MUFULIRA COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

SECONDARY TEACHERS DIPLOMA BY

DISTANCE LEARNING

HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF

EDUCATION

MODULE 1 (2011)
THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN ZAMBIA FROM
THE BSA COMPANY RULE TO INDEPENDENCE AND
BEYOND

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All rights reserved. No part of this module may be reproduced, stored in retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means electronic or mechanical including photocopying,
recording or otherwise without permission from Mufulira College of Education.

Mufulira College of Education,

P.O BOX 40400,
Mufulira.
Zambia
E-mail: [email protected] and
[email protected]
Website: http://sites.google.com/site/muce2009

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Mufulira College of Education, Education Department: History and Philosophy of Education
section wishes to thank the people below for their contribution to this module.

Writers
Chishimba Nkalamo
B.C. Haamoonga- Kaleyo
Siwakwi Muma P

Instructional Designers
Dr. Chifwepa V. (UNZA)
Mr. Nkosha D.C (UNZA)
Mr. Mwewa G. (UNZA)
Mrs. Kasase, S. (MOE, HQ)
Mr. Mtonga C (MOE, HQ)
Mrs Nyangu W.B (MOE, HQ)
Mrs. Kunda, C.B. (MOE- Ndola)

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TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

Copyright ……………………………………………………………… 1

Acknowledgements……………………………………………………. 2

About this module (module overview)………………………………… 4

Time frame and study skills…………………………………………… 6

Assignments …………………………………………………………… 7

Unit 1. Greek education and the evolution of education in Zambia …...8

Unit 2. Missionary and colonial education in Northern Rhodesia……..25

Unit 3. Education at independence and beyond…………………………44

References………………………………………………………………….51

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COURSE OVERVIEW

History and philosophy of education, is one of the four compulsory courses under the Education
Department. Being a teacher training institution, Mufulira College of Education attaches great
importance to courses that directly attempt to build a particular teacher who develops to an
extent that he or she is able to competently articulate issues of education. The course among
other things looks at the history of education in Zambia, in terms of positives as well as negative
aspects of the education system and how possibly they could be dealt with to guarantee
successful education provision in Zambia. History and philosophy of education also focus on a
number of philosophies and their proponents which to some extent have contributed to the
various education systems in the world and Zambia as a nation.

AIM OF THE COURSE

To avail student teachers with historical knowledge and philosophical skills of reflecting;
analyzing criticizing and logical argument so as to make them competent enough to deal with
secondary school level teaching.

About this module

Module overview

Welcome to History and Philosophy of Education Module 1. This is the first module in the
secondary teachers‟ diploma course that you have begun. By the end of the course you are
expected to cover six modules. This module introduces you to what this course is all about. It
also takes you through the development of education in Zambia from pre colonial period all the
way to the time of this country‟s independence and moves you a little beyond that period.

This module is very important to you because in order for you to understand the social ,political
and economic context within which the development of education occurred in Zambia, you need
to have a bit of knowledge of the history of that period. This module will guide you in achieving
this.

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The three main periods of the formation of modern education in Zambia are:

 Pre colonial period: In this module in talking about this period you will see that we have
written something about education in Zambia before the coming of missionaries the
architects of western education. This is important because we want you to know that
education existed in Africa even before the coming of white colonial masters. We have also
explained missionary education during the BSA company rule up to 1924.

 Colonial rule: This period starts with the transfer of power from the BSA Company to the
colonialists up to Zambian independence in 1964. Our emphasis is how education evolved
during this period.

 Post-colonial rule: This is the last unit in this module. It touches on challenges that the new
Zambian government faced at independence. It also explains the reform movements in
education in that period.

 The module also introduces you to western education before it was brought to Zambia.

After completing this module, we would appreciate if you would take a few moments to give us
your feedback on any aspect of this module. Your feedback might include comments on

 Module content and structure

 Subject reading materials and resources

 Module assignments

 Assessments

 Module duration

Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this module.

Module content.

As you can see, this module is broken down into units. Each unit comprises the following

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  An introduction to the unit content

 Unit outcomes

 Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities

 A unit summary

 assessments

Module Objectives:

 Define basic concepts in and types of education

 Describe the aims, structure and organization of Traditional African/Zambian
Education.
 Trace the contribution of Greek and Roman philosophers to rise and development of
Western education.
 Discuss critically the aims, structure and organization of missionary education in
Zambia.
 Discuss education during the colonial period
 Explain the history of education in post-independence Zambia in terms of aims,
policies, reforms, successes and failures.

TIME FRAME
For you to complete the first year of your study, you need to cover module 1 and 2. You are
therefore expected to spend about three months to complete studying all units in this module.

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This means that you need to spend considerable time on each unit. You can manage to cover the
whole module if you spend an average time of one hour in a day studying it.

STUDY SKILLS
You may need more hours to read through other suggested readings and websites. Timetabling
yourself may help you to work through this module easily. Here are some learning tips you can
use to work through this module:

 Schedule your timetable and stick to it. Select days and times in a week when you can
study.

 Make sure that you have all necessary materials.

 Studying requires little or no disturbance. Try to find a quiet place in your house or
somewhere where you cannot be disturbed.

 Identify students doing the same course in your area. You may arrange study times with
them whenever possible.

 Family and other social related challenges may make you fail to write or complete
assignments. These are realities of life. They should not make you abandon the course.
Should you find yourself in this situation, please inform your lecturers through the office
of distance education.

ASSIGNMENT

This is the first assignment. You are expected to answer the following question and bring the
completed assignment with you in December 2011.

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Discuss indigenous Zambian education. What merits and demerits did this kind of
education have?

This assignment should be answered in an essay form. It should be six pages long including the
references. Should you have any question on how to answer this question do not hesitate to
contact us on the email address given in this module

In case you need help please do not hesitate to the lectures through the college web
site .

UNIT 1: GREEK EDUCATION AND THE EVOLUTION OF EDUCATION IN ZAMBIA

Introduction to the unit:

This unit focuses on education in general and issues related to it In particular it discusses
indigenous African education in terms of its characteristics, strengths and weaknesses. At the
same time, it introduces the Greek and Roman educationists whose ideas have today played a
major role in most education systems in existence.

EDUCATION DEFINED.

The term „education‟ as outlined by Taneja (1990) originates from two Latin words „educare‟
which means „bring up‟ and „educere‟, meaning „bring forth‟. In essence, the term suggests
maintenance and transmission of life through endowing one with intelligence, industriousness
and ensuring progress. Education, therefore-

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 “Leads to individual creativity, improved participation in the social, economic, cultural
and political life of society, and hence to a more effective contribution to human
development”, (Kelly, 1999:03),

As such, from one generation to another, knowledge thought to have the potential to lead one
into life that is worthwhile, is handed over to the young and inexperienced; either formally as in
a classroom situation or informally as in a home set up.

Cole, (1997:271) defines education as “any long-term learning activity aimed at preparing
individuals for a variety of roles in society: as citizens, workers and members of family groups”.
This definition focuses on producing disciplined and responsible people capable of maximizing
their talents and gifts that will guarantee sustainable economic activities as well as having respect
for law and order. It is a life-long process where one‟s daily experiences build on one‟s
knowledge, skills, values and attributes throughout their life.

That aside, as long ago as 1961, the American Encyclopedia (p.592), defined education in its
broadest sense, “… any process by which an individual gains knowledge or insight, or develop
attitude or skills, formally or informally”. This definition still has relevance today. Observation
and imitation whether done formally or informally, facilitates learning through acquisition of
particular skills and attitudes desired by respective societies.

Education, whatever the nature of society, community, generation or situation, entails

transmission of knowledge, values and attitudes worth upholding. It guides individuals towards
the attainment of a desirable cultural heritage, skills and knowledge key for development.
Ideally, one is prepared to successfully and creatively respond and cope with their immediate
environment at present as well as in future. As proposed by Cavalli-Sforza (1981) in Curzon
(1997), culturally, education focuses on promoting and sustaining beliefs, moral standards,
accumulated knowledge and skills capable of nurturing human personality, facilitating human
capital investment and human growth. In other words, education as suggested by Farrant (1980),
basically operates at three levels: personal development for intellectual and spiritual growth,

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vocational preparation for practical and character qualities and social training in which the young
are groomed

Teaching and Learning

The issues of teaching and learning are intrinsic to the successful discussion of education and
curriculum. Unless they are clearly understood, it would be difficult to assess and analyze their
role in the lives of the learners, especially in this context where the impact on the lives of school
leavers is being investigated.

Learning, though defined in various ways, basically entails transformation of an individual due
to exposure to particular situations that provide one with new knowledge, skills and experiences.
It is generally associated with acquisition of knowledge, skills and experiences where an
individual is somewhat transformed in terms of behaviour, thinking, action or feeling.
Circumstances leading to learning will differ from one environment to another, but normally one
would not miss the transformation in that particular person who is assumed to have learnt.
Hilgard and Bower (1975:17), define learning as,

“the change in a subject‟s behaviour to a given situation brought about

by his repeated experiences in that situation, provided that the
behaviour change cannot be explained on the basis of native response
tendencies, maturation, or temporary state of the subject….may be
shown in either the way a person thinks(cognitive), acts (psychomotor),
or feels (affective).”

According to Hilgard and Bower, learning, more than anything else entails acquired knowledge
from a particular source whose impact is visibly seen from the way one display themselves.

According to Louw and Edwards (1998), learning simply means a relatively permanent change
in behaviour or knowledge as a result of being exposed to a particular kind of experience. It
would mean therefore, that learning ideally suggests some form of experience one is availed of in

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order to guarantee attainment of the a particular set of knowledge or skills which make someone
different from what they were originally.

The role of a teacher is essential in ensuring that the acquisition of knowledge, attitudes and
skills takes place. A teacher, as argued by Calder head and Shamrock (1977:4) “is an expert in
their subject, facilitator of learning, motivator and source of inspiration and upholder of moral
standards”. This is a concept which is being held about a teacher today Teachers must Endeavour
to be role models in the lives of learners so as to easily transmit the necessary experiences which
go beyond the classroom situation. At the same time, a teacher can definitely negatively
influence the lives of the learners if they do not meet their obligation of empowering learners
through their behaviour and competence to deliver the set skills and knowledge assumed to
prepare them for life in their respective environment.

In 1960, Smith also attempted to define a teacher by focusing on their role „teaching‟ which he
described as “a system of actions intended to induce learning” (p.230). This is still typical of
what is expected of a teacher even now. A teacher has so much responsibility in modifying the
lives of the learners as whatever takes place in school is presided over by a teacher.

Bearing in mind the important role the teacher plays in facilitating learning, the Ministry of
Education does provide guidelines on the general conduct as outlined in The 1974 General
Orders of the Republic of Zambia later revised in 2003. In principal, the teacher at a high school
level holds a minimum qualification of advance Secondary Teachers‟ Diploma which is awarded
by The University of Zambia. The teacher plays the greatest example of role model in terms of
cleanliness, self-discipline, respect for others, commitment to work, punctuality, patience, self-
control, faithfulness, self-confidence and integrity, to mention, but a few, so that learners are able
to cherish these important virtues,(Dembo,1994). At the same time, as guided by the principles
of a hidden curriculum, learners have the capacity to learn certain behaviour from the way
teachers deal with both negative and positive behaviors. If for example, a learner is punished for
reporting late to school or for misconduct; like bullying, others would be able to learn from their
friend‟s experience that they would also be punished if they did the same thing. So punishment
acts as a deterrent.

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It goes without saying the education system of the country has to pay particular attention to the
values and norms it instills in the mind of the teacher and the learners. Teachers need to realize
the need to motivate the learners and help them to realize they have so much potential to
contribute positively to the growth of the nation. As much as possible teachers should reinforce
their learners‟ behaviour appropriately so that they learn the best way to conduct themselves. For
instance, if teachers treat their learners with hostility, cruelty and indifference, they will never
have the zeal to go to school and concentrate on their work. If they are treated with warmth, love
and kindness they will be motivated to learn as the environment is made friendly and conducive,
(Mwamwenda, 1995).

PHILOSOPHY DEFINED

The word philosophy according to Taneja,(1990) is derived from two Greek words „philos‟
and „Sophia‟ which mean „love‟ and „knowledge‟ or „wisdom‟ respectively. The word suggests
analytical thinking on issues of life. Additionally, Taneja argues that philosophy includes a
search for a clear understanding of the nature of things as well as an investigation of what
encompass reality. Philosophy calls for intelligible approach to dealing with life and most of all,
carefully reflecting the outlook of various aspects of life such as education, religion, politics and
ethics, to mention but a few. There are four basic branches of philosophy according to the article
downloaded on http: //philosophy.lander.edu/intro/what.shtml, namely: metaphysics,
epistemology, axiology and logic.

Axiology:

The article above argues that axiology is a component that gives theories about values in terms of
what they are and how they qualify to be values. It explores various notions of what values are
and their sources. It is divide into two parts that is „ethics‟ which studies issues of morals (what
is right and what is wrong) and „aesthetics‟ which deals with aspects of beauty or value of art.

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Metaphysics (Ontology):

It is a science which is concerned with ultimate realities (Pinchin, 2005). It deals with theories on
the nature of man and the world in which he dwells. It seeks to explore what characterizes man
and the whole world around him so as to understand the various aspects about him. Among other
things, metaphysics provides answers how man is made, his origin and destiny. It also questions
the existence of God and possible ways of proving his existence.

Epistemology:

This component of philosophy gives theories of knowledge. It provides some reflection of what
knowledge is and its source. It provides answers to how what we call knowledge and it comes
about.

Logic:

This component provides scientific evaluation of arguments.

The importance of philosophy to a teacher.

Going by the brief discussion on what philosophy is all about, it is worth realizing that its
importance in the teaching profession cannot be overemphasized. The subject is very inevitable
if one has to be a successful teacher. Below is a summary of some of the reasons of philosophy‟s
importance to the teacher as revealed by Akinpelu,(1981) and Taneja,(1990).

 The teacher being an agent of education requires adequate knowledge to be able to

adequately teach the learners. This is only possible if the teacher can develop through
philosophy the desire for knowledge so as to search for that knowledge required of the
learners to gain maturity and full development
 The teacher would need to be aware of the reality and nature of man if he or she has to
adequately deal with the pupils whose nature and backgrounds are totally differen.The
challenges of working with all sorts of characteristics and environments can be eased
through the subject philosophy.

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  The love for knowledge and wisdom would help the teacher continuously search for
knowledge and keep abreast of new developments inevitable in one‟s survival.

 Philosophy ultimately should be able to provide insight on values of life that yield
benefits for both individuals and society in general. The teacher will develop the right
attitude and approach to life that would in turn influence the lives of the learners.

 The subject provides some history on education which helps one know where they are
coming from as well as where they are going. At the same time it helps the teacher to
put up logical arguments and analysis on the problems facing the teaching profession.

 Philosophy could help teachers contribute positively to educational policies and most of
all make education worthwhile to the recipients.

INDIGENOUS AFRICAN EDUCATION

Indigenous education is an example of informal education. In general, it refers to the typical

education system that existed among African communities before the coming of missionary
or western education. It is believed according to Snelson, (1974), that the form of this
education varied according to the geographical set up or environment, cultural beliefs and
customs, however, its general nature was common to all tribes. Snelson furthers indicates that
five main components characterized indigenous education.

1. History and tradition teachings of the clan and the tribes including ancestors‟ heroic
deeds, beliefs, ceremonies, myths, songs and dances. The young ones were introduce
and led through all the issues associated to their tribes as a way of sustaining their
cultural heritage. Each tribal group endeavored to teach all these so that nothing of it
could be lost.
2. Snelson argues that indigenous education includes apprenticeship in practical skills
where learners were taught through accompanying elderly experienced members on

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 particular target skills. This means that the young ones would be exposed to certain
situations so that they gain knowledge and skills for their survival in that environment
for example, fishing, hunting, farming charcoal burning and cooking.
3. Learning through observing imitating and repeating what they needed to know of
their environment. It involved practical activities where they actively participated to
gain experience.
4. Teaching the young ones their social obligation and ensuring inculcation of good
manners. This included the correct responses to adults, manner of greeting or
addressing elderly people.
5. Religious teaching based on the Supreme Being called in some tribal groups
Mulungu/ leza/lesa/ Mulimu. Issues of spirits and their influence on one‟s life were
taught. Also the value of particular charms and herbs for protection and services of
sorcerers, spirit diviners in times of trouble.

It would be concluded just like in any other system of education that the indigenous African
education system was complete and warranted worthwhile education for the survival of its
members. However it is worth realizing that it had its own weaknesses and strengths which if
well studied would help the educators of today learn something in their attempt to provide
education.

STRENGTHS

A number of positive things could be derived from the indigenous African education system.
Kelly (1999), among other scholars argues that this education was rather meaningful as it
focused on the real life situation of the learners and most of all, it aimed at serving the needs of
its immediate environment as seen from the five main components.

That aside it sought to develop the person as a whole, (socially, spiritually, politically and
economically) by providing them with learning opportunities on the various areas of life.

Additionally, it was practical in nature and actively involved the learners, thereby guaranteeing
high retentions levels of information.

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It was uniting as it involved the community as a whole and so much centred on the person as an
individual

WEAKNESSES

On the contrary, the indigenous education as seen from its nature was somewhat conservative
and there was very little hope or room for modification. This could entail that if need be for
change it would not possible to effect the change because it was „traditional‟ to do it that way.
This could be very retrogressive in a situation like sexual cleansing in this era of HIV/AIDS as
many people would be infected through this practice.

Furthermore, one would say it did not provide room for documentation of information so that it
could be reliably referred to in future. Then if adjustments were made here and there, it would
not be easy to tell since there was no written record.

Snelson (1974:3), argues that,” it aimed not so much to develop a young person‟s individuality
or competitive spirit as to encourage conformity to community norms, and to demonstrate the
arts and science of living as a member of a community and playing one‟s role for the well-being
of society‟‟.

Indigenous education on the other hand employed fear rather than a logical explanation for why
certain things were taught. The following as per research carried among the various tribal groups
within Mufulira college of Education are examples of fear instilled among the young ones:

 Pregnant women were not allowed to eat eggs as it was believed that they would bear
children without hair. Logically this was a way of preventing women craving for eggs
which would prevent multiplication of hens.
 Boys were warned against having sex with elderly women as their penis would remain
in the vagina of the woman. Then in the case of girls if they had sex before marriage
their fingers would grow longer. This obviously was a way of preventing premature
sexual habits which would yield immorality.
 Men were discouraged from having sexual affairs with other women during their
wives‟ pregnancy as they would have complications during child birth. This aimed at

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 promoting fidelity and perhaps adequate support for pregnant women from their
spouses since pregnancies normally are characterized by emotional problems
 Children were advised not to shout or cry in the night as their voices would be taken
by the ghosts. This could have been an attempt to avoid unnecessary disturbances in
the night when people were tired from their hard daily chores.
 One was not allowed to sit on a mortar as one would be impotent. There is definitely
no relationship between sitting on the mortar and failure to bear children but this could
have aimed at promoting hygiene and ensuring one does not sit anyhow and
anywhere. Also for hygiene purposes, a girl during menstruation was not allowed to
put salt in relish as it would cause chest pains and prolonged coughing.
 Having sex with a widowed person was said would make one get mad. This partly
could have been a way of teaching endurance on the part of widow or widower then
also morality.

It is possible to conclude from these examples that the system did not promote awareness of
reality and if anything, it did not preach the truth that people really needed to know. It is possible
that some people could have secretly experimented on some of those discouraged acts and
discovered that what they were told was not true. Thus, they would continuously try out without
knowing that it is immoral or maybe unhygienic.

ACTIVITY:

1. What is education and how would an educated person be described?

2. Define philosophy and show how it could benefit a teacher.

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 GREEK EDUCATION

It is represented by three educational thinkers; Plato, Aristotle, Socrates. Greece was made up of
several small city states (polis), Sparta and Athens among others, were the most famous. The
two, though quite different in their social and education set up, both dependent on slave Labour
and heavily guarded their common Greek ancestry.

THE SPARTAN EDUCATION

According to internet sources, (http://www.crystalinks.com/greekeducation.html)The Spartan

way of life developed as a military state with Permanent military camps. The majority of
enslaved were hewers of wood and drawers of water. The Social, political and cultural activities
and education aimed at maintaining the states emperor military power combat readiness The
whole state run like military camp and education was state controlled to produce patriotic
obedient and military efficient citizens. It covered the whole life from birth till old age. Children
were brought up for the state together in barracks from 7 to develop a high sense of comradeship.
Male and female had almost the same education type of emphasizing physical fitness in order to
be of military service to the state. Gymnastic was the main feature emphasized to an extent
where any literary or cultural pursuits in the country were neglected. All subjects were meant to
contribute to their military efficiency e. g military music, drama role playing for deception and
spying on their enemies. Notably, principles of the state controlled the finance of education.
There was equal education for men and women and education was viewed as an instrument to
solve specific problems of society.

THE ATHENIAN EDUCATION

Athen was a democratic city where everyone enjoyed the right to vote, being voted into elective
offices, participating in discussion and decision-making in general assembly. The population
comprised about 1000s, small enough to gather in people‟s assembly (agora) to initiate, discuss
or pass legislation not necessary for citizens to be prepared for governance .The was no state
sponsored education to enable them participate with knowledge and intelligence rather than
ignorance. For Athen, an ideal citizen was a versatile man of spirit, many sidedness of attainment

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complete self-reliance in limbs and brain as Pericles put it in Akinpelu, (1981).Anyone could
form a school without state regulation or control of what went on in these schools. However, to
some extent, school curriculums were relatively balanced as they included physical exercise,
swimming, music, writing, reading, literature and art.

PLATO (427-348 B.C.)

He was an Athenian and a disciple of father of philosophy, Socrates. He was concerned about
care-free education attitude. Athenian especially that it lacked a special kind of training state
rulers. Plato viewed state administration as a technical matter which like a doctor or lawyer
required a specialist training. He wrote a book „the Republic‟ in which he proposed an education
system derived from a combination of Spartan, Athenian and a new as well as fully developed
political philosophy for the state. An ideal state for him was a state which had values of social
justice and harmony. Justice to mean responsibilities of citizens owed the state rather than equal
sharing of national cake of provision of every man‟s due. All individuals should be able to
contribute to the welfare of the society through their natural talent and expert training. He
divided the ideal state into three classes, that is: the philosopher kings (intellect) who govern the
society, the guardians (spirited/military) who keep order and defend the society and the
Appetited/economic class/commoners who are the ordinary citizens.

The ideal state calls for each man minding his or her own work, instead of interfering with one‟s
capabilities. There must be division of labour going by the field of expertise required by the
state. He proposed that all children should be reared together for nursery, kindergarten and
primary education after which they would be streamed according to their talents or natural
abilities as demonstrated and observed. Eventually one undergoes specialized education and
training to be fully ready for duties one was talented naturally. This is known as the Principle of
professionalization. Plato further argued as learnt from Socrates “that knowledge is virtue” and
“ignorance is vice”. Virtue entails efficient performance of one‟s duties not the moral
uprightness. e. g virtue of a knife-cut perfectly. Virtue of a doctor-heal.

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EDUCATION INNOVATION OF PLATO

 He viewed education as, a strong tool in the reconstruction of the state and social,
political and economic development.
 The state should adopt national ideology of their own conception of the good life.
 National priorities identification should be designed on suitable educational system.
 Secularism in education –state monopolizing educational provision control and
organization minus religious education.
 Emphasized the need for guidance and counseling to be able to decide the excellent areas
of future occupation and observation of individual special abilities.
 Education process should be seen as, “turning the eye of the soul from the darkness to
light” ignorance to knowledge. Aiding one discover knowledge through one‟s individual
process.

Plato was the first one to divide education into formal levels being used commonly in the
development of the formal school curriculum he assigned them appropriate ages and curricular
contents as follows:

a. Nursery/ kindergarten-3 to 6, playing games

b. Elementary stage-7 to 10, games and sports basic reading ,
storytelling about gods of Greek mythology for moral and spiritual
development
c. Secondary level-11 to 17, a good balance-gymnastics and music,
arithmetic, geometry and solid geometry, literature. Ultimately all
these were for development of the soul and guiding towards true
knowledge.
d. Higher education (18+) 20-35, aid abstract reasoning, higher maths,
astronomy dialectic and philosophy.

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He emphasized the need to recognize the environment‟s importance for learning. To be aware
that for the child‟s mind, to be morally upright children needed to be exposed to wholesome
experience, if not, the child will pick what they see.
He also proposed maintenance of a good balance between different parts of the curriculum so as
to produce man „beautiful in body and of good conduct‟ (kalokagathia) (ibid, 1981).
In Plato‟s day‟s different parts/levels of education was offered by different tutors coordinated or
held not in the same area. ‟sophist‟ or‟ itinerant teachers‟ travelled knowledge they were made to
pay to respective subjects they wanted

ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C)

Aristotle was an Athenian and a disciple of Plato

He is said to have been a great writer and the best example of ancient philosopher who dwelt on
many areas of knowledge (linguistics, biology, political science literary theory and cosmology,
to mention but a few). (Baggins, 2002) „Politics and Ethics‟ does mostly reveal his education
ideas which today have to some extent influenced most education systems in the world.
According to Akinpelu, (1981), Aristotle argues that, the mind of the child could be associated to
raw clay waiting to be moulded into fully mature adult. At the same time, it is not any different
from any seed which has so much potential within its shell to grow into a full plant if provided
good nourishment. In view of this, Aristotle suggests that education should be able to provide the
child with the realization of the ideal attitude of a full grown happy adult. Happiness, going by
Aristotle‟s „ethical theory‟ as propounded by Pinchin, (2005; 192) is: “supreme good attainable
by action”. It is about one applying his or her highest reasoning or intelligence capacity in
whatever they do, a feature which differentiates human beings from other animals.

EDUCATION IDEAS

The aim of education should be to develop the child into the best adult by promoting their
reasoning ability to the highest level.

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Education should also yield wisdom to enable one lead a practical and morally good life coupled
with concern for the welfare of other members of society.

Education should where possible facilitate intellectual and theoretical engagement.

The teacher should act as an agent for molding children‟s lives into the ideal and virtuous beings.

The teacher should as much as possible help learners realise their potentials and should
endeavour to give clear instructions as children have impressionable minds which could easily
copy whatever they are exposed to.

As much as possible pupils themselves must be involved actively in the learning process so that
they gain adequate experience.

For any life to be complete, it must have a combination of intellectual or academic and practical
life.

SOCRATES

According to the internet article by the Academy of Evolution Metaphysics 2005, Socrates was
an Athenian known for being controversial with the Greek teachings and beliefs. He lived
between 470 and 399 B.C. (Copleston, 1993). Unlike most philosophers, Socrates was not a
writer but his teachings are mostly derived from what other philosophers wrote about him. He
did not believe in one accepting whatever was taught traditionally and by authority irrespective
of its lack of substance. He was against the idea of people assuming that they know everything
by holding on to their beliefs even when they actually do not understand what they are doing. As
a result of his belief, he confronted people in the streets to explain what they believed in, which
attracted and influenced many young people to think likewise. It is from this that we are told he
initiated „dialectic or Socratic‟ method of teaching which encourages use of questions in order to
successfully understand concepts,(Zainab,2005).

Socrates was later in his life condemned to death and accused of among other things; looking
down upon people‟s belief in the Greek gods and corrupting the young ones‟ minds, (ibid2005).

23
ROMAN EDUCATION

The development of Roman education is categorized into three phases based on the three shifts
of political systems (monarchy, the republic and the empire) underwent by the Romans,
(Akinpelu, 1981). The first category is the tradition education era, followed by the Greek culture
introduction and lastly, the assimilation and transformation of the imported system.

Typical of Roman education basically was acquisition of simple practical skills to enable them
gain knowledge in farming especially, then participation in military and other public services. It
was not a legal requirement to educate children, but it was somehow generally accepted that they
be provided knowledge so as to have a future full of happiness and prosperity
(http://www.mmdtkw.org/VRomanEducation.html). The girls mainly got education in their
expected chores like weaving, spinning, cooking and baby-sitting. For some lucky and
privileged, they learnt reading or writing either at home or in elementary schools. Higher
education with mathematics or rhetoric was not allowed for the girls as it was seen as a waste of
time and money by many Romans.

In the case of boys, education meant reading and writing coupled with law, morality and physical
training. Corporal punishment was expected to be a part of teaching with the aim dealing with
misbehavior and curb against poor performance.

The second phase of education development as propounded by Akinpelu, (1981) was

introduction of the Greek culture having conquered Greece from about mid-way of the third
century B.C.who brought with them books on their civilization and culture. At the same time the
Greek slaves who worked as teachers and mentors for the Roman children facilitated the Greek
literary and intellectual culture among the Romans. During this period gave birth to education on
law and oratory arising from political freedom, the legislature and the active judicial organs of
government.

However, this political and judicial freedom was lost as soon as democratic republic era
collapsed and overtaken by the Empire. Education was then centered on oratory for the purposes
of culture entertainment, debate and intellectual leisure time and to a large extent, for preparation
of civil servants and administrators, (ibid, 1981).

24
Roman education is mainly represented by the ideas of Quintilian and Cicero who dwelt on a
number of issues that have influenced education systems in the world today.

QUINTILIAN

According to the information on the internet by O‟Neill (2008), Quintilian, a lawyer and teacher
of oratory and rhetoric is estimated to have been born around 35-40 A.D. in Spain in Calagurris
which is now called calahorra. He died in 90 A.D. in Roma, Italy. His father was also an orator
but not as successful as his son,(Soylent Communications,2011).

Quintilian is popular for his book Institutio Oratoria (The Orator‟s Education) which is in twelve
volumes and contains a number of ideas related to today‟s educational matters. Having been a
lawyer Quintilian attached great importance to eloquent speaking and unimpeachable character,
(Akinpelu, 1981).

Additionally, O‟Neill (2008) argued that Quintilian believed that knowledge of all types was
cardinal but most important of all, the skills of speaking, writing and reading.

He also advanced that knowledge was not inborn but could be acquired through education. In
terms of education according to Akinpelu, (1981), he proposed as follows:

 The age of seven or earlier, in the case of pre-school was ideal for a child to start
school, initially being given instruction in form of play.
 Secondary education should run from the age of twelve to fourteen, then training from
about sixteen or seventeen years focusing on rhetoric.
 Learners ought to be motivated by rewarding them for the effort made.
 The teacher must have parental attitude ensuring at the same time that he or she has a
good and honourable behaviour.
 He must exercise patience and ensure he or she answers questions freely.
 He discouraged corporal punishment in preference for perhaps counselling.

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CICERO

He was born in 106 B.C. and died in 43 B.C. in Italy (Hooker, 1996) He is said to have been a
great Roman orator and statesman who studied Rhetoric, Greek and Latin literature in Rome and
Athens. Later in his life he spent a lot of time writing, philosophical, apart from his orations and
religious essays which influenced a lot of Latin literature. The most important philosophical idea
is that of duties written in Latin official and translated as our obligation to those we have
personal relationships with, (ibid, 1996). His major works in education included Brutus and De
oratore.

Cicero believed in freedom in education as he supported republican government. Introduction,

main body and conclusion were the order he proposed for teaching. Discovery learning and
memorization of material were some of the things he emphasized on.

UNIT SUMMARY:

In this unit an attempt has been made to comprehensively discuss what education entails as well
as examples of informal and formal education systems which is indigenous and western (Roman
and Greek) education respectively.

ACTIVITY

1. Discuss the education ideas propounded by the following and show how they could be
applied in the Zambian education system:

a. Plato

b. Aristotle,

c.Quintilian.

26
UNIT 2. MISSIONARY AND COLONIAL EDUCATION IN NORTHERN RHODESIA.

Unit summary

This unit looks at how Western Education got established or gained root in Northern Rhodesia.
As you will discover, the missionaries played an important role. The unit also discusses colonial
education up to the advent of independence.

MISSIONARY EDUCATION IN NORTHERN RHODESIA.

One of the first tasks that were undertaken by every missionary group which entered the
country was to commit to learning and writing the vernacular language of the area in
which they had opened their mission station. The next step was to start a school and
teach the people the elements of reading and writing.

MISSIONARY GROUPS

Before missionaries came to settle permanently in present day Zambia, they had several
abortive attempts to establish mission stations. Nevertheless, they did not tire but
continued trying to penetrate the country.

Fredrick Arnot was one of the timely great missionaries of the pioneer period. Born in
1855, Arnot was the first missionary after David Livingstone. Inspired after hearing
David Livingstone speak about Africa, he decided to help David Livingstone in his work.
At 24 years Arnot came to Africa and his aim was to establish a missionary station
along the upper Zambezi river.

He started evangelizing as he was going along the river before he could establish a
mission station, he had to seek permission king Lewanika. Though Lewanika did not
express excitement over the opening of a school due to the problems he had in his
kingdom, he did not refuse Arnot to open a school. Arnot opened his first school in

27
March, 1883 with an enrollment of three pupils all of whom were boys and one untrained
teacher, among the Lozi people. He also opened a mission station under the name
Christian Mission to Many Lands (CMML).

Despite the difficulties, dangers, hardships and apathy of the African people, the number
of missionaries continued to increase. Another missionary after Fredrick Arnot who
stayed for a short time stayed in Western province. Arnot was succeeded by Francois
Coillard of the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society (PEMS) who established his first
mission station at Sesheke in 1885 and at Sefula in 1887. Sefula remained the field
headquarters for the Paris mission. He worked among the Lozi people and his first teachers
were Basuto's who accompanied him on his long journey from South Africa.

The second missionary society to enter the country from the south were the Primitive
Methodists. The group opened a station at Nkala ( the ruins of which can now be seen
in the Kafue Game Park) in 1893. Later on other mission stations were stations were
established on the Kafue and Zambezi rivers. From an educational point of view, the
most important station at Kafue which John Fell built and opened was a Teacher
Training Institute in 1918.

Another group of missionaries that penetrated into Northern Rhodesia from Tanganyika
were successful and opened the first London Missionary Society (LMS) station on the
Lake shore of Tanganyika in 1883. Later they opened up stations among the Mambwe,
Bemba and Lunda people. The most important educational centre Mbereshi was founded in
1900. Furthermore the missionary group decided to call in a lady missionary to take care
of the women and girl's education. The missionary was Mable Shaw who introduced girl‟s
education in 1915.

There came another group of missionaries from the church of Scotland. The group was led
by Robert Laws. Laws built the first church of Scotland mission station on the shores of
Lake Nyasa in 1875. Twenty years later, in 1894 he opened the famous Livingstonia
Institute at Kondowe. In the same year, a mission station was opened (1894) inside
North-Eastern Rhodesia near Fife among the Namwanga people. At Chitambo where
Livingstone died, a mission station was opened in 1907 by Malcom Moffat and Dr

28
Hubert Wilson, a grandson of the great explorer (David Livingstone). On the other hand,
an African missionary named David Kaunda, educated at Livingstonia had began
evangelistic work in Chinsali area and his efforts led to the establishment of a mission
station at Lubwa. Later in 1922, another mission station was opened at Chasefu among
the Tumbuka people of Lundazi district.

Later on came the White Fathers who opened a mission station at Kayambi in 1895.
Under the leadership of Bishop Joseph Dupont, the society expanded its activities. Bishop
Dupont was nicknamed moto-moto (great fire) because of his dynamic leadership. After
gaining foothold among the Bemba people, the White Fathers Succeeded in establishing a
strong network of station throughout Northern, Eastern and Luapula Provinces. White
Fathers continued to stream in to the envy of non-Catholic missionaries who even saw
the coming in of lay brothers , a little later White Sister too set up mission stations
throughout the eastern half of the country. The other society who were trying to match
the White Fathers in numbers were the missionaries of the Dutch Reformed Church.
Their activities were almost confined to the Eastern province. The Dutch opened their first
church in North-Eastern Rhodesia (now Zambia) in Magwero in 1899. Further a chain
of strategically situated stations covered the Fort Jameson (Chipata) and Petauke districts.

OTHER PIONEER MISSION GROUPS 1901-14

The Catholic missionaries came in large numbers as compared to the others. In the south of the
country came the Jesuit Fathers. The Jesuits arrived at Chikuni mission under the
leadership of Father Joseph Moreau in Monze district and established a mission station
in 1905 among the Tonga people. Another mission station was also opened at Kasisi
east of Lusaka by Father Jules Torrend in 1906. From these stations other centres were
opened largely in the Southern and Central provinces of Zambia.

In the same year 1905, four days before the Jesuits arrived at Chikuni, an American
from Indiana, William Anderson a member of the Seventh Day Adventist Church (SDA)
church also arrived. He began bulding a mission station at Rusangu in Monze district.
Subsequent expansion of the SDA activities led to the establishment of widely scattered

29
station near Ndola, kawambwa, Kalabo, Chipata and Senanga. Rusangu remained the most
important centre because of the education activities.

Another group of missionaries who entered Northern Rhodesia as an extension of their

work are the Brethren in Christ Church in 1906. Two American ladies, sisters Annah
Davidson and Addah Engle arrived at Macha in Choma district of Southern Province.
Due to lack of money and personnel, the Brethren in Christ only opened two other
station and could not go beyond that. Bishop Hine of the UMCA opened the first
Anglican station at Mapanza in Choma district among the Tonga people in 1911.
Another station was opened in Msoro area among the Kunda people in Chipata by an
African Priest. However , the UMCA did not give much support to the mission stations
as they had done in Uganda . They only gave support to Mapanza because of its
significance to educational work which it wanted to develop.

The other society which was the last to enter the country before the 1914-18 war was
the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society. They opened a station at Chipembi in 1913
under the leadership of Henry Loveness and Douglas Gray. Other stations were opened
at Broken Hill, Lusaka and at Keembe in the western part of Lenje reserve. Chipembi
was developed as the society's educational headquarters and led the way in agricultural
work and girls education. Chipembi girls‟ school was opened in 1927.

In 1926, Salvation Army came and established a mission station at Chikankata, they also
had a hospital within the vicinity. A further reinforcement of Catholics arrived in 1913.
These were the Capuchin Fathers who opened mission stations in Lukulu, Maramba and
Mongu which became important educational centre. The Franciscan Fathers starting from
Ndola in 1931, opened missions on the Copperbelt mostly important was Ibenga Girls
Secondary School as an educational centre. Another small group was the Pilgrim Holiness
Church which began it's operation in 1933 in Southern province.

To sum up on the arrival of missionaries groups, a mention must be made of two further
bodies, the Church bodies such as United Missions on the Copperbelt. This was formed
in 1936 when representatives from London Missionary Society, the Church of Scotland,
the Universities Missions to Central Africa, the Methodists and South African Baptist put

30
their resources together in support of their work. This was because of the educational
problems they faced. The Franciscan and Dutch Reformed Church also provided staff for the
venture.

Closely associated with the United Missions on the Copperbelt was the United Society
for Christian Literature, it had a small thatched hut in Mindolo, Kitwe. It was the
headquarters for educational materials in Northern Rhodesia charged with the
responsibility to provide Christian literature on the Copperbelt. It was opened in 1936. The
society rapidly became the main source of supply for school text books and also played
an important part in stimulating the production of local books.

ACTIVITY: QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION.

1. How did the missionaries came to know Africa and Zambia in particular ?

2. What problems did the missionaries encounter in the areas where they opened up

mission stations?

EARLY WESTERN SCHOOLS IN ZAMBIA.

Although the early missionaries were separated by distance and in most cases without
contact between them, there was closeness among them in their assessment of the
problems they encountered in their missionary work. In view of trying to capture as
many African converts as possible, they devised the strategies and tactics of their
evangelistic campaigns. The African culture according to missionaries was doomed to
spiritual damnation as it was immoral, lazy, drunken, steeped in superstition and
witchcraft. According to them the whole culture was rotten and needed to be replaced
root and branch.

31
In view of this, the Primitive Brethren Missionary Frederick Arnot opened the first
school, the Barotse National School in 1906, the aim was to educate, evangelize nurture
Christian leadership. In the case of PEMS Francois Coillard opened about five schools
which were operating in villages. Coillard's aim of education was to make his students
literate and provide higher education for bright pupil's. For instance, he sent five young
men to Basuto land from Sefula to a missionary training school.

The London Missionary Society under the leadership of Bernard Turner trained hundreds
of African youths in building, carpentry, metal work and other crafts. On the same
station, Mable Shaw pioneered the development of girl's education in the country teaching
various aspects of homecraft at Mbereshi.

Father Joseph Moreau, the Jesuit father at Chikuni taught people how to improve the
productivity of their gardens and cattle.

In conclusion it must be mentioned that the largest societies had the capacity to expand
their education most rapidly than small societies. Of the two thousand or so schools
operating in 1925, more than half were under the control of White Fathers (554), Dutch
Reformed Church (448), Church of Scotland (308), London Missionary Society (280) and
the management of the remaining 400 schools was divided among the eleven smaller
groups. The extraordinary rapid rate of expansion was due to superior resources i.e.
personnel and finances.

It should be emphasized that the main motive for educating the people by the
missionaries was to make people understand the gospel of Jesus and be able to read the
Bible. The African were also to spread the gospel in places where missionaries were
unable to reach hence the white missionaries needed to train them to preach and read.

32
ACTIVITY.

What were the aims of missionary education? Discuss why some missionaries succeeded
while others failed in expanding education in Zambia ?

THE GENERAL MISSIONARY CONFERENCE OF 1914

The July, 1914 Missionary conference was the first to be held among all the others. This
conference was held in Livingstone in the Coillard Memorial Hall. It lasted four days and was
held with a view to overcoming some challenges that were being faced in education by the
different missionary societies. Snelson 1974 advances that the Primitive Methodists were the
initiators of the missionary conferences which were to exert considerable influence in the
country for a period of not less than thirty years. Originally, the Primitive Methodists after
deciding to translate the New Testament into the Ila language called for representatives from
other missionary societies using the language to assist them revise the manuscript. Being
impressed with this success at an attempt at co-operation, the missionary societies entertained the
thought of having meetings of a similar nature to discuss problems that were common to them
all. Among the missionary societies represented were:

 The Paris Evangelical Mission (PEM)

 The Brethren in Christ (BIC)

 The Universities Mission to Central Africa (UMCA) and

 The Wesleyan Methodist (WM)

Working together, the representatives from the above mentioned missionary groups with those
from the PM unanimously elected a President from amongst themselves whose name Rev Edwin
Smith. The July 1914 Missionary conference like any other conference was held with four
objectives. The objectives are listed below though not in any order of importance:

33
  To ensure brotherly feeling and provide co-operation among the various
missionary

 To toil for a speedy and effective evangelization of the races in North-

Western Rhodesia

 To enlighten public opinion on Christian Mission and

 To guard the interest of the native races.

As indicated earlier, the conference lasted four days and apart from simply considering ways to
meet the set objectives, issues of other educational problems experienced by the missionaries
crept in. When you refer to the map of Zambia given in this module you will discover that many
schools were set up and by various missionary societies. This implies that before the
conferences, each missionary society drew up its own curriculum and school actives were also
carried out differently from one group to the other.

Now, think for a minute what educational problems arose as a result of such an
arrangement. Could learners transfer from one school to the other?

Give two reasons for your answer.

1.------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.

At this same General Missionary Conference, a question was raised on the need to consider
drawing up a uniform curriculum and as such a committee was established to look into the same
and also the issue of having a uniform scale of teacher‟s wages.

Are there really any advantages in teachers having uniform salary scales?

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.

34
In addition to all the above, a paper presented by Rev John Fell on Ideals and Methods in Native
Education was discussed. It is presented by Snelson 1974 that at this same conference, a
resolution on education was placed on record in which the government of the time was highly
appreciated for the interest it had shown in native education and the support that had been
rendered. However, it was suggested by the delegates that the time was ripe for the government
to bear its fair share in the maintenance of the work of providing education to the native races.
The government was also reminded on the urgent need of well trained native teaching staff and
also to consider subsidizing all the approved elementary schools in the country.

THE GENERAL MISSIONARY CONFERENCE OF 1919.

The second General Missionary Conference was held from 18-22nd July, in 1919. It was also
held in Livingstone under the chairmanship of Rev. Adolphe Jalla of the PEMS. His
secretary at the same conference was Rev. John Fell of the PMMS. This conference was held
as a result of the Native Schools Proclamation of 1918. The main purpose of the
conference was to suggest amendments to the proclamation. The attitude and spirit of
intolerance detected in the proclamation was greatly condemned by the conference. The
major amendments made at the conference included the following :

 unmarried teachers or those that were married but not accompanied to the new
stations by their wives be not placed in villages were no European missionary is
resident for a period exceeding three months without express permission of the
magistrate.

 that prayer houses be excluded from the definition of schools

In addition to the above, some resolutions concerning education were also passed. The
first being that the government should give grants to aid the educational work of the
missions. At this same conference a school code drawn up by Fell was also accepted.
At the end of the conference, the delegates agreed to extend invitations to missionary
societies based in North-Eastern Rhodesia.

35
ACTIVITY

Having examined the reactions of the missionaries to the 1918 Native Schools
Proclamation, write brief notes on the response of the government.

THE GENERAL MISSIONARY CONFERENCE OF 1922

This was the third General missionary conference. It was held in Kafue from 17th to 23rd July in
1922.The leadership of this conference was elected as follows:

President: Bishop R D McMinn from the Livingstonia mission

Secretary: Rev John Fell

The delegates from the eleven missionary societies which were represented discussed a good
number of issues which included native reserves, objectionable native marriage customs, spheres
of influence, native taxation and the need for native ministry.

The issues above were discussed alongside the three papers presented by Coxhead JCC, Dr
Loram D T, and Latham G C.The paper for Coxhead, who was the secretary for Native Affairs
talked about the need to appoint an expert in agriculture who would advise the mission s on
agriculture education. In his presentation Coxhead added that the Administration was ready to
pay one third of the expert‟s salary provided the missions could pay the balance. In the second
paper Loram, an eminent educationist from Natal advocated that primary education be retained
by the missionaries and that though this would be the case, there would still be need for the
government to give financial support to the missionaries. Secondary education, however, would
be run by the state. Snelson (1974) further presents that in the same paper it was suggested that
the administration should consider setting up a central institution in Northern Rhodesia on the
lines of Fort Hare in South Africa. In addition to academic work, training in agriculture and
courses for chiefs would also be provided. Chiefs needed to undergo some training because they
obstructed development in their areas .Dr Loram concluded his paper by recommending that an
advisory board be established to foster close co-operation between the missionaries and the

36
administration. The third last paper was presented by Latham GC. He was a former district
officer. At the time of the conference, he had been appointed to the post of part-time inspector of
schools for the country. Latham emphasized the need for co-ordination of effort among the
agencies engaged in education. He also added the following:

 That in order for the co-ordination of the effort to be successful, there was need for the
missionaries to agree amongst themselves about their respective sphere of influence so
that they did not step into the area of the others.

 That the missionaries put their denominational differences aside and that mission in
North Eastern Rhodesia put their resources together to provide a first class normal school
for teacher training that would match schools at Sefula in the west and Kafue in the
central area.

 That the curriculum be carefully balanced between the religious, academic and industrial
elements.

 That a modest scale of government grants for mission schools, where in addition to
literary education, industrial training of at least two hours a day was given.

THE GENERAL MISSIONARY CONFERENCE OF 1924

This was the last conference. It was held in June, 1924 in Kafue. According to Snelson
(1974), the main purpose of this conference was for the missionary members to meet the
Phelps-Stokes commission, and to make strong recommendations to the new government on
an educational policy for the country. This conference was characterised by excitement and
optimism and there were addresses by Jones, Aggrey, Vischer, Fell and many others. By the
time of the conference, the BSA Company had relinquished its administrative responsibilities
and all including the missionary societies were happy with that development. The
missionaries were optimistic that the new government would strive to correct things and
assist them come up with a worthwhile educational system. From the drafted resolutions
presented at the conference for its consideration by Jones and Fell, points were taken and
combined and a lengthy resolution arrived at.

37
Snelson (1974)quotes from „Proceedings of the General Missionary Conference of Northern
Rhodesia,1925‟ that in their resolution, the missionaries recognised that though secular
education was the duty of the state, they desired to share in the provision of the same to the
natives. The resolution further presented that the missionaries believed that co-operation
between them and the government would be in the best interest of this education. The
resolution stated that the basic principles for all educational work would be that both Primary
and Secondary education would be undertaken in mission schools with aid from the state.
Higher education was to be undertaken in government schools with mission aid.

The conference also recommended that in order for the principles to be carried out there was
need to appoint a Director of Native Education and a board of Advice on which missions
would be represented. The other recommendations put forward were as follows:

 That financial aid be granted to Central mission schools

 That financial aid be given so as to establish a cadre of visiting teachers for the
improvement of village schools.

 That financial assistance be given to Primary schools

 That government High schools with denominational hostels be established and

 That the apex of the educational system be a central institution of colonial dimensions
which would offer higher education to those who could profit from it.

If we compare what was discussed in the earlier conferences to what was discussed in this
conference, we can conclude that there was a repetition of some demands and just an addition
of a few more.

38
 Activity.
Briefly outline the demands that were repeated in the 1924 General Missionary Conference.

THE PHELPS-STOKES COMMISSION.

The Phelps strokes commission was set up in New York under the will of Miss Caroline
Phelps Stokes to further the education of Negroes in Africa and the United States, (Snelson
,1994).The first commission that was set up visited south ,west and equatorial Africa under the
leadership of Dr Jones who later wrote a report about the same visit. This report raised a great
deal of interest and as such another commission was set up which would this time visit East
and Central Africa .Among the members of the commission were: Dr Jones Aggrey ,a
distinguished educationist from Gold Coast( presently Ghana); Dr J.H Dillard from the USA
who was the President of the Jeans fund, Dr H.L Shantz, agriculturalist and Botanist from the
USA; Rev Garfield Williams, education secretary of the church missionary society; Major
Hanns Vischer, secretary of the Colonial office advisory committee on native education in
tropical Africa, C.T Loram of South Africa and James Dougall from Scotland. The chairman
of the commission was Dr Thomas Jesse Jones.

The Phelps Stokes Commission was charged with a threefold task:

1. To investigate the education needs of the people in the light of their religious, social,
hygienic and economic conditions

2. To ascertain the extent to which their needs were being met and

3. To assist in the formulation of plans to meet the educational needs of the native races.

Between January and July 1924, members of the commission visited French Somali land,
Abyssinia, Kenya, Uganda, Tanganyika, Zanzibar, Portuguese East Africa, Nyasaland,

39
 Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia and the Union of South Africa. The commission
divided itself so as to cover all the countries indicated above. The party that visited Northern
Rhodesia from 8th to 13th was made up of Dr Jones, Aggrey, Vischer and Dougall. This group
spent most of its time at the General missionary conference held at Kafue in order to meet the
missionaries.

The following were the recommendations of the commission (note that only the
recommendations that concerned Northern Rhodesia are discussed below):

1. The government to appoint a Director of native education whose task would be to

coordinate and unify the educational activities of the missionary societies.

2. An advisory committee on education should be appointed with representatives of

government, the missions and the settlers.

3. Provision should be made for the representation of the native opinion.

4. Government should subsidize the educational work of the missions (Grants-in-aid to

missions).

5. Priority should be given to the establishment of teacher training institutions.

6. There should be aid for maintenance of European missionaries to supervise the educational
work of their mission stations and out schools.

Adopted from Snelson (1974)

THE BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY AND EDUCATION

When was the first time you heard about the British South Africa Company (BSA Company)?

Mention some of the major achievements of the BSA Company.

Check if you included any of the following:

 The company contributed largely to ending slave trade

40
  Helped to end most of the tribal wars ( inter-tribal war)

 Helped to bring about law and order in Northern Rhodesia as a result of establishing an
administrative system

The BSA Company gained control over North-Western and North –Eastern Rhodesia in the
1890s.Its task was to administer the two territories mentioned above which were eventually
combined in 1911 and later came to be known as Northern Rhodesia. This, the company did on
behalf of the British government until 31st March, 1924.

“Although the company achieved considerable success in ending the slave trade, putting
a stop to inter-tribal wars, creating an administrative system …............ it's record in regard
to the African education was one of consistent neglect.

…............ Development schemes which were not strictly essential- and education for the
Africans did not come within the definition- could not be countenanced. For three
decades, these somnolent years as Hall dubbed them, the company consistently refused to
give financial assistance to missionary educational enterprise in the country and failed
lamentably and shamefully to implement the explicit promises regarding education which
had been made in the treaties with Lewanika, paramount chief of the Lozi and with
other chiefs when the concessions were granted which established the company's
authority” (Snelson 1974 : 121)

The BSA company was not really committed to the development and advancement of
native education in Northern Rhodesia. In the case of Lewanika treaties were signed in
1890, 1898 and 1900 in which he (Lewanika) was assured that schools would be
provided for his people. In addition, there was a promise to aid and assist in the
education and civilization of the natives of his land. The provision of the aid and
assistance would be facilitated by the establishment, maintenance and endowment of
schools and industries. However the BSA company did not live up to its promise.
Carmody, 2004 further adds that for the thirty four years that the BSA company
administered the territory, it established only one school. This being the Barotse National
School set up in 1906 at Kanyoyo. This was despite it (BSA co) collecting large sums
of money in taxes from the local people. Most of the teachers that were tasked to teach

41
in the few available schools were poorly educated, in addition to not being trained and
being very poorly paid. All this bordered on the fact that the BSA company refused
to support education though it was eager to control the education system through its
1918 Native Schools Proclamation.

(Adapted from Snelson1974)

THE COLONIAL GOVERNMENT AND EDUCATION

A year after taking office from the BSA company, Sir Herbert Stanley (the governor in
the colonial office) created a sub-department of Native Education. This sub-department
was under the Department of Native Affairs. Geoffrey Chitty Latham was immediately
appointed as Director. Snelson 1974 describes Latham as „one among the most capable
men in government service who had held different posts from the time he joined the
administrative service of the company in 1910.

Latham was faced with a mammoth task of ensuring to create a coherent and
comprehensive system on education that would suit the needs of the country and its
people. At the time of his appointment, there were fifteen missionary stations and almost
2000 schools in which were enrolled almost 100 000 children. The teachers who taught
these children had very humble professional training and the syllabus followed was not
in any order while the equipment and learning materials used were inadequate. As such
the education system that Latham had to come up with was to be one that would cater
for both the large underdeveloped rural areas and the growing townships in the line of
rail. Among the people who were to support Latham in his work were :

 William Mhone (an African clerk)

 John Keith ( a native commissioner )

 Rev J R Fell

 Hodgson F

42
  Cottrell J A

 Miller D S

 Opper C J

The people listed above joined Latham between 1928 and 1930. As such Latham worked
tirelessly by himself in the first years and laid the foundations of the Educational
Administrative System in Northern Rhodesia. The system was to last until independence. He
(Latham) retired in 1831 and is referred to in some cases as the father of African
education in Northern Rhodesia. During his six year tenure of office, Latham contributed
greatly on many issues in education. He built up a department which was able to stand
on its own by 1930. That is to say the department stood independent of the Department
of Native Affairs. The Department was planted on the site of the Jeanes school at
Mazabuka. The other of Latham‟s achievements included the following:

 He encouraged efficiency in the work of the missions and evolved a system

of grants-in-aid to them. He also emphasized the need for quality in education
as opposed to quantity, which was desired by most missions.

 He attached a lot of importance onto teacher training and constantly remained

the missionaries on the need to have well trained teachers as they were a
basis on which a good school could be run.

 With the involvement of John Fell and the advisory board, Latham secured the
acceptance of common syllabuses which were to be used at all educational
levels throughout the country.

 He expressed displeasure at education that was purely academic. He indicated

that such a type of education was unsuitable for the needs of the people.
Instead, he fought to promote industrial and agricultural training which would
with time raise the standard of living all throughout the country.

 He assisted in the development of girl‟s boarding schools in every province.

With a belief that through the provision of such, girls would be helped to

43
 have equal access to education and be prepared for domestic and maternal
duties.

 He managed to convince mining companies in the developing urban areas of

the importance of setting up schools in their townships.

Education during the War period 1939-1945.

During the 1930‟s Educational development took place in a very modest scale. The
1939-1945 war however transformed the Northern Rhodesia economy and produced
the money that was required for the educational system.

There was a lot of demand for raw materials by the allied powers for war. Output
from copper mines soared. Production during the six years of the war totaled almost
1,500 000 tons (copper prices which had fallen to £ 25.6 in 1932 rose to £ 66.1 per
ton in 1941-46.

At Broken hill mine production of Lead, Zinc and Vanadium was increased and the
production of these commodities also rose. The greatest benefactors from this boom in
the country‟s mining industry were the shareholders in the BSA CO which had
appropriated the mineral rights of North Western Rhodesia half a century earlier.

Nevertheless the government also shared in the general prosperity through its receipt
from taxation. For the first time in the country‟s history substantial sums were
available for spending on the development of social services. During the period
1939-1945 government expenditure on African education rose rapidly as follows ;

1939 - £ 42 286

1940- £ 55 182

1941 - £ 69 453

1942 - £ 88 483

44
1943 - £ 99 405

1944 - £ 123 200

1945 - £ 149 450

Adapted from Snelson (1974, p. 236)

Education during the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland.

The federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland is also known as the Central African
Federation. It was established on 23rd October, 1953 at the instigation of white settlers
and against strong opposition from Africans who saw it as marginalizing them and
an attempt by white settlers to entrench power in the territory.

Fearing that the two Rhodesians might link up with South Africa, the British
government capitulated to the wishes of white settlers.

Northern Rhodesia‟s copper industry was the prize the federal government in
Salisbury wished to exploit. During the federal period almost £ 100 000 was
transferred in tax from Northern Rhodesia to Salisbury mostly for developments in
Southern Rhodesia.

During the federal period, the mining industry was the only part of Northern
Rhodesia‟s economy that developed. Education during this period was racially
segregated. The Northern Rhodesia government was responsible for African education
while the federal government was responsible for education of all other races and for
higher education.

There was unbalanced allocation of resources with the larger share going to
educational developments for non-Africans and a relatively small share going to
the Northern Rhodesia government for African education. This was in spite of the
fact that copper revenues from the North financed most of the educational
developments for all races.

45
In Northern Rhodesia, more secondary schools were opened especially after 1956.
Trade schools developed and some technical education was provided at Hodgson
Institute in Lusaka. Tentatively early moves in 1952-53 towards establishment of a
university in Lusaka frightened the federal authority in speeding up the development
of the university college of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. This was opened in Salisbury in
March 1957. (Adapted from Kelly 1996: p.60)

UNIT SUMMARY

This unit has discussed the evolution of education in Northern Rhodesia from the arrival of
the missionaries to the dawn of independence

UNIT 3. EDUCATION AT INDEPENDENCE AND BEYOND.

Introduction to the unit

Unit three discusses educational issues after the attainment of independence in 1964 up to
1977 when the Education reform, proposals and recommendations was written. This unit will
continue in module.

EDUCATIONAL REFORM MOVEMENTS IN ZAMBIA.

EDUCATIONAL CHALLENGES AT INDEPENDENCE.

Zambia became an independent state on 24th October, 1964. At that time the country
faced a lot of problems in the education sector which called for immediate
interventions. Some of the issues the new government was determined to solve
included :

a) Racial segregation

b) Limited number of educational facilities to accommodate all the needy children

c) Scarcity of skilled and educated manpower

46
 d) Prejudice against technical education

Racial Segregation

A dual system of education for Africans and non Africans existed at independence. The
schools for European children were well equipped and well staffed all the facilities
were also very good. African schools on the other hand were poorly equipped.

The other problem in the education sector though not directly related to racial
segregation was the uneven geographical distribution of schools. Large areas of the
country had few or no schools at all. There was inadequate provision especially in
cities and large towns.

LIMITED NUMBER OF EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES.

At independence, the country‟s population was very small, but as the years went by
the population was growing at a very fast rate. Therefore there was urgent need for more
educational facilities.

There was critical shortage of teachers accommodation which led to teachers‟

frustration and demoralization. The government urged people to help themselves in
terms of infrastructure development. Some of these self help structures were unsafe
thus some of them had to be demolished.

The problem of limited number of educational facilities was also compounded with
over enrolment leading to very large classes. There was much repetition especially at
grade 7 level.

Scarcity of skilled and educated manpower.

According to Carmody ( 2004 : 25) there were only 110 000 from a population of 4
million who had received at least six years of schooling at independence in 1964. A
total of about 32 000 Zambians had completed the full primary school course, 4420

47
had passed the two year junior secondary school course and about 961 were known
to have passed Cambridge school certificate. Only about 100 had been to universities.
Therefore with this scenario, the country could not move forward in terms of
development. In the ministry of education, there were serious shortages of teaching
staff at all levels

PREJUDICE AGAINST TECHNICAL EDUCATION.

Majority of Zambians looked down upon technical education that would lead to skills
oriented jobs such as carpentry, brick laying or auto mechanics. They preferred
education which would lead to white collar job

GOVERNMENT RESPONSE TO THESE PROBLEMS.

In order to respond positively to these challenges, the new UNIP government of

President Kenneth Kaunda took bold decisions which included the reorganization of
the school system. In other words, the structure and organization of the school
system was changed. Tuition and boarding fees were abolished and the capacity of
the school system was substantially increased. The government also ensured that
there was equality of educational opportunities regardless of race and gender.

PROBLEMS CREATED BY THE MEASURES.

The measures taken by government though good and in most cases brought the
desired results created the following new problems :

The recruitment and training of teachers fell below requirement. New schools had to
be occupied before being completed. The rate of expansion at secondary school level
did not keep pace with the massive expansion at primary sector ( Educational reforms
1977 ; 1)

48
THE 1976/1977 EDUCATIONAL REFORMS

By 1969, such problems had given rise to strong public feeling that the education
system was not growing very fast enough, that the quality of education was declining
and that vast numbers of early school leavers were being eliminated from the system
without satisfactory preparation for life.

These views were expressed and remedies examined at the First National Educational
Conference of September, 1969.

In 1974, time was now ripe for a full scale evaluation of the education system. In
March 1975, the first public announcement was made by the minister of education
in parliament that government would embark on education reforms. Between May
and September 1975, study groups visited a number of countries, prepared and
submitted reports. A seminar was called on 30th December, 1975 with representation
from many stake holders. These carefully analysed study groups‟ reports crystallizing
the main lines of the reform exercise

PREPARATION OF THE DRAFT STATEMENT ON EDUCATIONAL REFORMS.

Preparation of the draft statement was undertaken by the „study group‟ led by the
permanent secretary, ministry of education. The group completed its work in late
March 1976 and produced a document called „Education for Development. Draft
Statement on Education Reform.‟40 000 copies were produced and distributed
throughout the country and missions abroad. There were also summaries of these
same copies in local languages.

The president launched the national debate on the draft statement at a special press
conference held at State House on 24th May, 1976. Members of the central
committee of UNIP were in charge of organizing debates. The national debate ended
on 30th November 1976.

49
DRAFT STATEMENT 1976 PROPOSALS.

This statement was critical of the way the education system rejected the majority
and rewarded a few.

It called for socialist transformation of society

It called for elimination of poverty and exploitation of man by man

Advocated for a unified national system of education which would be rectangular

than pyramidal and called for ten years of basic education for all.

Certification to be based on student record of continuous assessment. The system of

examinations would wither away.

Decentralization of education system was suggested.

Non government schools would be encouraged provided they were managed

cooperatively, were not profit making and not encouraging capitalism.

Ten years of basic education was proposed and that subsequent stages of education
would be accessible to all through a vastly expanded system of continuing
education.

Full time students to be engaged in productive work.

PUBLIC CRITICISM OF THE DRAFT STATEMENT

Like already alluded to, the publication of the draft statement was followed by
intense public discussion. Some of the criticism of the document was as follows :

a) Criticisms on ideological grounds

The main ideological criticism was that the document was too socialist and not
humanistic enough.

50
 That the document portrayed man as an economic resource or commodity where as
a true humanistic education must concern itself with the whole man in all respects.

It was also argued that religious dimension of education was totally absent from the
document. People argued that this was supposed to be central especially since
Zambian humanism had a spiritual foundation.

b) Criticism on grounds of practicality.

People doubted the capacity of Zambian social institutions to mobilize adequately

to achieve goals laid out in the document.

1977 EDUCATION REFORM PROPOSALS.

The Retreat Group reconvened in mid 1977 to prepare the final document. The proposals in
that document were as follows:

The pyramidal structure of education was retained.

Basic education was to be extended to nine years.

No national system of continuing education as previously proposed came out strongly.

Integration of work and study was silent in this document

Equality of opportunity and worthy of an individual was emphasized

Socialism not mentioned in this document

Rather than seeing education as an instrument of political change, the document

suggested that education merely reflected the characteristics of Zambian society.

It should be mentioned that the 1977 DOCUMENT could be understood as a

comprehensive reversal of all the previous radical proposals.

51
Unit summary

In this unit we have taken you through the education challenges at independence as well as
education reforms. Please do not rely entirely on the contents of this unit but also consult the
relevant books on the topics discussed here.

OVERALL MODULE SUMMARY

This module has dealt with a number of education issues that are very cardinal in the process of
training as a teacher. They are worth reflecting on in order to clearly understand issues relating to
education. Particularly they should go a long way in comprehending the history of education in
Zambia.

It is hoped that you will attempt to spend quality time in order to make sense out of all these
issues. Most of all, you are wished best of luck in you Teacher Training Programme at Mufulira
College of Education.

52
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Oxford: Macmillan

Baggini, J. (2002) Philosophy: Key Texts

New York: Palgrave Macmillan

Calderhead, J.and Shorrock, S.B. (1997) Understanding Teacher Education: Case Studies in The
Professional Development of Beginning Teachers.

Washington: The Falmer Press

Cole, G.A. (1997) Personnel Management Theory and Practice. 4th ed. London: Education

Copleston, F.S.J.( 1993)A History of Philosophy: Greece and Rome. New York: Image Books
Doubleday.

Curzon, L.B.(1997) Teaching in Further Education: An Outline of Principles and Practice. 5th ed
New York: Continuum.

Dembo, (1994) Applying Educational Psychology 5th Ed.

London: Longman

Dodia, Y. (2007) Private Sector Development in Zambia

http://www.intrcen.org/btp/roundtable/presentation.afl/zambia

(10/08/09)

Farrant, J.S (1980). Principles and Practice of Education.

London: Longman Group.

Hilgard, E.R. and Bower, G.H (1975) Theories of Learning.4th ed

New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

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Kelly, J.M. (1999) The Origin and development of Education in Zambia.

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Louw, D. and Edwards, D. (1998) Psychology: An Introduction for Students In Southern Africa.

Johannesburg: Henemann.

Mwamwenda, T.S. (1995) Educational Psychology: An African Perspective.

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Snelson, P. (1974) Educational Development in Northern Rhodesia 1883-1945 Kenneth Kaunda

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Taneja, V.R. (1990) Educational Thought and Practice.

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