Coalition governments led by the second half of the 1960s, but its positive impact
Republican People’s Party were in rule until 1965. ended by the beginning of 1970s. The development
In 1965, the Justice Party succeeded in receiving in world economy characterized by the oil crisis
the majority votes that allowed it to assume rule of 1973-1974 made the situation even harder for
single handedly. Its first incumbency from 1965 Turkey. Embargos of Western countries due to the
to1969 witnessed considerable economic growth as Cyprus intervention brought the Turkish economy
well as a wide political spectrum including, actors on the brink of collapse. Unemployment, black
besides political parties. As a result, the Justice Party market, and profiteering were the short-term results
repeated its electoral success in the 1969 elections. of this economic setback. Subsequent governments
Yet, economic growth came to a halt at the end failed to make fundamental reforms in order to better
of 1960s. The Justice Party government failed the situation. On January 24, 1980, the Justice Party
to respond to the economic demands of various government adopted measures, which aimed the
segments of the society. Factories emerged as centers liberalization of the Turkish economy as a remedy
of political activity and the laborers as political to the economic crisis. These measures were to be
actors. In the meantime, student movements grew effectively implemented under military rule following
in universities. On some occasions, confrontations the military takeover of September 12, 1980; however,
between leftist and rightist student groups social and political rights that were preconditions for
their implementation were curbed.
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8
Turkey between Two Military Interventions, 1960-1980
The military takeover of September 12, 1980

gained legitimacy as it stopped the political
violence overnight. The causes of the intervention
were more than that, however. Besides domestic
developments characterized by the political
violence and economic crisis, there were regional
developments that fundamentally changed the
balance of power in disfavor of the Western
alliance which Turkey was a part of. The Iranian Members of the National Unity Committee
Islamic revolution of 1978-1979, and the Soviet CemalGürsel in the middle
occupation of Afghanistan in 1979 were the most
Kaynak: https://www.yenisafak.com/bilgi/demokrasiye-
noteworthy developments in this regard. The
ilk-darbe-27-mayis
stability of Turkey became vital for her allies. The
military intervention of 1980 brought political
activity to an end, closed all political organizations The direction of the military takeover would be
including the parties, and made the military clear when the task of preparing a new constitution
the sole decision maker for the next three years. was given to a group of professors from Istanbul
In the meantime, all obstacles before the full University headed by Prof. Sıddık Sami Onar,
implementation of the liberalization program in the Rector of the University, on the day of the
military takeover. On May 28, the committee of
economy were removed. The 1982 Constitution,
professors presented a preliminary report through
which was accepted before the return to civilian
which they legitimized the military takeover. The
politics, curbed the fundamental political, social
report supported the idea that the Democrat
and economic rights of the citizens. It allowed the Party government had acted unconstitutionally. It
establishment of military tutelage over politics in recommended the creation of a new state and social
the coming years. institutions before the restoration of the political
authority and government to civilians. On June 12,
FROM THE MILITARY a provisional constitution that allowed the National
INTERVENTION BACK TO THE Unity Committee to rule until the election of a new
CIVILIAN POLITCS, 1960-1961 parliament was issued. The question of establishing
a Constituent Assembly that would take over
Following the military takeover on May 27, the legislative function from the Committee and
1960, the power to govern was in the hands of the facilitate the return to parliamentary democracy
National Unity Committee (Millî Birlik Komitesi), fell on agenda in September 1960. The radicals
which consisted of 38 officers. Its head was Cemal did not favor such an attempt. The relations in the
Gürsel, who was appointed as the Head of State, Committee strained as a result of the disagreement
Prime Minister, and Minister of Defense at the same over the creation of the Constituent Assembly. On
time. From the very beginning, the Committee November 13, Cemal Gürsel suddenly announced
was divided into two factions: the moderates the dissolution of the National Unity Committee and
and the radicals. Led by Gürsel and the generals, the foundation of a new one, which excluded fourteen
the former faction demanded the restoration of members from the radical wing. They were mostly
power to civilians as soon as possible. The latter appointed as attachés to Turkish embassies abroad.
faction consisted of junior officers led by Colonel This move paved the way for the moderates to carry
AlpaslanTürkeş. It aimed to change the political out their program of returning to the parliamentary
structure of the country before it took a turn back democracy. Yet, the purge of the ‘Fourteen’ caused
to civilian politics. This would necessitate a long great discontent among the junior officers and cadets
serving in the army. Consequently, there was rise of
military rule (Ahmad, 1977, p. 165). A struggle for
new conspiratorial groups in the armed forces creating
power between these groups started immediately
instability (Ahmad, 2003, p. 121).
after the military takeover.
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8
military was given a constitutional role through

the establishment of the National Security Council
(Millî Güvenlik Kurulu).The Councils constituted
There would be two attempts of military
the ministers who were identified by law, the chief
intervention, led by a Colonel, Talat Aydemir,
of the general staff, and the representatives of the
in February 1962 and May 1963.
armed forces. Its main function was to advise the
government on internal and external security.
In order to control the dissident elements in the attention
army, senior officers with active commands formed
an organization named Armed Forces’ Union. It The National Security Council would
was to monitor activities throughout the military extend its influence on politics in the
in general and to act as a watchdog over the junior coming decades and actually become
officers in particular. This Union actually became a center of power.
the guarantor of the return to civilian politics and
the new constitution, which was prepared under As a result, the military emerged as an autonomous
the auspices of the Constituent Assembly. In July institution. It was recognized as the guardian of
1961, a referendum was held on the issue of the new the regime. The high command would become an
constitution and was approved by approximately integral part of the political and socio-economic life
62 % of the votes. of the country (Zürcher, 1993, pp. 257-258; Ahmad,
2003, p. 122-123; Ahmad, 2008, pp. 241-242).
What was the most notable obstacle before

returning to civilian politics after the military The army started to play a significant role
intervention of May 27, 1960? also in economy through the creation of the
Army Mutual Assistance Association (Ordu
The 1961 Constitution Yardımlaşma Kurumu). In years, it would
be one of the largest conglomerates in the
The new constitution was fundamentally
business and industrial life in Turkey.
different from its predecessor, the 1924
constitution. The overall aim of the constitution was
the prevention of one-party monopoly on power,
The 1961 Elections
the kind of power which had been previously held
by the Democrat Party or the Republican Party The Constituent Assembly decided to hold
in the 1930s. To this end, the national assembly general elections on October 15, 1961. The
was counterbalanced with other institutions. A ban on political activities was already lifted in
bicameral parliament including a national assembly January. In addition to the Republican People’s
and a senate was established. All legislation Party and the Republican Peasants’ Nation Party
would have to pass through both chambers. In (Cumhuriyetçi Köylü Millet Partisi), which had
addition, an independent constitutional court continued to exist after the military intervention,
was introduced. The court could throw out all new parties registered for the elections. Among
legislation that it regarded as unconstitutional. the newly formed political parties, the Justice
In order to lessen the chance of one party getting Party (Adalet Partisi) emerged as the most
an overwhelming majority in the assembly, a new significant one since it claimed to have inherited
electoral law based on proportional representation the legacy of the Democrat Party after its
was introduced. The judiciary, the universities, dissolution by the military regime. Before the
and the media were granted full autonomy. The election campaigns began, the National Unity
constitution also guaranteed freedom of thought, Committee imposed political parties a protocol
expression, association, and publication. The through which they agreed:
263
8
• not to question or exploit the May 27 Revolution for political gain,

• to protect Atatürk’s reforms,
• not to exploit Islam for political gain,
• not to exploit the verdicts of the Yassıada trials (Ahmad, 1977, p. 171).
The trials of the Democrat Party members began on the island of Yassıada in the fall of 1960. The cases
brought against them consisted of criminal and corruption cases as well as cases of the violation of the
constitution. The verdicts of the trials were announced on September 15. Fifteen people were sentenced
to death; yet, except for three, the verdicts were commuted by the National Unity Committee. Hasan
Polatkan, the former minister of finance and Fatin Rüştü Zorlu, the former minister of foreign affairs were
executed on September 16, and the former prime minister Adnan Menderes the day after.
The rest of the verdicts of the Yassıada trials included the acquaintance of 123
people, the imprisonment of 31 people for life and that of 418 to lesser terms.
The graphic representation of the 1961 elections Voting to renew the parliamentary democracy
Kaynak: https://www.yenisafak.com/secim-1961 Kaynak: https://www.yenisafak.com/secim-1961

In the elections held a month later, the Republican People’s Party (Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi-CHP) gained
approximately 37 % (173 seats),the Justice Party (Adalet Partisi-AP) 35 % (158 seats), the New Turkey
Party (Yeni Türkiye Partisi-YTP) 14 % (65 seats), and Republican Peasants’ Nation Party (Cumhuriyetçi
Köylü Millet Partisi-CKMP) won only 13.4 % of the votes (54 seats).
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instability as the threat of a military intervention held

the coalition governments together.
2 The first coalition was between the Republican
In what way, was the 1961 Constitution to People’s Party and the Justice Party (November
prevent one-party monopoly of power? 1961-May 1962). It did not last long since there were
fundamental differences between the two parties
toward the issue of amnesty for the former Democrat
Party politicians as well as an economic policy
POLITICAL LIFE FROM 1961 TO based on state planning (see below). The second
1980 coalition was between the Republican People’s Party
The results of the 1961 elections caused and two smaller parties: the Republican Peasant’s
disappointment among some segments of the Nation Party and the New Turkey Party (June
armed forces since the successors of the Democrat 1962-December 1963). It was followed by the last
Party emerged as the real winners of the elections. İsmet İnönü-led coalition: a minority coalition by
Some influential factions mostly formed by junior the Republican People’s Party which was supported
officers wanted to annul the election results, by independents (December 1963-February 1965).
abolish political parties and the National Unity The last coalition was formed by the an independent
Committee, and establish the rule of military elected from the Justice Party list. Its role was to lead
for an indefinite time. The Armed Forces Union the country to the parliamentary elections, which
would prevent this type of action from happening. would be held in October 1965.
The Parliament convened on October 26,
following the signature of a protocol by the party
The Justice Party in Power
leaders who were actually summoned by the army
commanders. They agreed not to seek amnesty for The winner of the 1965 elections was the Justice
the Democrat Party members sentenced at Yassıada. Party founded in 1961. The Leader of the Justice
They agreed to elect Cemal Gürsel as President and Party was Süleyman Demirel elected to the post in
accepted İsmet İnönü to be the Prime Minister November 1964 in party convention. Under his
although the Republican People’s Party did not have leadership, the Justice Party won a landslide victory
the sufficient votes to form a majority government. As in the 1965 elections. The party gained almost
a result, under heavy pressure from the military, the 53 % of the votes through which it had a solid
Justice Party agreed to collaborate in a coalition led by majority in the parliament. The Justice Party was
İsmet İnönü. From November 1961 to 1964, Turkey made up of socio-economic and cultural groups
was ruled by four coalition governments, three of with conflicting interests, e.g., industrialists, small
which led by the Republican People’s Party under traders and artisans, peasants, big landowners,
military pressure. This period was marked by political religious reactionaries and Western-oriented
liberals.
SüleymanDemirel on election trail Amblem of the Justice Party

Kaynak: https://www.bbc.com/turkce/haberler/2015/06/150617_demirel_obihttps://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adalet_
Partisi_(T%C3%BCrkiye)
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Ideologically, it was not coherent. As a result, involvement of the workers in politics through
Demirel had to spare much of his time to keep his the trade unions. The popularity and spread of the
cabinet and party intact. He adopted two tactics leftist views alarmed the segments of the society with
to preserve the unity of the party and his own rightist views. Rightist parties and organizations
position at its top. First, he frequently emphasized began to mobilize their own forces against the
the Islamic character of the party and its respect for leftists in the ‘struggle against communism’ as
traditional values. Secondly, he constantly waged they described. Islam was seen as the ‘antidote to
in an anti-communist propaganda and targeted communism’ by rightists. Therefore, religion and
leftist movements (Zürcher, 1993, pp. 263-264). the Islamic card was used in the struggle against the
In the 1960s, the Turkish society was highly leftists by all right wing parties.
politicized. Socio-economic changes that the society Süleyman Demirel attempted to establish his
underwent in this decade and freedoms granted by control of the situation when the politicization
the 1961 Constitution led the rise of political life of the society was at its peak. The Economic
based on ideological competition, which had been growth during his first incumbency led him to
unprecedented in the modern history of Turkey. In another victory in the 1969 elections. Yet, this
addition to the political parties, two other political growth was in favor of the large-scale modern
actors became very influential on the course of capitalist industries. Small groups of capitalists
events who invested students and the industrial who invested in industry were the main
working class. Both were under the influence of the benefiters of the economic policies of Demirel’s
leftist worldview that became considerably popular government. Small tradesmen and artisans
as Turkey grew more aware of the world around it. who were mostly located in the countryside
Students were active in universities and organized were the losers. They could not survive the
their associations through which they intervened competition with big companies. As a result,
in actual politics. Toward the end of 1960s, leftist he lost the support of the conservative wing in
movements would grow under the impact of the the Justice Party which represented the interests
student movements in Germany, in the United of big landowners, small traders and artisans.
States and especially in France, and the rise of anti- Eventually, 41 representatives and senators
American sentiments in the Turkish society. At resigned from the Justice Party and established
the center of demonstrations were the university the Democratic Party (Demoktratik Parti-DP) in
students seeking for a Turkey independent of December 1970.
imperialism. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the economic
and social problems as well as the political tension
caught the Demirel government at a time when
The rise of anti-Americanism was mainly it lost the majority in the parliament. Under
because of the position of the United States the circumstances shaped by high inflation,
in the Cyprus Question. In the events of unemployment and working class militancy along
1963-1964, America sided with Greece. with student movements that gained impetus
This inflamed the protests against the United under the impact of the events of 1968 in the
States in Turkey. In foreign policy, this would West, the government was unable to maintain law
lead the search for a non-aligned Turkey and order. Demirel frequently complained about
instead of one remaining a committed ally of the 1961 Constitution which had enlarged the
the United States during the Cold War. scope of liberties and rights widely and he claimed
that it was not possible to run the country with
this Constitution. By 1971, his government could
Similarly, thi industrial working class was not make any decisions aiming to resolve the social
very active in the late 1960s. Because of the and economic problems as it had lost the majority
industrialization policy followed in this decade, in the parliament. The military’s memorandum of
this class grew quantitatively. The rights granted in March 12, 1971 was handed to the Prime Minister
the 1961 Constitution such as the right to strike in this context.
and collective bargaining brought about greater
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8
the press, radio and television, the universities, the

Council of State, the Constitutional Court, the
3 Assembly, the Senate and the Court of Appeals
were all subjects of these amendments. The purpose
How would you describe the political life
of the amendments was to curb the rights and
between 1961-1971?
freedoms granted by the 1961 Constitution and
make it less liberal. As a result, the autonomy of
The Interregnum, 1971-1973 universities and of radio and television was brought
The military memorandum of March 12, 1971 to an end, and the freedom of the press was limited.
demanded the formation of a strong and credible The powers of the constitutional court were reduced
government that would be able to end the ‘anarchy’ while the powers of the National Security Council
and make reforms inspired by Atatürk’s views. The were increased (Ahmad, 1977, p. 295; Zürcher,
army was to ‘exercise its constitutional duty’ which 1993, p. 273). Following the constitutional
was taking over the administration of the State amendments, the socioeconomic reforms fell on
directly if the demand were not met. Upon this the agenda; yet, before carrying out any reforms,
memorandum, the Demirel government resigned the first Erim government ended. In its stead, the
immediately. The military favored an above- second Erim cabinet was formed. This cabinet also
party government to carry out the reforms with failed to carry out fundamental reforms that would
no attachments to party loyalties. Nihat Erim, a resolve social and economic problems. As a result,
conservative member of the Republican People’s Nihat Erim resigned. After his resignation, two
Party was officially asked to form a government. caretaker cabinets whose functions were to prepare
His nomination was confirmed by the majority of the country for the elections were established.
the parties in the parliament.
Nihat Erim formed a cabinet of managers
and technocrats whose members came largely 4
from outside the political parties. The aims of the
cabinet were to restore law and order and achieve What was the solution of the memorandum
socio-economic reforms. Priority was given to the regime to the socio-political developments in
suppression of anarchy spearheaded by radical the country?
leftist organizations. Nihat Erim government
proclaimed martial law in the eleven of the most
important provinces of the country at the end of The 1973 Elections
April 1971. As a result, the political life came to To the surprise of all the political actors, the
a halt The government viewed the leftist activity Republican People’s Party led by Bülent Ecevit
as the main source of anarchy. Repressing the was the winner of the elections. Until the 1973
left wing became the main occupation of the elections, this party had actually undergone a
government. The persecution of the left gained fundamental transformation. It adopted a center-
impetus especially after the abduction and left ideology in the political spectrum. This
murder of the Istanbul Consul General of Israel emphasized social justice and social security. The
in May by the members of the Turkish People’s election of Bülent Ecevit as secretary-general of
Liberation Army (Türkiye Halk Kurtuluş Ordusu). the party in 1966 was a critical step, which would
Approximately five thousand people were arrested shape the future of the party. Ecevit viewed the
in a very short time. They were mostly prominent center-left policy as the one that could transform
writers, journalists, professors and trade unionists the Republican People’s Party into an organization
known for their leftist views. Repression became that could and would accommodate the social and
the order of the day for the next two years. economic changes of the 1960s and 1970s. He
Prime Minister Nihat Erim and the military wanted to identify the party with people and end
viewed the 1961 Constitution as the main source its elitist image. This would enable the party to
of the trouble. Therefore, amendments in the broaden its popular base by having the peasantry
constitution became their primary goal. The unions, and working class on its side. Ecevit’s popularity
267
8
within the party increased when he resigned from the secretary-general post in a protest of the support
given by İsmet İnönü, chairman of the party, to the Nihat Erim government which had been established
after the military memorandum of March 12, 1971. In 1972, Ecevit was elected as the chairman of the
party in the party congress by defeating İsmet İnönü, much to everyone’s surprise, and became the third
chairman after Atatürk and İsmet İnönü.
İsmetİnönü and Bülent Ecevit Ecevit on election trail, 1973

Kaynak: http:/tarihtebugunneoldu.com/1972-yilinda-bugun-bulent-ecevit-listesinin-olaganustu-kongrede-kazanmasi
Kaynak: http://kibrisradikal.com/ecevite-vefa
Ecevit’s success in the 1973 elections was undoubtedly the result of the party’s new orientation. Yet,
equally important was the fragmentation of the right in this regard. There were at least four parties in
the right wing competing for the votes of the similarly inclined population. The Justice Party was the
strongest among them and actually seemed to be best placed to win in the elections. However, it was
divided in 1970. A group of deputies who resigned from the party founded the Democratic Party (see
below). Two other significant parties arose toward the end of the 1960s. The first was the Nationalist
Action Party (Milliyetçi Hareket Partisi). It was led by Alpaslan Türkeş, who, after his return to Turkey in
1963, had joined the Republican Peasant’s Nation Party and became its chairman. In 1969, the party’s
name was changed to Nationalist Action Party. It adopted an ideology based on Turkish nationalism with
an emphasis on Islam as a part of the Turkish national heritage. Another party that emerged at the end of
the 1960s was the National Order Party (Millî Nizam Partisi). It was founded by Necmettin Erbakan, who
adopted an Islamic discourse in criticizing Süleyman Demirel and the Justice Party for being subservient to
big business and foreign capital. He defended the interests of small businessmen and artisans whose socio-
economic situation deteriorated as a result of the economic policy followed by the Justice Party. The party
was closed down following the military memorandum. Erbakan resumed his political activity in 1972
when he founded the National Salvation Party (Millî Selamet Partisi). The Republican People’s Party also
took advantage of the closure of the Worker’s Party of Turkey (Türkiye İşçi Partisi) in the aftermath of the
military memorandum. This party had been founded in 1961 by trade unionists. It attracted the support
of the intellectuals. After becoming a center-left party the Republican People’s Party viewed the Worker’s
Party as its main rival competing for the workers’ votes.
Despite the fragmentation of the right and the absence of of any strong rival on the left, the Republican
People’s Party did not win sufficient votes and assembly seats to form a majority government. The election
results were actually indecisive: the Republican People’s Party got 33.5 % of the votes while the Justice
Party took approximately 30 %. The Democratic Party and the National Salvation Party took 11.9 % and
11.8 %, respectively. A coalition government seemed inevitable. The coalition that emerged was between
Republican People’s Party and the National Salvation Party.
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Necmettin Erbakan and Bülent Ecevit

Kaynak: https://www.yeniakit.com.tr/haber/
attention
Republican People’s Party and the National Salvation Party, ideologically represented the
two poles of the political life in the history of the Turkish Republic. While the Western-
oriented Republican People’s Party was secular following one of the founding principles of
the Republican regime, the Eastern-oriented National Salvation Party based its ideology on
religion, that is, Islam.
The coalition government received a vote of confidence in February 1974. It was followed by carrying
out some promises that had been given during the election campaign. Opium cultivation which had been
banned after the military memorandum was restored.
The United States demanded and pressured Turkey to ban opium cultivation in the late 1960s.
However, the Justice Party government did not meet this demand. Immediately after the
military memorandum of March 12, 1971, the new Nihat Erim government prohibited the
cultivation of opium.
An amnesty bill allowing the release of hundreds of political prisoners followed. Ecevit’s popularity
grew as a result of these. Yet, it was after the decision about Turkey’s military intervention in Cyprus that
Ecevit became a national hero.
Turkey’s intervention in Cyprus was the result of a coup d’ètat against Makarios, the President of the
Cyprus Republic. He was overthrown on the orders of the junta government in Athens, which aimed at
the annexation of the island to Greece. Turkey asked Britain for a joint intervention, but this proposal was
declined. Then, the Turkish government decided to act unilaterally as one of the three guarantors of the
founding treaty of the Republic of Cyprus –the others were the Great Britain and Greece. Turkey landed
troops on the northern section of the island on July 20, 1974. In two days, it took control of the military
situation. What followed was a ceasefire, which would be violated by the Greeks. As violence committed
against the Turkish minority continued, the Turkish troops began their second offensive on August 20. As a
result, 40 % of the island was brought under Turkish control. The island was de facto divided. Negotiations
over years did not bring a resolution to the problem.
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Newspaper headlines on the military interventio A postal stamp commemorating the Cyprus military intervention
Kaynak: http://www.incisozluk.com.tr/w/belgelerle Kaynak: https://koleksiyonmarket.com/1974-
-1974Postage kibris-baris-harekati-pulu.html
The military intervention in Cyprus brought Bülent Ecevit tremendous prestige in Turkey. His growing
popularity had already created tension with his coalition partner. The intervention increased this tension
further. Ecevit decided to resign, and this led the country to an early election at a time when his popularity
was at its zenith. If happened, gaining absolute majority that would allow the formation of a Republican
People’s Party government alone was quite possible. Yet, the parties of the Right were aware of the fact
that going to elections under the existing circumstances would be a political suicide for them. While
Ecevit wanted the elections to take place as soon as possible, they aimed to avoid early elections as long
as possible. As Ecevit resigned, there would be no government for months. A caretaker government was
established, but it did not get a vote of confidence from the parliament. In the end, Süleman Demirel was
able to form a coalition of the rightist parties led by his party in March 1975.
Nationalist Front Governments

The coalition of the rightist parties came to be known as the ‘Nationalist Front’ government or the
‘Rightist front against the Left’. It was made up of four parties: the Justice Party (Adalet Partisi), The
National Salvation Party (Milli Selamet Partisi), The Reliance Party (Güven Partisi), and the Nationalist
Action Party (Milliyetçi Hareket Partisi) . It was supported by the independents who had defected from the
Democratic Party. The Political violence and the economic crisis characterized the rule of this coalition.
Especially, the youth organization of the Nationalist Action Party, known as ‘Grey Wolves’, viewed this
coalition as an opportunity to terrorize the left, particularly, the Republican People’s Party in order to
undermine its electoral strength. Attacks on the party meetings of the Republican People’s Party began to
be frequently seen. As extreme leftist organizations responded, there emerged a view of civil war between
rightists and leftists which persisted until 1980. Coalition partners, especially, the Nationalist Action Party
and the National Salvation Party, on the other hand, began to expand their influence in the state by placing
their likeminded loyal followers in various ministries.
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8
The three major engineers of the first nationalist front government

Necmettin Erbakan –leader of the National Salvation Party,
Süleyman Demirel-leader of the Justice Party
Alparslan Türkeş-leader of the Nationalist Action Party
Kaynak: http://bianet.org/bianet/siyaset/164708-1973-1977-iki-secim-ve-milliyetci-cephe-ler
The political violence increased sharply with public figures and massacring people who belonged
the announcement of the elections to be held in to particular religious sects.
June 1977. It actually reached its climax on May
Day May 1, 1977. The huge rally in Istanbul
ended by the massacre of 39 people. Hundreds of
people were wounded. The elections took place in On December 25, 1978, the Alevi
the aftermath of this disastrous event; the results community in Maraş was targeted by the
showed the Republican People’s Party had received Grey Wolves of the Nationalist Action
41.4 % of the votes, while the Justice Party had Party. Over 100 people were massacred. On
36.9 %. Yet, the Republican People’s Party fell February 1, 1979, Abdi Ipekci, the editor of
short by 13 deputies and was not able to form a Milliyet daily was assassinated.
majority government. Ecevit’s attempt to form a
minority government failed as it did not take a
As a last resort Ecevit had to declare martial law
vote of confidence. Consequently, Demirel formed
in 13 provinces to end the violence but to no avail.
the second ‘Nationalist Front’ government with
As a result, he lost his popular support. In October
the participation of the Nationalist Action Party
1979, his support declined to 29 % in the partial
and the National Salvation Party in July 1977.
Senate and in some by-elections, while Demirel’s
This coalition did not last long as twelve deputies
vote rose to approximately 47 %. Following
resigned from the Justice Party at the end of the year.
Ecevit’s resignation, Demirel formed a minority
In January 1978, Ecevit was able to form a cabinet
government in November 1979.
with the support of the defectors from the Justice
Party. Yet, his government was a weak one. It could The preparations for a military intervention
not become a remedy to the deepening political had already been started when this change of
and economic crisis. It also failed in providing the government occurred. Political violence and
law and order. Political violence sharply increased newly arising Kurdish separatism seemed to be the
during this period, and the violence appeared in legitimate ground for the army to intervene in the
new and different forms. It was no longer restricted situation. Yet, it was after the crucial developments
to the reciprocal killings between the right and left in the region in which Turkey was situated that
wings but extended to include the assassinations of preparations for a military intervention gained
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8
impetus. The 1978- 1979 Islamic Revolution hesitant about the role of the State Planning
of Iran, and the occupation of Afghanistan by Organization and did not view the plans
the Soviet Union at the end of 1979 increased formulated by the organization as binding to
the strategic importance of Turkey for the West, all sectors. Contrary to the Republican People’s
specifically NATO and the United States. They Party, which had a strong ètatist heritage, it
needed a stable regime in Turkey. However, she saw the state as subservient to private sector
was in a state of political turmoil that made her (Zürcher, 1993, p. 278; Pamuk, 2008, p. 283;
incapable of assuming responsibilities in face of the Ahmad, 2003, p. 124).
recent developments in the region. On the grounds
that politicians were not able to effectively combat
the constant political violence, the army took over
Industrialization through Import-
the rule of government on September 12, 1980. Substitution
The general population welcomed this takeover as There were mainly two inter-connected aims
it ended the anarchy that had been prevailing since of the economic policies based on planning in the
the mid-1970s. 1960s and 1970s: the protection of the domestic
market and industrialization through import
substitution. In the early 1960s, Turkey’s industry
had not been developed to produce consumer
5 durables; it was restricted to processed foodstuffs,
textiles, iron, and steel. For consumer durables,
Why did the successive governments fail in
it was dependent on imports. Industrialization
ending the political violence in the 1970s?
through import-substitution thus aimed to
provide the production of consumer durables
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS IN by the domestic industry, which would in return
strengthen the domestic industry. The successive
THE 1960s AND 1970s
governments attempted to strengthen the
The political developments characterized domestic industry in three ways. First, they brought
by instability and political violence were extensive import restrictions and high tariffs with
accompanied by deteriorating economic the aim of reducing western industrial products.
conditions toward the end of the 1960s and Secondly, they kept the value of the Turkish Lira
the economic crisis in most of the 1970s. The artificially high. This was to support the firms which
Economic and financial problems, which had purchased foreign exchange from the government
dominated the last years of the Democrat Party’s in order to purchase foreign raw materials required
rule, were considered as the result of the absence for the domestic production. Finally, they created
of planning by the National Unity Committee a buoyant domestic market through paying high
and the Republican People’s Party. Soon after guarantee prices to farmers and by allowing high
the military intervention of May 27, 1960, the wage rises to industrial workers. Yet, these did
cabinet took the decision on the establishment not mean that economy was a closed one. In fact,
of the Planning Bureau. It became The State industrialization through import substitution was
Planning Organization (Devlet Planlama based on division of labor between foreign and
Teşkilatı) in September 1960. It was principally domestic companies. While the foreign companies
an advisory body with extensive powers in the supplied technological expertise, the necessary
fields of economic, social and cultural planning. licenses, the components and raw materials, the
It started to launch five-year development domestic companies supplied part of the capital and
plans with the support of foreign consultants. the workforce; they also handled the distribution
Although development based on planning was of the goods and established influential contacts
supported by a broad coalition including the with the bureaucracy. The system was not open
Republican People’s Party, the bureaucracy to competition as domestic companies were
and big industrialists, its implementation was protected by import restrictions and high tariffs.
dependent on the governments in power. A
party of the right, namely the Justice Party, was
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8
1979-1980, a second oil price hike resulted in

attention Turkey’s having to pay two-thirds of its foreign
currency earnings to cover the oil expenditure.
Although industrialization via import-
substitution policy was led and supported attention
by the state, the private sector would
benefit from it. It did not bring about state The need for oil tremendously increased in
supremacy in economy as had been in the Turkey in the 1960s-1970s. Industrialization
1930s. The big family holding companies, and urbanization caused sharp increases
large conglomerates, banks and service firms in the demand for energy, specifically, oil.
emerged as the leaders as a result of this policy Turkey had to import most of its oil supply
(Pamuk, 2008, p. 283). from oil-producing countries.
Economy in Dire Straits The successive governments failed to deal with

Import-substitution strategy brought about the economic crisis. Short-term loans, printing
economic growth averaged 6.9 per cent from 1963 money and imposition of import restrictions to
to 1976. Yet, it increased the dependence of Turkish preserve foreign reserves were the main instruments
economy on imports of foreign parts and materials employed to overcome the crisis. Yet, they caused
for production. This inevitably necessitated foreign the rise of additional socio-economic problems.
reserves. Persistent balance of trade and balance Inflation rose, and controlling prices tried to put
of payments deficit became a major problem. In a stop to its rising numbers. This led to the rise of
the 1960s and 1970s, the much needed foreign black market and even large-scale smuggling. By
reserves were met by American aid and money the end of 1970s, it seemed that radical measures
transfers from Turkish workers who had migrated had to be taken inevitably if Turkey was to extricate
to Europe. itself from the economic and financial quagmire.
When Ecevit became prime minister in 1978, he
launched negotiations with IMF, the World Bank,
and the OECD for new credits. An agreement was
Beginning with the 1960s, emigration of reached in July 1979. New credits were provided
the Turks to Western Europe began. This on the condition that the Turkish government
was mainly the result of the economic boom introduced a reform package which would include
and lack of low-skilled labor in Europe. the following:
Several bilateral agreements were concluded • abolishing import and export controls,
between Turkey and the European countries
• cutting subsidies,
such as West Germany, Austria, France,
the Netherlands, Belgium, and Sweden • freeing interest rates,
stipulating the emigration of Turkish • raising prices,
workers to these countries in the early 1960s. • cutting down government expenditure
Their remittances became a vital source of (Zürcher, 1993, pp. 278-281).
foreign exchange in financing the import-
The implementation of this program became
substitution policy (Kirişçi, 2008, p. 192).
the priority of the Demirel government, which
succeeded Ecevit in October 1979. Demirel gave
The oil crisis of 1973-1974, which quadrupled the task of preparing a reform package to Turgut
the price of the oil on the international markets, Özal, and he, then, became the under-secretary
further augmented the economic problems in the for economic affairs in charge of planning. The
1970s. The embargo of the United States and the reform package was announced on January 24,
European sanctions due to the military intervention 1980. Because of the measures introduced by this
in Cyprus added fuel to the existing problems. In package, Turkey devalued her Lira by 30 per cent.
The prices of almost every daily consumption item
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8
such as sugar, oil, oil products, paper, coal, cigarettes and alcohol rose sharply. The economic situation and
such increases in the prices were explained as the requirements for the transition from an economy based on
domestic consumption to an export oriented economy. Yet, there was a widespread resistance to the so-called
January 24, 1980 Decisions, especially by the trade unions. The occupation of factories and strikes were
everywhere until the military took over the government on September 12, 1980.
What are the main characteristics of the economic policy in the 1960s and 1970s?
THE MILITARY INTERVENTION OF SEPTEMBER 12, 1980 AND ITS

AFTERMATH
The military intervention of September 12, 1980 took place when political violence was at its peak,
problems related to law and order increased considerably, Kurdish separatism was on the rise, economy
was in dire straits and the political system was deadlocked. The rise of Islamic fundamentalism was
also one of the causes that incited the army for intervention. Six days before the intervention, there
was a mass demonstration of the Islamists in Konya. They demanded a return to şeriat rule, the
Islamic holy law. The September 12, 1980 military intervention was a hierarchical intervention led by
the hight command, e.g. the generals, contrary to the May 1960 when it was the junior officers who
instigated the intervention. The generals declared on September 12, 1980 that the army intervened
because the state organs had not been functioning. The aims of their intervention were stated as
saving the state, ending social division of the people, stopping economic disintegration, and ending
anarchy and political violence for which they held the political parties and politicians responsible
(Ahmad, 2003, p. 149). They were to restore the authority of the state immediately.
The generals emphasized the incompetence of politicians in electing a new president in

place of Fahri Korutürk, whose term ended in 1980. When the military intervention
occurred, the new president had not been elected yet.
Members of the National Security Council

NejatTümer, NurettinErsin, Kenan Evren, TahsinŞahinkaya,SedatCelesun
The Chief of Staff and the heads of difrentdivions of Armed Forces
Kaynak: Ntv.com.tr
274
8
On the day of the military intervention, Council were increased. The freedom of the press,
the parliament was dissolved, the cabinet was trade unions and the fundamental rights and
deposed, and the political immunity of the liberties of the individuals were curbed. Freedom
members of the parliament was lifted. All power of speech and association was to be annulled,
was concentrated in the newly created National suspended or limited if they threatened or were
Security Council, headed by Kenan Evren, in contradiction to the national interest, public
formerly the chief of staff and the head of the state order and public health. The new constitution
after the intervention. It composed of army, navy, voted for on November 7, 1982 in a referendum.
air force, and gendarmerie commanders. The The result of this referendum was rather crucial.
Council suspended the Constitution. All political Its approval by the general population meant that
parties were suspended and, then, closed down Kenan Evren would automatically be considered
and their assets were confiscated. Their leaders as the president. It was compulsory to participate
were detained for a while and banned from politics in this referendum. All criticism against the
for ten years. Among the suspended institutions, constitution was banned. Evren was allowed,
there were professional associations and trade however, to make propaganda for the ‘yes’ votes.
unions. All mayors and municipal councils were The new constitution was approved by over 90 %
dismissed; military officers replaced them. On of the votes.
September 21, the National Security Council Following the adoption of the new constitution
appointed a cabinet that was mostly composed of and Kenan Evren’ s installation as the president, a
bureaucrats and retired officers. It was to advise new Law on Political Parties was proclaimed. All
the Council and execute its decisions. In ruling politicians who had been active before September
the country, the Council also mandated regional 1980 were banned from politics for ten years. The
and local commanders who had extensive powers new political parties were allowed to be formed;
under the martial law declared on the day of the yet, their founders had to get the approval of the
intervention. Education, the press, chambers of National Security Council. The newly established
commerce and trade unions were in also their political parties were not allowed to have women’s
jurisdiction. or youth branches, to have connections with trade
Before the return to civilian politics, an unions or to have branches in villages. Students,
extensive institutional reconstruction program teachers and civil servants could not join and
was followed. In restructuring the political life, become members of a political party.
all aspects of the left wing, socialist and social Several parties were founded accordingly with
democrat, became the main target. The extreme the new Law on Political Parties. Nevertheless, only
right identified with the Nationalist Action Party three of them were allowed to participate in the
was also crushed. Thousands of people, mostly elections by the National Security Council. These
leftists, were arrested and taken into custody. In were Turgut Sunalp’s Nationalist Democracy Party
November 1981, the Higher Education Council (Milliyetçi Demokrasi Partisi), which was closely
(Yüksek Öğretim Kurulu) was founded. This was identified and supported by the generals; Necdet’s
to put the universities under tight centralized Calp’s Populist Party (Halkçı Parti), which aimed
control. The Council had the authority to appoint to fill the vacuum created by the dissolution of
all rectors and deans. Hundreds of academics the Republican People’s Party; and finally, Turgut
were dismissed after its foundation. In the Özal’s Motherland Party (Anavatan Partisi), which
meantime, a constituent assembly was elected and claimed to represent all political tendencies that
a constitutional committee was formed consisting had existed before 1980. The elections were held
of 15 members to compile the new constitution. on November 6, 1983. The Motherland Party
The draft of the new constitution was made took an overwhelming victory in the elections
public in July 1982. Power was concentrated in with its liberal and anti-statist image promising
the hands of the executive according to this text. a swift return to democracy (Zürcher, 1993, pp.
Powers of the president and the National Security 291-297; Ahmad, 2003, pp. 149-153).
275
8
The results of the 1983 general elections Turgut Özal the leader of ANAP-the winner of 1983 general elections
Kaynak: http://www.milliyet.com.tr/tutuklanacagim-diye-gitti-kabine-uyesi-olarak-cikti-gundem-1694111/
What were the characteristics of the political order that the military regime founded
after the military intervention on September 12, 1980?
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8
Explain the process of returning

LO 1 to civilian politics
The declaration of the military takeover of May 27, 1960 stated

that one of the goals of the intervention was to hold free elections
as soon as possible and give the power to the winning party. Yet,
in the aftermath of the military takeover, there was a group of
officers in the National Unity Committee who objected to the
Summary
immediate return to civilian politics and who were seeking a longer
military rule. This group was known as the ‘radicals’. They were in
struggle for power with the group who demanded the restoration
of power to civilian politicians. Thus, the most noticeable obstacle
before the return to civilian politics was the ‘radicals’. This became
even clearer when the establishment of a constituent assembly
that would assume the legislative task of returning to civilian
politics fell on the agenda in September 1960. Being aware of the
opposition of the ‘radicals’ to this initiative, Cemal Gürsel suddenly
announced the dissolution of the National Unity Committee and
the foundation of a new one with the exclusion of the ’radicals’.
The purge of the ‘radicals’ opened the way for the establishment of
the constituent assembly and, thus, a return to civilian politics.
The assembly led the preparation of a new constitution that
would be accepted in July 1961 by a referendum. After that, the
election process started.
Demonstrate the characteristics

of the 1961 Constitution in terms
LO 2 of the changes it brought to the
political system
The main objective of the 1961 Constitution was to prevent

the establishment of one-party monopoly of power. To this end,
it attempted to create a system based on checks and balances.
This led to the introduction of new institutions that would
counterbalance the National assembly such as the Senate, the
Constitutional Court, and the National Security Council. The
electoral system assumed proportional representation in order to
prevent the takeover of the political power by a single political
party. The press, the judiciary, and the universities were granted
autonomy and theoretically became independent of the political
power. The Constitution also guaranteed freedom of thought,
expression, association, and publication because of which the
political participation of the different segments of the society
having different political views became possible.
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8
Outline the characteristics of the

LO 3 of political life in the 1960s
Turkey was under the rule of the Republican People’s Party,

which led coalition governments in the first half of the 1960s,
while the Justice Party, the inheritor of the Democrat Party, was
in power in the second half. Throughout the decade, politics was
not stable. Political life was shaped by domestic socio-economic
Summary
developments on the one hand and international developments

on the other. One result of all was the widening of the political
spectrum and the increase in political participation. Besides
the establishment of the political parties on ideological basis,
new actors emerged in politics apart from these. Domestic and
international developments led the rise of student and labor
movements, especially in the second half of the 1960s. This
made politics pluralistic to the extent that it was unprecedented
in modern Turkish history. Leftist worldview spread its
influence over the society. Alarmed by this, right wing parties
and organizations began to mobilize their forces against the left
wing. In other words, polarization among leftist and rightist
worldviews began to dominate political life by the end of the
1960s.
Demonstrate how political

fragmentation in the 1970s drifted
LO 4 Turkey into a quagmire of political
violence and economic crisis
Turkey was politically more fragmented in the 1970s compared

to the previous decade. This fragmentation prevented the
establishment of a strong government when political violence was
on the rise and economic crisis became a major problem. Two
major parties, the Republican People’s Party and the Justice Party
were not able to form a government without having a coalition
partner. They had to give concessions to small parties such as the
National Salvation Party and the Nationalist Action Party to form
a government. When their electoral support is considered, it is
correct to assume that these small parties gained a disproportional
strength in the coalition governments. As a result, coalition
governments formed from 1973 to 1980 did not focus on the
solutions to the socio-political and economic problems, but,
rather, were involved in meager political rows. As a result, political
violence and the economic crisis became the order of the day until
the military intervention of September 12, 1980.
278
8
Overview the characteristics of the

political order that was founded
LO 4 after the military intervention of
September 12, 1980
The military intervention of September 12, 1980 aimed to replace

the political order that had been created by the 1961 Constitution
and create a new one in its stead. The 1961 Constitution was
considered as the main cause of the politicization and violence
that dominated the political life in the 1970s. The removal of
Summary
the individual and collective rights and freedoms granted in
the 1961 Constitution was viewed as the precondition for
the creation of a stable political and economic life. The 1982
Constitution drew the limits of rights and freedoms narrowly.
It concentrated the power in the hands of the executive: the
President and the National Security Council. It aimed to create
a political life under the control of the military. Political parties
were under tight control while the freedom of speech, expression,
and organization was restricted. Similarly, the freedom of the
press and trade unions was also limited.
279
8
1 Which of the following was not among the 5 Which of the following was not among the
characteristics of the National Unity Committee? causes of the military memorandum of March 12,
A. Its members were entirely officers. 1971?
B. It was founded before the military intervention A. political instability
Test Yourself
to organize the military takeover. B. increasing militancy of the working class

C. It was divided on the question of the restoration C. the Justice Party’s refusal to cooperate with the
of civilian politics. army
D. It took over power after the military intervention D. student movements
of May 27, 1960. E. government’s inefficiency in maintaining law
E. Its composition was fundamentally changed and order
following disagreements on the question of the
establishment of a Constituent Assembly.
6 Which of the following is not true in
regard to the regime established by the military
2 Which of the following was not among the memorandum of March 12, 1971?
measures taken in the 1961 Constitution taken to
prevent one-party monopoly? A. It demanded the establishment of a strong
government that would make reforms to
A. the introduction of proportional representation provide stability.
B. the establishment of the Senate B. The restoration of law and order was its primary
C. the establishment of the Constitutional Court aim.
D. the establishment of the State Planning C. It viewed leftist organizations as the main
Organization source of anarchy.
E. the establishment of the National Security D. The 1961 Constitution was considered as
Council granting extensive rights and freedoms that
had to be curbed if law and order was to be
3 Which of the following parties was established established.
as the inheritor of the legacy of the Democrat E. It aimed to respond to the socio-political
Party in the aftermath of the military intervention demands of the working class and students.
on May 27, 1960 and became one of the leading
parties in the 1960s and 1970s? 7 Which of the following was not among the
A. The Justice Party characteristics of the political life between 1973-
B. The Labor Party of Turkey 1980?
C. The New Turkey Party A. Social democracy was on the rise.
D. The Democrat Party B. There was no political stability as the
E. The Republican Peasants’ People Party governments formed were mostly weak.
C. Political violence dominated the political life.
4 Which of the following was not among the D. Small parties gained political strength
characteristics of the political life from 1961 to disproportionally with their electoral support.
1971? E. The relation between the big parties of the
A. It was pluralist. left and the right was peaceful, and they were
continuously in a in search of cooperation for
B. The army emerged as a political actor.
solving the major problems of the country.
C. It was based on two-party politics.
D. The political spectrum widened..
E. Actors which arose besides the political parties
had. great impact on the course of events.
280
8
8 Which of the following was not among the 10 Which of the following was not among the
characteristics of the economic policy followed in measures taken by the military rule with the aim
the 1960s and 1970s? of creating a stable political regime?
A. It was based on export; production was for the A. concentrating the power in the hands of the
international market. executive
B. It aimed industrialization through import- B. encouraging political participation
Test Yourself
substitution. C. bringing universities under centralized control
C. Imports were restricted to raw materials D. restricting fundamental rights and liberties
required for industrial production. E. restricting the political activity of students,
D. At the center of the policy was central planning. teachers and civil servants
E. It was based on cooperation between domestic
and foreign companies.
9 Which of the following was not among the

causes of the military intervention of September
12, 1980?
A. the rise of Kurdish nationalism
B. political instability
C. the economic crisis
D. threats to the hierarchical order of the army by
the junior officers
E. regional developments marked by the Islamic
Revolution in Iran and by the occupation of
Afghanistan by the Soviet Union
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8
If your answer is wrong, check the section If your answer is wrong, check the sections
1. B 6. E
From the Military Intervention back to the Political Life from 1961 to 1980 and the
Civilian Politics, 1960-1961 Interregnum, 1971-1973
If your answer is wrong, check the sections From If your answer is wrong, check the sections
2. D 7. E
the Military Intervention back to the Civilian Political Life from 1961 to 1980, The 1973
Politics, 1960-1961 and the 1961 Constitution Elections, and Nationalist Front Governments
If your answer is wrong, check the section

3.A If your answer is wrong, check the section 8. A
Political Life from 1961 to 1980 Economic Developments in the 1960s and
1970s

4. C If your answer is wrong, check the section 9. D
Political Life from 1961 to 1980
1980 and Its Aftermath

5. C If your answer is wrong, check the section 10. B
Political Life from 1961 to 1980
1980 and Its Aftermath
What was the most notable obstacle before returning to

civilian politics after the military intervention of May 27, 1960?
It seemed that the junior officers in the army were discontent with the
developments heading toward the process of returning to civilian politics.
They were represented in the National Unity Committee by the ‘radicals’
who were in search of a fundamental change in the political structure of the
country. This would be realized under a military rule for an indefinite time.
They attempted to take control of the affairs after the military intervention
and waged a struggle for power with the ‘moderates’ who aimed to provide
the restoration of civilian politics immediately. The initiative passed on to
the ‘moderates’ in September 1960 as the ‘radicals’ were purged from the
your turn 1 National Unity Committee. Nevertheless, this did not come to mean the
complete loss of power by the junior officers. They formed new conspiratorial
groups in the army. In order to control them, the ‘Armed Forces’ Union’ was
founded by the senior officers. The control of the activities of the junior
officers made the return to civilian politics possible. However, there would be
two failed attempts of military intervention by the junior officers in 1962 and
in 1963, after the elections were held and a coalition government was formed.
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8
In what way, was the 1961 Constitution to prevent one-party

monopoly of power?

It attempted to prevent the monopoly of power by strengthening the checks
and balances system. This resulted in the establishment of new institutions.
The Senate, the Constitutional Court, and the National Security Council were
founded within this framework. A new electoral law based on proportional
your turn 2 representation was introduced. This made it difficult for a party to come into
power single-handedly. Granting full autonomy to the judiciary, universities,
and the press was to lessen the influence of the party in power on these
institutions. Finally, the acceptance of the freedom of thought, expression,
association, and publication aimed at a lively political life that was not to be
intervened by the government.
How would you describe th political life between 1961-1971?
It was pluralistic. The political spectrum widened in this decade. Several

political parties and associations with different worldviews were founded,
and they actively participated in politics. Trade unions also became part
of the political life. Politicization reached to the extent which had been
unprecedented in the history of modern Turkey. Students and workers
your turn 3 emerged as the new actors of political life. With the rights and freedoms
granted in the 1961 Constitution and because of the social and economic
developments in this decade, all actors were engaged in disseminating their
ideas. Toward the end of the decade, tension among the leftist and rightist
parties and organizations became more visible. Yet, this was far from leading
to a conflict among these groups at that time.
What was the solution of the memorandum regime to the

socio-political developments in the country?
The military memorandum regime defined the socio-political developments

in the late 1960s and and the anarchy in the early 1970s as the main source
of the political and economic instability. For this reason, the repression of,
especially, the leftist activity, considered to be the source of anarchy, was the
your turn 4
primary goal of the governments formed between 1971 and 1973. Similarly,
the 1961 Constitution was also considered as a source of the political trouble.
As a result, the rights and freedoms granted in the Constitution were limited
by the amendments enacted in these years.
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8
Why did the successive governments fail in ending the

political violence in the 1970s?
The governments in the 1970s were weak coalition governments. The

coalition governments between 1973 and 1980 were formed by the parties
which did not have a common agenda. Turkey was politically fragmented;
polarization between the leftists and rightists was at its peak. The two major
your turn 5 political parties of the time, the Republican People’s Party on the left and the
Justice Party on the right, did not come together to form a strong government
and cooperate to end the major problems of the country. As a result, small
parties such as the National Salvation Party and the Nationalist Action Party
gained much strength although they lacked strong electoral support.
What are the main characteristics of the economic policy in

the 1960s and 1970s?
It was based on planning. It aimed industrialization through import-

substitution and the protection of the domestic market. The State Planning
Organization, founded in September 1960, assumed responsibility for
economic planning. The main instruments of its policy were the imposition
of import restrictions and high tariffs, keeping the value of the Turkish Lira
your turn 6 artificially high, and the creation of a buoyant domestic market. A division of
labor emerged between the domestic and foreign companies in running this
policy. The foreign companies supplied expertise, licenses, components and
raw materials. The domestic companies supplied part of the capital and the
workforce; they also handled the distribution of the goods and established
the required contacts with the bureaucracy. The existence of strong foreign
reserves was the precondition for an effective implementation of this policy.
What were the characteristics of the political order that the

military regime founded after the military intervention on
September 12, 1980?
It was under military control. Fundamental rights and freedoms were limited.
The power concentrated in the hands of the executive. Political parties were
under strict surveillance. Freedom of speech, expression and organization
your turn 7 was restricted. There was limited freedom of the press. Organization in trade
unions or being a member of a political party was restricted. In short, it
was an order based on restrictions and prohibitions rather than rights and
freedoms.
284
8
References
Ahmad, F. (1977). The Turkish experiment in democracy Kirişçi, K. (2008). Migration and Turkey: The
1950-1975. London: C. Hurst & Company. dynamics of state, politics and society In R.
Kasaba (Ed.), The Cambridge history of Turkey, Vol.
Ahmad, F. (2003). Turkey: The quest for identity.
IV: Turkey in the modern world (pp. 175-198).
Oxford: One World Publications.
Ahmad, F. (2008). Politics and political parties in
Pamuk, Ş. (2008). Economic change in twentieth
Republican Turkey. In R. Kasaba (Ed.), The
century Turkey-is the glass more than half full? In
Cambridge history of Turkey, Vol. IV: Turkey in
R. Kasaba (Ed.), The Cambridge history of Turkey,
the modern world (pp. 226-265). Cambridge:
Vol. IV: Turkey in the modern world (pp. 266-300).
Cambridge University Press.
Boratav, K.(2016).Türkiye iktisat tarihi (22nd Ed.).
Pamuk, Ş. (2014). Türkiye’nin 200 yıllık iktisadi tarihi.
Ankara: İmge Yayınevi.
İstanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları.
Eroğul, C. (1987). The establishment of multiparty
Zürcher, E. J. (1993). Turkey a modern history.
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Hershlag, Z. Y. (1968). Turkey: The challenge of growth,
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Çıkmış Sınav AÖF TRT okul ve Deneme Duyurular

Soruları Sınavları konu anlatım C

Sınav Etkileşimli Tartışma

Prof.Dr. Zülal BALPINAR

CHAPTER 1,5,6 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Birten ÇELİK

Textbooks Production Coordinator

Graphic and Cover Design

This publication is designed and produced

Printed at ANADOLU UNIVERSITY PRESS

Eskişehir, Republic of Turkey, March 2019

After completing this chapter, you will be able to:

explain the historical background of the

INTRODUCTION the republican regime, the Caliphate was abolished

THE PEACE TREATY The Lausanne peace talks initially started on

Figure 1.1 Turkish Delegation in Lausanne

The First Phase of the Lausanne attention

The Lausanne Peace Treaty was ratified by the

the national sovereignty and prevent any danger to attention

of Atatürk, with a reference to Mustafa Kemal

attention day to the Assembly. This proposal was first accepted

All these were radical changes in Turkey

Additionally, the pro-Sultan and pro-Caliphate attention

Identify the importance of the

Comprehend the features and the

A constitution represents the basic principles and laws of a state.

the TGNA. This constitution was accepted at a time when

Explain the historical background of the Republican

The Ottoman Sultanate represented by the House of Osman was

List the multi-party experiences

A. the opening of the TGNA 7 To confront the conservative opposition

B. the Sheikh Sait Rebellion. C. Enver Paşa’s travel to Bukhara

If your answer is wrong, please review section

Answer Key for “Test Yourself”

Suggested answers for “Your turn”

What were the main differences between the 1921 and

What might be the importance of the republican regime

What were the main similarities and differences between the

Suggested answers for “Your turn”

Chapter Outline Key Terms

INTRODUCTION as the new economic policy in the Congress of

if that state did not nurture imperialistic ambitions

by encouraging and supporting private enterprise

Tithe was replaced by a land-income tax, which lessened

Regarding the development of transportation

THE GREAT DEPRESSION AND

Figure 2.5 Central Bank of Turkey established in 1930

could undermine the very foundation of the

era. It directly or indirectly followed the support

The journal was published for two years, from

• participating in or supporting financially • giving credit to industrial establishments

1. mining, Imports also decreased considerably. This effected

economic aids to the countries that were under the

Figure 2.9 The New York Times newspaper

Demonstrate the importance of economic

Describe the economic legacy inherited from the Ottoman

Explain the circumstances in which

Describe the general characteristics

Explain the economic developments