Unit-2

Machine-to-Machine Communications 1
Difference between IoT and M2M 4
Interoperability in IoT 8
Types of interoperability 8
HandlingApproaches
Interoperability as per NPTEL(syllabus) 18
Introduction to Arduino Programming 27
Aurdino Board 29
Built in Functions 33
Program for Blinking LED 45
Traffic system 47
Integration of Sensors and Actuators with Arduino
Sensors with Aurdino 50
Actuators with Aurdino 53

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 UNIT-2
Machine to Machine :
This is commonly known as Machine to machine communication. It is a concept
where two or more than two machines communicate with each other without
human interaction using a wired or wireless mechanism. M2M is an technology
that helps the devices to connect between devices without using internet.

Internet of Things :
IOT is known as the Internet of Things where things are said to
be the communicating devices that can interact with each other using a
communication media. Usually every day some new devices are being
integrated which uses IoT devices for its function. These devices use various
sensors and actuators for sending and receiving data over the internet. It is an
ecosystem where the devices share data through a communication media
known as the internet.

Machine-to-Machine (M2M)
• Machine-to-Machine (M2M) refers to networking of machines (or devices) for
the purpose of remote monitoring and control and data exchange.

M2M System architecture

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Machine-to-Machine (M2M)
• An M2M area network comprises of machines (or M2M nodes) which have
embedded hardware modules for sensing, actuation and communication.
• Various communication protocols can be used for M2M local area
networks such as ZigBee, Bluetooh, ModBus, M-Bus, Wirless M-Bus, Power
Line Communication (PLC), 6LoWPAN, IEEE 802.15.4, etc.
• The communication network provides connectivity to remote M2M area
networks.
• The communication network can use either wired or wireless networks
(IPbased).
• M2M area networks use either proprietary or non-IP based
communication protocols, the communication network uses IP-based networks
M2M gateway
• Since non-IP based protocols are used within M2M area networks, the
M2M nodes within one network cannot communicate with nodes in an
external network.
• To enable the communication between remote M2M area networks,
M2M gateways are used.

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN IOT AND M2M

Communication Protocols
M2M and IoT can differ in how the communication between the
machines or devices happens. M2M uses either proprietary or non-IP based
communication protocols for communication within the M2M area networks.
Commonly uses m2m protocols include Zigbee, bluetooth, Modbus, M-Bus,
wireless M-bus, Power line communication, 6lowpan, IEEE 802.15.4, Z-
wave etc. The focus of communication in M2M is usually on the protocols below
the network layer. The focus of communication in IoT is usually on the protocols
above above the network layer such as HTTP, COAP, Websockets, MQTT,
XMPP, DDS, AMQP etc.

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Machines in M2M vs things in IoT

The things in IoT refers to physical objects that have unique identifiers
and can sense and communicate with their external environment (and user
applications) or their internal physical States. The unique identifier for the things in
IoT are the IP addresses (or Mac addresses). Things have software components for
accessing, processing and storing sensor information, or controlling actuators
connected. IoT systems can have heterogeneous thing ( e.g., home automation IoT
system can include IoT system can include IoT devices of various types such as
fire alarms, door alarms, lighting control devices etc) M2M systems, in contrast
to IoT, typically have have homogeneous machine type within a and M2M
area network.

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Hardware vs Software Emphasis

While the emphasis of M2M is more on hardware with embedded modules, the
emphasis of IoT is more on software. IoT devices run specialized software for
sensor data collection, data analysis and interfacing with the cloud through IP
based communication.

Data Collection and Analysis

M2M data is collected in point Solutions and often in on-premises
storage infrastructure. In context to M2M, the data in IoT is collected in the cloud
(can be public, private or hybrid cloud). The various IoT Levels, and IoT
components deployed in the cloud. The analytics component analyzes the data and
stores the results in the cloud database. The IoT data and analysis results are
visualized with the cloud based applications. The centralized controller is aware of
the status of all the end nodes and sends control commands to the nodes. Observer
nodes can process information and use it for various applications, however,
observer nodes do not perform any control functions.
Applications
M2M data is collected in point Solutions and can be accessed by on-
premises application such as diagnosis applications, service management

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applications and on-premises enterprise applications. But We collect IoT Data in
the cloud and can be accessed by cloud applications such as analytics applications,
enterprise applications, remote diagnosis and management applications etc. Since
the scale of data collected in IoT is so massive, cloud based real time and batch
data analysis frameworks are used for data analysis. Communication in IoT is IP
based networks. Communication within M2M area network is based on protocols
below the network layer whereas IoT is based on protocols above the network
layer.

Difference between IoT and M2M : (in table format)

Basis of IoT M2M

Abbreviation Internet of Things Machine to Machine

Devices have objects that are Some degree of intelligence

Intelligence responsible for decision making is observed in this

The connection is via Network

Connection type and using various The connection is a point to
used communication types. point

Traditional protocols and

Communication Internet protocols are used such communication technology
protocol used as HTTP, FTP, and Telnet. techniques are used

Data is shared between other

applications that are used to Data is shared with only the
Data Sharing improve the end-user experience. communicating parties.

Internet connection is required Devices are not dependent

Internet for communication on the Internet.

A large number of devices yet

Scope scope is large. Limited Scope for devices.

Business Type Business 2 Business(B2B) and

used Business 2 Consumer(B2C) Business 2 Business (B2B)

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 Basis of IoT M2M

There is no support for

Open API support Supports Open API integrations. Open Api’s

Smart wearables, Big Data and Sensors, Data and

Examples Cloud, etc. Information, etc.

INTEROPERABILITY IN IOT
Interoperability is defined by IEEE as “the ability of two or more systems or
components to exchange information and to use the information that has been
exchanged.
In IoT interoperability can be defined as the ability of two systems
to communicate and share services with each other
The interoperability issues in IoT can be seen from different perspectives
due to heterogeneity. Heterogeneity is not a new concept nor restricted to a
domain. Even in the physical world there are many types of heterogeneities for
example, people speak dissimilar languages, but they can still communicate with
each other through a translator (human/tools) or by using a common language.
similarly the diverse elements comprising IoT (devices, communication, services,
applications, etc.) should seamlessly cooperate and communicate with each other
to realize the full potential of IoT ecosystem. As shown in figure, IoT
interoperability can be seen from different perspectives such as
device interoperability
networking interoperability
syntactic interoperability
semantic interoperability and
platform interoperability.

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Device interoperability
IoT is composed of a variety of devices which are called “smart
objects/things”, which may consist of high-end devices or low-end devices.
The high-end IoT devices have enough resources and computational capabilities
such as Raspberry Pi and smartphones. On the other hand, the low-end IoT
devices are resource-constrained in terms of energy, processing power and
communication capabilities , tiny and low-cost sensors, and actuators, Arduino.

various communication protocols have emerged due to the different

requirements of IoT markets. For example, IoT devices such as Smart TV, printers,
air conditioners support traditional Wi-Fi technologies and 3G/4G cellular
communications, IoT medical devices are based on ANT+ standard; other
wearable devices mostly support Bluetooth SMART and NFC, while the
environmental sensors use ZigBee-based on IEEE 802.15.4 standard.
Device interoperability refers to enabling the integration and
interoperability of such heterogenous devices with various communication
protocols and standards.
Device interoperability is concerned with
(i) the exchange of information between heterogeneous devices and
heterogenous communication protocols and
(ii) (ii) the ability to integrate new devices into any IoT platform.

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Network interoperability

Network level interoperability deals with mechanisms to enable seamless

message exchange between systems through different networks (networks of
networks) for end-to-end communication. To make systems interoperable, i.e
each system should be able to exchange messages with other systems through
various types of networks. Due to the dynamic and heterogenous network
environment in IoT, the network interoperability level should handle issues such
as addressing, routing, resource optimization, security, QoS, and mobility support
Syntactical interoperability
Syntactic interoperability refers to interoperation of the format as well as the
data structure used in any exchanged information or service between
heterogeneous IoT system entities.

The content of the messages need to be serialized to be sent over the

channel and the format to do so (such as XML or JSON). The message sender
encodes data in a message using syntactic rules, specified in some grammar. The
message receiver decodes the received message using syntactic rules defined in
the same or some other grammar. Syntactic interoperability problems arise when
the sender’s encoding rules are incompatible with the receiver’s decoding rules,
which leads to mismatching message parse trees.

semantic interoperability

semantic interoperability is defined as “enabling different agents,

services, and applications to exchange information, data and knowledge in a
meaningful way, on and off the Web”. The WoT addresses the current
fragmentation by exposing things and systems data and metadata through API.
But, such efforts have been hampered because the corresponding parties need to
share knowledge of an API [27] and many devices do not speak the same
language and cannot exchange across different gateways and smart hub.

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 For ex: the data generated by things about the environment may have a
defined data format (e.g. JSON, XML or CSV), but the data models and schemas
used by different sources are usually dissimilar and not always compatible.

This semantic incompatibility between data models and information models

results in IoT systems not being able to dynamically and automatically inter-
operate as they have different descriptions or understandings of resources and
operational procedures, even if IoT systems expose their data and resources to
others.

Platform interoperability
Platform interoperability issues in IoT arises due to the availability of diverse
operating systems (OSs), programming languages, data structures, architectures
and access mechanisms for things and data.

Developers need to obtain extensive knowledge of the platform specific APIs and
information models of each different platform to be able to adapt their
applications from one platform to another.

A cross-platform IoT application can access different IoT

platforms and integrate data from various platforms. The cross-platform
interoperability between things and data in this scenario enables
interoperability across separate IoT platforms specific to one vertical domain
such as smart home, smart healthcare, smart garden, etc. After cross-platform
interoperability is enabled, cross-domain interoperability can be achieved in
which different platforms within heterogenous domains are federated to build
horizontal IoT applications. Fig.. shows the concept behind cross-domain
interoperability where different IoT platforms from different IoT domains (e.g.
health, home, transport, etc.) can be integrated to build new innovative
applications. For example, a smart home platform can provide domain-specific
enablers such as air temperature and the lighting conditions.

Fig. 2.

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Interoperability handling approaches in IoT
To improve the state of IoT interoperability, researchers have leveraged
numerous approaches and technologies which we refer to interoperability handling
approaches
1.Adapters/gateways
2.Virtual networks/ overlay-based solutions
3.Networking technologies
IP based approaches
Software-defined networking (SDN)
Network function virtualization
Fog computing
4.Service oriented architecture (SOA)
5.Open API
6.Semantic web technologies
7.Open standard

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Adapters/gateways
Gateways or adapters are the class of schemes which address
interoperability through the development of an intermediate tool sometimes
called mediators to improve interoperability between IoT devices.

The objective here to bridge between different specifications, data, standards,

and middleware’s etc. To perform a conversion between the protocol
of the sending device and the protocol of the receiving device, the
gateway can be expanded with the use of plug-ins.

For example, when IoT devices use dissimilar communication

technologies (i.e., Bluetooth and ZigBee) or when they use
dissimilar application layer protocols (i.e., XMPP and MQTT)
Gateways can be dedicated hardware, or the function can be embedded in the
firmware or software of an intelligent device such as a programmable logic
controller (PLC), human-human interface (HMI), or computer.

Virtual networks/ overlay-based solutions

Virtual networks or Overlay-based solutions have been proposed in as “Managed

Ecosystems of Networked Objects” (MENO), with the aim to integrate sensor and
actuators and other IP-smart objects seamlessly to the Internet for end-to-end
communication. The main idea behind MENO is to create a virtual network on top
of physical networks and thereby allow communication with other types of
devices, including sensor nodes. Within each virtual network, end-to-end
communication is possible using different protocols. Once end-to-end
communication is enabled, it becomes possible for application developers to write
new applications that utilize sensors, actuators, and other devices

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The advantage of this approach is enabling end-to-end communication between
devices, however the key issues are scalability and binding to specific protocols.

Networking technologies

Different networking protocols and technologies are used to provide networking

interoperability .
For ex : The conventional universal plugin (UPnp) and DLNA protocols are used for
communication between iot devices and different gateways.
The main technologies / solutions for interoperability at network levels are
IP BASED APPROACHES
SDN
NFV
FOG COMPUTING
IP-based approaches
The IP-based approaches embed the full TCP/IP stack on smart devices. By
embedding the TCP/IP stack as shown in Fig. the sensor and actuators are directly
connected to the IP network to allow end-to-end communication between sensor
network and IP network.
The key benefit of implementing the TCP/IP stack on sensor nodes is that gateways
and protocol translations are not required.

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 However, an all IP sensor network is not possible on sensor nodes
because of their resource-constraint property.
protocols at the network layer such as Routing Over Low Power and
Lossy Networks (ROLL) ,IPv6 over Low Power WPAN (6LoWPAN), Constrained
Application Protocol (CoAP) which is based on UDP, and Constrained Restful
Environment to solve the connectivity problem of resource-constrained devices. This
approach, still uses gateways to convert between standard protocols used in the
Internet and protocols used in the sensor network, e.g. IPv6 to 6LoWPAN.

Software-defined networking (SDN)

Software defined networking (SDN) is a new networking paradigm to make
the current wireless and mobile networks more “intelligent”, efficient, secure,
and scalable in order to handle the large amount of data produced in the IoT

One of the main idea of SDN , is to separate the control and data planes in
networking devices

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SDN is used to allow different objects from different networks to communicate
with each other using IPv6 and at the same time simplify the management and
control operations of various objects types by adding an additional IoT
controller over the SDN controller. Thus, even so the devices have different
protocols, the forwarding devices in the router convert it in a form
understandable by the receiver. This enables the communication of diverse
devices in the network.

Network function virtualization

NFV separates the physical network equipment’s (i.e., network address
translator, firewall) from the functions that run on them. This way, numerous
service providers can create several isolated virtual networks which could then
share the physical network equipment’s provided by the network
infrastructure providers.

NFV has the potential to reduce Operational Expenditure (OPEX) and Capital
Expenditure (CAPEX) costs by sharing the network infrastructure, dynamic
scaling, on-the-fly, and flexible network function deployment

Fog computing
The cloud has been used as a medium to address interoperability called the
Fog of Things where the computing, storage and networking services are
placed at the edge of the network rather than centralized cloud servers, i.e., as
close as possible to the end user devices.

Service oriented architecture (SOA)

To provide syntactic interoperability between heterogeneous devices
and across all systems, researchers have proposed Service Oriented
Architecture.

In the SOA of the IoT, the interaction with and operations of different wireless
devices are classified into different service components and the application
layer software can access resources exposed by devices as services. Exposing
each component’s functionalities as a standard service can significantly
increase the interoperability of both network and device.

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Semantic web technologies
.

The Semantic Web of Things (SWoT) paradigm is proposed for the

integration of the Semantic Web with the WoT, for realizing a common
understanding of the various entities which form the IoT.

Ontologies (or vocabularies) in IoT are a set of objects and

relationships used to define and represent an area of concern. They represent
an abstraction technology which aims to hide heterogeneity of IoT entities,
acting as a mediator between IoT application provider and consumers, and to
support their semantic matchmaking

Some popular approaches

Ontology
 Device ontology
 Physical domain ontology
 Estimation ontology

Collaborative conceptualization theory

 Object is defined based on the collaborative
concept, which is calledcosign
 The representation of a collaborative sign is defined as follows:
 cosign of a object = (A, B, C, D ), where A is a cosign
internal identifier, B isa natural language, C is the
context of A, and D is a definition of the object
 As an example of CCTV, cosign = (1234, English,
CCTV, “Camera Type: Bullet, Communication:
Network/IP, Horizontal Resolution: 2048 TVL”)
This solution approach is applicable for different
domains/contexts

Many ontologies have been proposed in the context of IoT such as W3C
Semantic Sensor Network (SSN) , IoT-Ontology, SAREF and OpenIoT.

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Open API
With the massive development of IoT platform providers a vast silo of diverse
APIs has been created that increases the difficulty of developing applications
as well as interoperability issues.
HyperCat is a specification which provides syntactic interoperability between
different APIs and services based on a Catalog that can be tagged with
metadata.

Moreover, the symbIoTe and Big-IoT European projects are working on a

generic interworking API to provide uniform access to resources of all existing
and future IoT platforms to address syntactic and cross-platform
interoperability.

Open standards

Open standards are one significant means to provide interoperability between

and within different domains

Current Challenges in IoT

Large Scale of Co-Operation:

The cooperation and coordination of millions of
distributed devices are required onInternet
Global Heterogeneity:
Heterogeneous IoT devices and their subnets
Unknown IoT Device Configuration:
The different configuration modes for IoT devices
which come from unknownowners
Semantic Conflicts:
Different processing logics applied to same IoT networked
devices or applications.

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What is Interoperability?

 Interoperability is a characteristic of a product or

system, whose interfaces are completely understood,
to work with other products or systems, present or
future, in either implementation or access, without any
restrictions.
 Communicate meaningfully
 Exchange data or services

Why Interoperability is Important in Context of IoT?

To fulfill the IoT objectives

Physical objects can interact with any other physical objects and can
share their information
Any device can communicate with other devices anytime from
anywhere
Machine to Machine communication(M2M), Device to Device
Communication (D2D), Device to Machine Communication (D2M)
Seamless device integration with IoT network

Why Interoperability is required?

Heterogeneity
1. Different wireless communication protocols such as ZigBee (IEEE
802.15.4), Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15.1), GPRS, 6LowPAN, and Wi-Fi
(IEEE802.11)
2. Different wired communication protocols like Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)
19
andHigher Layer LAN Protocols (IEEE 802.1)
3. Different programming languages used in computing systems and
websites such as JavaScript, JAVA, C, C++, Visual Basic, PHP, and
Python
4. Different hardware platforms such as Crossbow, NI, etc.
5. Different operating systems
As an example for sensor node: TinyOS, SOS, Mantis OS,
RETOS, andmostly vendor specific OS
As an example for personal computer: Windows, Mac, Unix, and Ubuntu
6. Different databases: DB2, MySQL, Oracle, PostgreSQL, SQLite, SQL
Server, and Sybase
7. Different data representations
8. Different control models
9. Syntactic or semantic interpretations

Different Types of Interoperability?

User Interoperability
 Interoperability problem between a user and a device
Device Interoperability
 Interoperability problem between two different devices

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 


User Interoperability

The following problems need to be solved

Device identification and categorization for discovery.

Syntactic interoperability for device interaction.

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Semantic interoperability for device interaction.

Device identific ation and categorization fordiscovery

There are different solutions for generating unique address
 Electronic Product Codes (EPC)
 Universal Product Code (UPC)
 Uniform Resource Identifier (URI)
 IP Addresses
 IPv6

There are different device classification solutions

 United Nations
Standard
Products and
Services Code
(UNSPSC) *
 an open, global, multi-sector standard for efficient,
accurate, flexibleclassification of products and
services.
 eCl@ss **
 The standard is for classification and clear description of
cross-industryproducts


Syntactic Interoperability for Device Interaction

The interoperability between devices and device user in termof message

formats
The message format from a device to a user is understandablefor the
user’s computer
On the other hand, the message format from the user to thedevice is

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executable by the device

Some popular approaches are

Service-oriented Computing (SOC)-based architecture
Web services
RESTful web services
Open standard protocols such as IEEE 802.15.4, IEEE 802.15.1, and
WirelessHART*
Closed protocols such as Z-Wave*

 Middleware technology
 Software middleware bridge
 Dynamically map physical devices with different domains
 Based on the map, the devices can be
discovered and controlled,remotely
 Cross-context syntactic interoperability
 Collaborative concept exchange
 Using XML syntax

The above methodologies can achieve :
1.The interoperability between devices and device user in termof
message’s meaning
2.The device can understand the meaning of user’s instructionthat is
sent from the user to the device.
3.Similarly, the user can understand the meaning of device’s
response sent from the device

Some popular approaches in Ontology are:

Device ontology
Physical domain ontology
Estimation ontology

 Collaborative conceptualization theory

23
  Object is defined based on the collaborative
concept, which is calledcosign
 The representation of a collaborative sign is defined as follows:
 cosign of a object = (A, B, C, D ), where A is a cosign
internal identifier, B isa natural language, C is the
context of A, and D is a definition of the object
 As an example of CCTV, cosign = (1234, English,
CCTV, “Camera Type: Bullet, Communication:
Network/IP, Horizontal Resolution: 2048 TVL”)
 This solution approach is applicable for different domains/contexts

Device Interoperability

Solution approach for device interoperability

 Universal Middleware Bridge (UMB)
 Solves seamless interoperability problems
caused by the heterogeneity of several
kinds of home network middleware
 UMB creates virtual maps among the physical devices
of all middleware home networks, such as HAVI, Jini,
LonWorks, and UPnP
 Creates a compatibility among these middleware home
networks

UMB consists

 UMB Core (UMB-C)

 UMB Adaptor (UMB-A)

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Fig 1: The Architecture of Universal Middleware Bridge

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26
 AURDINO

What is Arduino?
Arduino is an open-source electronics platform based on easy-to-use hardware
and software. Arduino boards are able to read inputs - light on a sensor, a finger
on a button, or a Twitter message - and turn it into an output - activating a motor,
turning on an LED, publishing something online. You can tell your board what to
do by sending a set of instructions to the microcontroller on the board. To do so
you use the Arduino programming language (based on Wiring), and the Arduino
Software (IDE), based on Processing.

Arduino has been used in thousands of different projects and

applications. The Arduino software is easy-to-use for beginners, yet flexible
enough for advanced users. It runs on Mac, Windows, and Linux.

for example

Designers and architects build interactive prototypes, musicians and artists use it
for installations and to experiment with new musical instruments. Makers, of
course, use it to build many of the projects exhibited at the Maker Faire,

Arduino simplifies the process of working with microcontrollers, but it offers

some advantage

 Inexpensive - Arduino boards are relatively inexpensive compared to

other microcontroller platforms. The least expensive version of the
Arduino module can be assembled by hand, and even the pre-assembled
Arduino modules cost less than $50
 Cross-platform - The Arduino Software (IDE) runs on Windows,
Macintosh OSX, and Linux operating systems. Most microcontroller
systems are limited to Windows.
 Simple, clear programming environment - The Arduino Software (IDE)
is easy-to-use for beginners, yet flexible enough for advanced users to take
advantage of as well. .
 Open source and extensible software - The Arduino software is
published as open source tools, available for extension by experienced
programmers. The language can be expanded through C++ libraries, and

27
 people wanting to understand the technical details can make the leap from
Arduino to the AVR C programming language on which it's based.
Similarly, you can add AVR-C code directly into your Arduino programs if
you want to.
 Open source and extensible hardware - The plans of the Arduino boards
are published under a Creative Commons license, so experienced circuit
designers can make their own version of the module, extending it and
improving it. Even relatively inexperienced users can build the breadboard
version of the module in order to understand how it works .

The Arduino employs an 8-bit ATmega series microcontroller whereas

the Raspberry Pi is based around a 32-bit ARM processor,

28
 AURDINO BOARD AND ITS COMPONENTS

Using the above image as a reference, the labeled components of the board
respectively are-

Power USB
Arduino board can be powered by using the USB cable from your computer. All you
need to do is connect the USB cable to the USB connection (1).

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Power (Barrel Jack)
Arduino boards can be powered directly from the AC mains power supply by
connecting it to the Barrel Jack (2).

Voltage Regulator
The function of the voltage regulator is to control the voltage given to the Arduino
board and stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other elements.

Crystal Oscillator
The crystal oscillator helps Arduino in dealing with time issues. How does Arduino
calculate time? The answer is, by using the crystal oscillator. The number printed
on top of the Arduino crystal is 16.000H9H. It tells us that the frequency is
16,000,000 Hertz or 16 MHz.

Arduino Reset
You can reset your Arduino board, i.e., start your program from the beginning. You
can reset the UNO board in two ways. First, by using the reset button (17) on the
board. Second, you can connect an external reset button to the Arduino pin labelled
RESET (5).

Pins (3.3, 5, GND, Vin)

 3.3V (6) − Supply 3.3 output volt
 5V (7) − Supply 5 output volt
 Most of the components used with Arduino board works fine with 3.3 volt and 5 volt.
 GND (8)(Ground) − There are several GND pins on the Arduino, any of which can
be used to ground your circuit.
 Vin (9) − This pin also can be used to power the Arduino board from an external
power source, like AC mains power supply.

Analog pins
The Arduino UNO board has six analog input pins A0 through A5. These pins can
read the signal from an analog sensor like the humidity sensor or temperature
sensor and convert it into a digital value that can be read by the microprocessor.

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Main microcontroller
Each Arduino board has its own microcontroller (11). You can assume it as the
brain of your board. The main IC (integrated circuit) on the Arduino is slightly
different from board to board. The microcontrollers are usually of the ATMEL
Company. You must know what IC your board has before loading up a new
program from the Arduino IDE. This information is available on the top of the IC.
For more details about the IC construction and functions, you can refer to the data
sheet.

ICSP pin
Mostly, ICSP (12) is an AVR, a tiny programming header for the Arduino consisting
of MOSI, MISO, SCK, RESET, VCC, and GND. It is often referred to as an SPI
(Serial Peripheral Interface), which could be considered as an "expansion" of the
output. Actually, you are slaving the output device to the master of the SPI bus.

Power LED indicator

This LED should light up when you plug your Arduino into a power source to
indicate that your board is powered up correctly. If this light does not turn on, then
there is something wrong with the connection.

TX and RX LEDs
On your board, you will find two labels: TX (transmit) and RX (receive). They appear
in two places on the Arduino UNO board. First, at the digital pins 0 and 1, to indicate
the pins responsible for serial communication. Second, the TX and RX led (13).
The TX led flashes with different speed while sending the serial data. The speed of
flashing depends on the baud rate used by the board. RX flashes during the
receiving process.

Digital I/O
The Arduino UNO board has 14 digital I/O pins (15) (of which 6 provide PWM (Pulse
Width Modulation) output. These pins can be configured to work as input digital
pins to read logic values (0 or 1) or as digital output pins to drive different modules
like LEDs, relays, etc. The pins labeled “~” can be used to generate PWM.

AREF

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 AREF stands for Analog Reference. It is sometimes, used to set an external
reference voltage (between 0 and 5 Volts) as the upper limit for the analog input
pins.

Programming with the Arduino IDE

The Arduino Integrated Development Environment -

or Arduino Software (IDE) - contains a text editor for writing code, a message area, a
text console, a toolbar with buttons for common functions and a series of menus. It
connects to the Arduino and Genuino hardware to upload programs and communicate
with them.
Arduino IDE is an open source software that is used to program the Arduino
controller board It can be downloaded from Arduino’s official website and
installed into PC .

Set Up
1. Power the board by connecting it to a PC via USB cable

2. Launch the Arduino IDE

3. Set the board type and the port for the board

4. TOOLS -> BOARD -> select your board

5. TOOLS -> PORT -> select your port

Programs written using Arduino Software (IDE) are

called sketches.
1. These sketches are written in the text editor and are saved with the
file extension. ino
2. The editor has features for cutting/pasting and for searching/replacing
text.
3.The message area gives feedback while saving and exporting and also
displays errors.

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4.The console displays text output by the Arduino Software (IDE), including
complete error messages and other information.
5.The bottom righthand corner of the window displays the configured board
and serial port.
6.The toolbar buttons allow you to verify and upload programs, create, open,
and save sketches, and open the serial monitor.

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The Arduino Programming Language and
Built-in Functions
Program lifecycle/structure of aurdino program
Structure
Arduino programs can be divided in three main parts: Structure, Values (variables and
constants), and Functions. In this tutorial, we will learn about the Arduino software
program, step by step, and how we can write the program without any syntax or
compilation error.
Let us start with the Structure. Software structure consist of two main functions −

 Setup( ) function
 Loop( ) function

Void setup ( ) {

}
 PURPOSE − The setup() function is called when a sketch starts. Use it to initialize
the variables, pin modes, start using libraries, etc. The setup function will only run
once, after each power up or reset of the Arduino board.
 INPUT − -
 OUTPUT − -
 RETURN − -

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 Void Loop ( ) {

}
 PURPOSE − After creating a setup() function, which initializes and sets the initial
values, the loop() function does precisely what its name suggests, and loops
consecutively, allowing your program to change and respond. Use it to actively
control the Arduino board.
 INPUT − -
 OUTPUT − -
 RETURN − -

 setup() this function is called once, when the program starts, and
when the Arduino is shut down and restarted.
 loop() this function is repeatedly called while the Arduino program
is running.

Handling I/O
The following functions help with handling input and output from
your Arduino device.

1.Digital I/O

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 pinMode() sets a pin to be an input, or an output. You pass the
pin number and the INPUT or OUTPUT value as parameters.

 digitalRead() reads the value from a digital pin. Accepts a pin

number as a parameter, and returns the HIGH or LOW constant.
 digitalWrite() writes a HIGH or LOW value to a digital output pin.
You pass the pin number and HIGH or LOW as parameters.

 pulseIn() reads a digital pulse from LOW to HIGH and then

to LOW again, or from HIGH to LOW and to HIGH again on a pin. The
program will block until the pulse is detected. You specify the pin
number and the kind of pulse you want to detect (LHL or HLH). You
can specify an optional timeout to stop waiting for that pulse.
 pulseInLong() is same as pulseIn(), except it is implemented
differently and it can’t be used if interrupts are turned off. Interrupts
are commonly turned off to get a more accurate result.
 shiftIn() reads a byte of data one bit at a time from a pin.
 shiftOut() writes a byte of data one bit at a time to a pin.
 tone() sends a square wave on a pin, used for buzzers/speakers to
play tones. You can specify the pin, and the frequency. It works on
both digital and analog pins.

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 noTone() stops the tone() generated wave on a pin.

2.Analog I/O
 analogRead() reads the value from an analog pin.
 analogReference() configures the value used for the top input
range in the analog input, by default 5V in 5V boards and 3.3V in 3.3V
boards.
 analogWrite() writes an analog value to a pin
 analogReadResolution() lets you change the default analog bits
resolution for analogRead(), by default 10 bits. Only works on
specific devices (Arduino Due, Zero and MKR)
 analogWriteResolution() lets you change the default analog
bits resolution for analogWrite(), by default 10 bits. Only works on
specific devices (Arduino Due, Zero and MKR)

Time functions
 delay() pauses the program for a number of milliseconds specified
as parameter
 Delay() function is one of the most common
time manipulation function usedto provide a
delay of specified time. It accepts integer value
(time in miliseconds)


 delayMicroseconds() pauses the program for a number of

microseconds specified as parameter
 micros() the number of microseconds since the start of the
program. Resets after ~70 minutes due to overflow

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 millis() the number of milliseconds since the start of the program.
Resets after ~50 days due to overflow

Math functions
 abs() the absolute value of a number
 constrain() constrains a number to be within a range, see usage
 map() re-maps a number from one range to another, see usage
 max() the maximum of two numbers
 min() the minimum of two numbers
 pow() the value of a number raised to a power
 sq() the square of a number
 sqrt() the square root of a number
 cos() the cosine of an angle
 sin() the sine of an angle
 tan() the tangent of an angle
Note: there are more built-in mathematical functions if you need
them, documented here.

Working with alphanumeric characters

 isAlpha() checks if a char is alpha (a letter)
 isAlphaNumeric() checks if a char is alphanumeric (a letter or
number)
 isAscii() checks if a char is an ASCII character
 isControl() checks if a char is a control character
 isDigit() checks if a char is a number
 isGraph() checks if a char is a printable ASCII character, and
contains content (it is not a space, for example)

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 isHexadecimalDigit() checks if a char is an hexadecimal digit (A-
F 0-9)
 isLowerCase() checks if a char is a letter in lower case
 isPrintable() checks if a char is a printable ASCII character
 isPunct() checks if a char is a punctuation (a comma, a semicolon,
an exclamation mark etc)
 isSpace() checks if a char is a space, form feed \f, newline \n,
carriage return \r, horizontal tab \t, or vertical tab \v.
 isUpperCase() checks if a char is a letter in upper case
 isWhitespace() checks if a char is a space character or an
horizontal tab \t

Data types :
Data types refers to an extensive system used for declaring
variables or functions of different types. The type of a variable determines how much space it
occupies in the storage and how the bit pattern stored is interpreted.

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Operators : An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific
mathematical or logical functions

Control statement :

Decision making structures require that the programmer specify

one or more conditions to be evaluated or tested by the program. It should
be along with a statement or statements to be executed if the condition is
determined to be true, and optionally, other statements to be executed if
the condition is determined to be false.

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LOOP

A loop statement allows us to execute a statement or group of

statements multiple times and following is the general form of a loop
statement in most of the programming languages –

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42
Random numbers generation
To generate random numbers, you can use Arduino random number functions. We have
two functions −

 randomSeed(seed)
 random()

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 Working with bits and bytes
 bit() computes the value of a bit (0 = 1, 1 = 2, 2 = 4, 3 = 8…)
 bitClear() clear (sets to 0) a bit of a numeric variable. Accepts a
number, and the number of the bit starting from the right
 bitRead() read a bit of a number. Accepts a number, and the
number of the bit starting from the right
 bitSet() sets to 1 a bit of a number. Accepts a number, and the
number of the bit starting from the right
 bitWrite() write 1 or 0 to a specific bit of a number Accepts a
number, the number of the bit starting from the right, and the value to
write (0 or 1)
 highByte() get the high-order (leftmost) byte of a word variable
(which has 2 bytes)
 lowByte() get the low-order (rightmost) byte of a word variable
(which has 2 bytes)

Interrupts
Interrupts stop the current work of Arduino such that some other work can be done.

 noInterrupts() disables interrupts

 interrupts() re-enables interrupts after they’ve been disabled
 attachInterrupt() allow a digital input pin to be an interrupt. Different boards have
different allowed pins, check the official docs.
 detachInterrupt() disables an interrupt enabled using attachInterrupt()

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 PROGRAMS WITH AURDINO

1.

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46
2

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48
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 INTEGRATING SENSORS AND ACTUATORS WITH
AURDINO
Sensors

 Basic electronic Device

 Convert a physical quantity/ measurements into electrical signals
 Can be analog or digital
Types of Sensors

Some commonly used sensors :

 Temperature
 Humidity
 Compass
 Light
 Sound
 Accelerometer
Sensor Interface with Arduino

Digital Humidity and Temperature Sensor (DHT)

PIN 1,2,3,4 (from left to right)

 PIN 1-3.3V-5V Power supply

 PIN 2- Data
 PIN 3-Null
 PIN 4- Ground

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DHT Sensor Library

 Arduino supports a special library for the DHT11 and DHT22 sensors
 Provides function to read the temperature and humidity values from
the data pin
dht.readHumidity()
dht.readTemperature()
Connection

 Connect pin 1 of the DHT to the 3.3 V supply pin in the board
 Data pin (pin 2) can be connected to any digital pin, here 12
 Connect pin 4 to the ground (GND) pin of the board

Sketch: DHT_Sensor

Install the DHT Sensor Library

 Go to sketch -> Include Library -> Manage Library

 Search for DHT Sensor

 Select the "DHT sensor library" and install it

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  Connect the board to the PC
 Set the port and board type
 Verify and upload the cod
OutPut

The readings are printed at a delay of 2 seconds as specified by the delay() function

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Acutators
Types of Motor acutators
1.Servo Motor
2.Stepper Motor
3.Hydraulic Motor
4.Ac motor and so on

Servo Motor :
Servo Motor is a high Precision motor which provides rotary
motion 0 to 180 degree
The 3 wires in the servo motor are
Black or the darkest one is ground Red is power supply and Yellow is for signal pin
Servo Library on Aurdino
Aurdino provides separate library SERVO to operate the servo motor .
Create an instnace of servo to use it in the sketch .
Syntax : Servo myservo

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Here ServoDemo is the instance of Servo.
Write() takes the degree value and rotates the motor accordingly.
Output :
The motor turns 0, 90 and 180 degrees with a delay of 1 second each.

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