PHYSICS IGCSE EXAM REVISION

NOTES - 2022

1. General physics
1.1 length and time
1.2 Speed, velocity and acceleration
1.3 Mass and weight
1.4 Density
1.5 Forces
a. Effects of forces
b. Turningeffect
c. Conditions forequilibrium
d. Centre of mass
e. Scalars and vectors
1.6 Energy work power
a. Energy
b. Energy resources
c. Work
d. Power
1.7 Pressure
2. Thermal physics
2.1 a. States of matter
b. Molecular model
c. Evaporation
d. Pressure changes
2.2 Thermalproperties
a. Thermalexpansion of solids, liquidsand gases
b. Measurement of temperature
c. Thermal capactiy
d. Melting and boiling

2.3 Transfer of thermal energy

a. Conduction
b. Convection
c. Radiation
d. Consequences of energy transfer
3. Properties of waves, including light and sound
3.1 General wave properties
3.2 Light
a. Reflection of light
b. Refraction of light
c. Thin converging lens
d. Dispersion of light
e. Electromagnetic spectrum
3.3 Sound
4. Electricity and magnetism
4.1 Simple Phenomena Of magnetism
4.2 Electrical quantities
a. Electric charge
b. Current
c. Electro-motive force
d. Potential Difference
e. Resistance
f. Electrical energy
4.3 Electric circuits
a. Circuit Diagrams
b. Series and parallel circuits
c. Action and use of circuit components
d. Digital electronics
4.4 Dangers of electricity
4.5 Electromagnetic Effects
a. Electromagnetic induction
b. a.c. generator
c. Transformer
d. The magnetic effect of current
e. Force on a current carrying conductor
f. d.c. motor
5. Atomic Physics
5.1 Radioactivity
a. Detection of radioactivity
b. Characteristics of the three kinds of
emission
c. Radioactive decay
d. Half-life
e. Safety precautions
5.2 The nuclear atom
a. Atomic model
b. Nucleus
c. Isotopes
 Units for IGCSE:
quantity unit symbol other units

SI UNITS mass kilogram kg g

length meter m cm

time second s h, min

area square meter m2 cm2

volume cubic meter m3 cm3

force newton N -

weight newton N -

pressure pascal Pa N/m2

energy joule J kWh

work joule J -

power watt W -

frequency hertz Hz -

PD, EMF volt V -

current ampere A -

resistance ohm Ω -

charge coulomb C -

temperature Kelvin K -
degree Celsius °C

specific joules per kilogram ° Celsius J/(kg°C) J/(g°C)

heat
capacity

specific joules per kilogram J/kg J/g

latent
heat

latent heat joule J -

speed metres per second m/s cm/s or km/h

acceleration metres per second per second m/s2

1.1 Length and time
Length:
•A rule (ruler) is used to measure length for distances between 1mm and 1
meter; the SI unit for length is the meter (m)
•To find out the volume of a regular object, you can use a mathematical
formula, you just need to make a couple of length measurements.
•To measure the volume of an irregular object you have to put the object into a
measuring cylinder with water. When you add the object it displaces the water,
making the water level rise. Measure
this rise. This is the volume of your object.

•Micrometers:

● When measuring very small distances (less than a centimetre) like the thickness of a
paper or diameter of a wire, a micrometer is the most appropriate instrument

Time:
•An interval of time is measured using clocks, the SI unit for time is the second(s)
•To find the amount of time it takes a pendulum to make a spin, time ~25 circles and then
divide by the same number as the number of circles.
1.2 Speed, velocity and acceleration
• Speed is the distance an object moves in a time frame. It is
measured in metres/second (m/s) or kilometers/hour (km/h).
speed = distance moved / time taken
Distance/time graphs and speed/time graphs:

• Calculating distance traveled:

-with constant speed: speed × time
-with constant acceleration: (final speed + initial speed)/2 × period of acceleration
• Acceleration is the change in velocity per unit of time, measured in metres
per second per second, or m/s 2. average acceleration = change in velocity /
time taken
a=v-u/t
An increase in speed is a positive acceleration, a decrease in
speed is a negative acceleration / deceleration / retardation.
• If acceleration is not constant, the speed/time graph will be curved.
• The downwards acceleration of an object is caused by gravity. This happens
most when an object is in free fall (falling with nothing holding it up). Objects are
slowed down by air resistance. Once air resistance is equal to the force of gravity,
the object has reached terminal velocity. This means that it will stay at a constant
velocity. (This varies for every object). The value of g (gravity) on Earth is
9.81m/s2. However 10m/s2can be used for most calculations.
1.3 Mass and weight
• Mass: the property of an object that is a measure of its inertia (a
resistance to accelerate), the amount of matter it contains.
• Weight is the force of gravity acting on an object,
measured in Newtons, and give by the formula:
Weight = mass × acceleration due to gravity
• Weights (and hence masses) may be compared using a balance
1.4 Density
• To determine the density of a liquid, place a measuring cylinder on a balance,
then fill the measuring cylinder with some liquid. The change in mass is the mass
of the liquid and the volume is shown on the scale, then use the formula:
Density = mass / volume
• To determine the density of an object you use the methods mentioned in
section 1.1 to find out volume and then weigh the object and then use the
formula.
1.5 Forces
1.5 (a) Effects of forces
• A force may produce a change in size and shape of a body, give an
acceleration or deceleration or a change in direction depending on the
direction of the force.
• Extension/load graph:

Experiment:
Extension = Final length - original length

• Finding the resultant force of two or more forces acting along the same line:

• Hooke’s Law: springs extend in proportion to load, as long as

they are under their proportional limit.
Load (N) = spring constant (N/mm) x extension (mm)
F=kx
• Limit of proportionality: point at which load and extension are no longer proportional
Elastic limit: point at which the spring will not return to its original shape after being
stretched
Force = mass × acceleration
Forces are measured in Newtons. 1 Newton is the amount of force needed to give 1kg an
acceleration of 1m/s2(if you think about it using the equation it’s really obvious: if
force = mass × acceleration then 1 Newton = 1kg × 1m/s2)
 Circular motions

An object at steady speed in a circular orbit is always accelerating as its

direction is changing, but it gets no closer to the centre
•Centripetal force is the force acting towards the centre of a circle. It is
a force that is needed (not caused by) a circular motion, for example
when you swing a ball on a string round in a circle, the tension of the
string is the centripetal force. If the string is cut then the ball will travel in a
straight line at a tangent to the circle at the point where the string was cut
(Newton’s first law)

Newton’s laws are not in the syllabus but if it helps here they are:
Newton’s 1stlaw of motion: If no external forces acting on it, an object
will, if stationary, remain stationary, and if moving, keep moving at a
steady speed in the same straight line Newton’s 2ndlaw of motion: F = m
× a -acceleration is proportional to the force, and inversely proportional to
mass.
Newtons 3rdlaw of motion: if object A exerts a force on object B, then
object B will exert an equal but opposite force on object A
or, more simply:
To every action there is an equal but opposite reaction
1.5 (b) Turning effect
Moment of a force about a pivot (Nm) = force (N) x distance from pivot (m)
Moments of a force are measured in Newton meters, and can be either
clockwise or anticlockwise. •Turning a bolt is far easier with a wrench
because the distance from the pivot is massively increased, and so is
the turning effect (this also applies to pushing a door open from the
handle compared to near the hinge).
• If you have a beam on a pivot then:
-if the clockwise moments are greater, then the beam will
tilt in the clockwise direction and vice versa.
-if clockwise moments = anticlockwise moments then the
beam is in equilibrium. The only thing which isn’t really easy
about moments is its calculation: Do understand it.

1.5 (c) Conditions for equilibrium

• If a beam is in equilibrium, there are no resultant moments and zero resultant
force.
1.5 (e) Scalars and vectors
• A scalar is a quantity that only has a magnitude (so it can only be
positive) for example speed. A vector quantity has a direction as well as
a magnitude, for example velocity, which can be negative. • More ways to
add vectors (Pythagoras’s theorem and the parallelogram rule):

1.6 Energy, work and power

1.6 (a) Energy
• An object may have energy because of its movement (kinetic energy) or
because of its position, for example a book on a shelf has gravitational
potential energy - it can fall off the shelf. Energy can be transferred from
one type to another for example if the book falls off the shelf its gpe is
turned into ke. Energy is stored for example the book stores gpe, or a
starch molecule stores chemical energy in its bonds.
 An object can transfer its energy to another object too, for example conducting heat.

Energy type What is it? example

Kinetic energy energy due to motion any moving object

Gravitational energy from the potential to fall a book on a shelf

potential energy

Chemical energy stored in chemical bonds glucose molecules have energy, but starch
potential energy has more bonds so stores more energy

Strain or elastic something compressed or stretched compressed spring and stretched elastic band
potential energy has the potential to do work

Nuclear potential energy released when energy is released when atoms are made to
energy particles in atoms are decay in nuclear power stations
rearranged or an atom
splits

Internal energy kinetic + potential energy

Electrical the energy carried by electrons energy transferred from a battery to a bulb
potential energy

Radiated Light energy carried in light waves light from the sun
energy
sound energy carried in sound waves sound from a loudspeaker

• The conservation of energy principle: energy cannot be created or destroyed, when work is
done, energy is changed from one form to another. The most everyday example of this is when we
move, our cells turn chemical energy (in glucose bonds) into thermal and kinetic energy.
Kinetic energy (J) = ½ x Mass x Velocity2
ke = ½ x m x v2
Gravitational Potential Energy (J) = Mass (kg) x Gravity (m/s2) x Height (m)
gpe = m x g x h
1.6 (b) Energy resources
•Renewable source of energy: is inexhaustible, for example solar, hydroelectric, wind etc.
Non-renewable source of energy: is exhaustible for example fossil fuels
•fuels can be burnt (or nuclear fuel can be forced to decay) in thermal power stations to transform the
chemical energy stored to thermal energy which makes steam which turns turbines (kinetic energy) to
produce electricity -advantage: cheap, plentiful, low-tech
-disadvantage: harmful wastes -produced greenhouse gases and pollutant gases, radiation...
•hydroelectric dams: rivers and rain water fill up a lake behind a dam. As water rushes down through the
dam, it turns turbines which turn generators
•tidal power scheme: a dam is built across a river where it meets the sea. The lake behind the dam fills
when the tide comes in and empties when the tide goes out. The flow of water turns the generator.
-advantage: no greenhouse gases are produced
-disadvantage: expensive, can’t be built everywhere
•wave energy: generators are driven by the up and down motion of the waves at sea.
-advantage: does not produce greenhouse gases
-disadvantage: difficult to build
•geothermal resources: water is pumped down to hot rocks deep underground and rises
as steam. -advantage: no carbon dioxide is produced
-disadvantage: deep drilling is difficult and expensive
•nuclear fission: uranium atoms are split by shooting neutrons at them.
-advantage: produces a lot of energy from using very little resources
-disadvantage: producing radioactive waste
•solar cells: are made of materials that can deliver an electrical current when they absorb light
energy •solar panels: absorb the energy and use it to heat water
-advantage: does not produce carbon dioxide
-disadvantage: variable amounts of sunshine in some countri
• Efficiency: how much useful work is done with the energy supplied.
Efficiency (%) = Useful Work Done (J) / Total Energy Input (J)
Efficiency (%) = Useful Energy Output (J) / Total Energy Input (J)
Efficiency (%) = Useful Power Output (W) / Total Power Input (W)
•In the sun, energy is created through a process called nuclear fusion: hydrogen nuclei are
pushed together to form helium.
1.6 (c) Work
•Work is done whenever a force makes something move. The unit for work is the
Joule (J). 1 joule of work = force of 1 Newton moves an object by 1 meter (again, if
you employ the formula its common sense)
W=Fxd
Work done (J) = Force (N) x Distance (m)
1.6 (d) Power
Power (W) = Work done (J) / Time Taken (s)
1.7 Pressure
•If a heavier person steps on your foot, it hurts more than if a light person does it. If
someone with high heels steps on your foot then it hurts more than if someone with
large flat shoes does it, so we know that if force increases, pressure increases and if
area decreases, pressure increases and vice versa.
Pressure (Pa) = Force (N) / area (m2)
P = F/A
•The barometer has a tube with vacuum at the top and mercury filling the rest. The
pressure of the air pushes down on the reservoir, forcing the mercury up the tube. You
measure the height of the mercury in the test tube, and the units used are mm of
mercury. ~760 mm of mercury is 1 atm. •A manometer measures the pressure
difference. The height difference shows the excess pressure: the extra pressure in
addition to atmospheric pressure.

•Pressure in liquids is called hydrostatic pressure. It

increases with depth and given by this formula: p = ρ x g x
h
Pressure (Pa) = Density (kg/m ) x Gravity (m/s2) x Height (m)
3

2. Thermal physics
2.1 Simple kinetic molecular model of matter
2.1 (a) States of matter

Solid: fixed shape and volume

Liquid: has fixed volume but changes shape depending on its container
Gases: no fixed shape or volume, gases fill up their containers
 2.1 (b) Molecular model
Solid:
1. Strong forces of attraction between particles
2. Have a fixed pattern (lattice)
3. Atoms vibrate but can’t change position.
Liquid:
1. Weaker attractive forces than solids
2. No fixed pattern
3. Particles slide past each other.
Gas:
1. Almost no intermolecular forces
2. Particles are far apart, and move quickly, gases spread out to fill up the
container and exert equal pressure on all surfaces.
3. They collide with each other and bounce in all directions.
•The hotter a material is, the faster its particles move, and the more internal
energy they have.
•The pressure gases exert on a container is due to the particles
colliding on the container walls.
•If the volume is constant, then increasing the temperature will increase the
pressure.
•If you look at smoke through a microscope, you will see the particles move in a
zigzag motion. This is known as Brownian motion. The smoke particles have very
little mass but are larger enough to be seen. They collide with the air particles
randomly and move in different directions, to give a random motion.
•Liquids and gases do not have a fixed shape because of their weak forces of
attraction. Gases can be compressed because there is plenty of space between the
particles; solids can’t because such space does not exist. The particles in a solid cannot
move because they are held tightly together by the attractive forces, but can vibrate.
2.1 (c) Evaporation
•Evaporation: constantly occurs on the surface of liquids. It is the escape
of the more energetic particles. If the more energetic particles escape, the
liquid contains fewer high energy particles and more lower energy particles
so the average temperature decreases. •Evaporation can be accelerated
by:
-increasing temperature: more particles have enough energy to escape
-increasing surface area: more molecules are close to the surface
-reduce the humidity level in the air: molecules in the water vapor return
to the liquid at around the same rate that particles escape the liquid, when
the air is humid. If the air is less humid, fewer particles are condensing.
-blow air across the surface: removes molecules before they can return to the liquid

2.1 (d) Pressure changes

The relationship between pressure and volume of a fixed amount of
gas at a fixed temperature can be expressed by the formula:
P1x V1= P2x V2
This is also known as Boyle’s law. This is proven by the kinetic theory. If the
volume is halved and the same amount of gas is on the inside of the container,
twice as many impacts will occur on the surface.
2.2 Thermal properties
2.2 (a) Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases
•Solids, liquids and gasses expand when they are heated as the atoms
vibrate more and this causes them to become further apart, taking up a
greater volume.
•Everyday applications and consequences:
-hot water is used to heat up a lid of a jar, to make it expand, so that it is
easier to remove -the liquid in thermometers expand and contract when
temperature changes, the volume of the liquid taken up in the tube can be
used to find out the temperature

-bimetal thermostat: when the temperature gets too high, the bimetal strip
bends, to make contacts separate until the temperature falls enough, then the
metal strip will become straight again and the contacts touch, to maintain a
steady temperature
-overhead cables have to be slack so that on cold days, when
they contract, they don’t snap or detach. -gaps have to be left in
bridge to allow for expansion (rollers allow the bridge to expand)

• “For a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure, the volume is directly

proportional to the Kelvin Temperature.”
•Expansion is highest in gases, then liquids and lowest in solids.

2.2 (b) Measurement of temperature

•A physical property that varies with temperature may be used for
measurement of temperature for example:
-liquid-in-glass thermometer: the property is thermal expansion. As
temperature rises or falls, the liquid (mercury or alcohol) expands or contracts.
The amount of expansion can be matched to a temperature on the scale.

-thermocouple thermometer (below): the probe contains 2 different metals

joined to form 2 junctions. The temperature difference causes a tiny voltage
which makes a current flow. A greater temperature difference gives a greater
current. Thermocouple thermometers are used for high temperatures which
change rapidly. They have a large range (-200C° to 1100°C) and can be
connected to electrical circuits or a computer.
•Responsiveness: How long it takes for the thermometer to react to a change in temperature
(increased by making the glass bulb thinner or making the bulb smaller)
•Linearity: If the sizes of the individual degrees are closer to each other then
it is more linear. 2.2 (c) Thermal capacity
•When something has a rise in temperature, its internal energy increases.
•Thermal Capacity: capacity for absorbing thermal energy, given by
this formula: Thermal capacity = specific heat capacity (J/Kg) ×
mass
•Specific heat capacity: is the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram
of a substance by 1°C, the unit for specific heat capacity is J/(Kg°C)
Specific heat capacity = energy transferred / (mass × temperature change)
c = E / (m × ΔT)
Energy transferred = mass × specific heat capacity × temperature change
E = mc ΔT
•An experiment can be carried out to find the specific
heat capacity of a substance.
You should know the power of the electric heater, the
amount of time it is left on, the mass of the material
being tested and the temperature change.For a liquid,
it can be simply poured in, but for a solid like
Aluminium, holes have to be drilled in for the heater
and thermometer.
Power of heater × time left on = energy supplied by
heater Energy supplied by heater / (mass ×
temperature change) = specific heat capacity
The experiment makes no allowance for any thermal
energy lost from the beaker, so the value of c is
approximate.
2.2 (d) Melting and boiling
•When melting or boiling a substance, energy is put in, but there is no change in
temperature. The energy absorbed is called the latent heat of fusion/vaporization.
A change of state happens when the particles have enough energy to overcome the
forces between them. In melting, the solid vibrates so much that the particles can
break away from their positions.

The latent heat of fusion is the amount of energy needed to melt 1Kg
of a substance. The latent heat of evaporation is the amount of
energy needed to boil 1Kg of a
substance.
When a substance freezes it is losing the same amount of energy as the latent
heat of fusion

•Melting point is the temperature at which a substance (in solid state)

melts (it is equal to the freezing point)

•Boiling point is the temperature at which a substance (in liquid state) boils (“you don’t say”)

•Condensation and solidification: is when a gas turns back into a liquid. When a
gas is cooled, the particles lose energy. They move more and more slowly. When
they bump into each other, they do not have enough energy to bounce away again.
They stay close together, and a liquid forms. When a liquid cools, the particles slow
down even more. Eventually they stop moving except for vibrations and solid forms.

•Evaporation and boiling:

Evaporation constantly occurs on the surface of liquids. The high energy

particles escape from the liquid, even at low temperatures.

Boiling occurs at the boiling point (I bet you didn't know that) and then the
liquid evaporates everywhere in the liquid (not just on the surface) and is
much faster.

•Measure the specific latent heat of evaporation/fusion of:

1) Ice – the apparatus is set up like in the diagram below on the left, you
need to know the power of the heater, how long it is left on for, how
much water is produced in kilograms then you do the following
calculations: Power × time = energy transferred
Energy transferred / mass = latent heat of fusion
So, (power of heater × time left on) / mass of water in beaker in kilograms
= latent heat of fusion 2) Water – the apparatus is set up like in the
diagram on the right. The electric heater is left on for a certain amount of
time (you don’t have to boil all the water, just some of it). You need to
know: power of the heater, and how long it is left on for.
Power of heater × time left on / change in mass = latent heat of vaporization.
2.3 Transfer of thermal energy
2.3 (a) Conduction
These experiments show which metal is the best conductor (copper and A), and which is the worst
(steel and D)

Conduction: in non-metals - when heat is supplied to something, its

atoms vibrate faster and pass on their vibrations to the adjacent atoms. In
metals – conduction happens in the previous way and in a
quicker way –some electrons are free to move, they travel
randomly in the metal and collide with atoms and pass on the
vibrations.
2.3 (b) Convection
Convection: as a fluid (liquid or gas) warms up, the particles
which are warmer become less dense and rise. They then cool
and fall back to the heat source,
creating a cycle called a convection current. As particles
circulate they transfer energy to other particles. If a cooling object
is above a fluid it will create a
convection current (like the freezing compartment at the top of a fridge)
2.3 (c) Radiation
Thermal radiation is mainly infra-red waves, but very hot objects also give out light
waves. Infra-red radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Matt Black White Silver

emitter best worst

reflector worst best

absorber best worst

2.3 (d) Consequences of energy transfer

Applications
-solar panel: the sun’s thermal radiation is absorbed by a matt black surface and
warms up the pipes containing water
-refrigerator: the freezer compartment is located at the top of the refrigerator. It cools
down the air which then sinks. Any warm air rises to the top and then is cooled. This
creates a convection current which maintains a cold temperature. -metals are used in
cooking pans because they conduct the heat well
Consequences
-a metal spoon in a hot drink will warm up because it conducts the heat

-a black saucepan cools better than a white one, white houses stay cooler than dark
ones.
3. Properties of waves, including light and sound
3.1 General wave properties
•Wavefront: the peak of a transverse wave or the compression of a longitudinal wave
•Speed: how fast the wave travels measured in m/s
•Frequency: the number of waves passing any point per second measured in
hertz (Hz), given by this formula:
Frequency = 1 / period
•Wavelength: the distance between a point on one wave (e.g. the trough) to the
equivalent point on the next wave in meters e.g. from crest to crest or compression
to compression •Amplitude: the maximum distance a wave moves from its rest
position when a wave passes
•Period: the time taken for one oscillation in seconds

•Transverse waves (e.g. light waves) have oscillations at right-angles (perpendicular)

to the direction of travel, where as in longitudinal wave the oscillations are in the
direction of travel (parallel). Transverse waves have crests(peaks) and troughs;
where as longitudinal waves (e.g. sound waves) have compressions and
rarefactions.

Reflection, refraction and diffraction of water waves

Refraction:

Reflection:
 Diffraction:

Reflection: waves bounce away from the surface at the same angle they
strike it, (angle of incidence = angle of reflection).
Refraction: when the water waves pass through shallow water they slow down
the waves. When waves slow down they change direction.
Things to note about refraction:
-waves slow down when they pass from a less to a more dense material
and vice versa -when a wave is slowed down, it is refracted towards the
normal (i > r)
-when a wave is sped up, it is refracted away from the normal (i < r)
-deep water is denser than shallow water
Diffraction: waves bend around the sides of an obstacle, or spread out as they
pass through a gap. Wider gaps produce less diffraction.
•The wave equation is:
Speed (m/s) = Frequency (Hz) x Wavelength (m)
v=fxλ
Ray box method:
Using the ray box, pass a ray through a glass slab on a white sheet of paper. Mark two points on
the incident ray with your pen/pencil on the paper, two of the refracted ray, 2 of the emergent ray
and the outline of the glass slab. Then by connecting the dots you can produce a diagram like the
one below, a protractor is used to find the angles.
•When a ray passes through a parallel sided transparent
material its passage will look like this:
Note: the emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray.
•Critical angle: the angle at which the refracted ray is parallel to
the surface of the material. If the angle of incidence is greater
than the critical angle there is no refracted ray, there is total
internal reflection. If the angle of incidence is less than the
critical angle the incidence ray will split into a refracted ray and
a weaker reflected ray.

When the incidence angle is equal to the critical angle, the angle of refraction is 90° (parallel to the surface).
Critical angle = sin-1(1/n)
•Optical fibres: light put in at one end is totally internally reflected until it comes out the other
end. This is used in communications where signals are coded and sent along the fibre as
pulses of laser light, and in medicine: an endoscope, an instrument used by surgeons to look
inside the body. It contains a long bundle of optic fibres.
3.2 (c) Thin converging lens
•Principal focus: the point where rays parallel to the principal axis converge with
a converging lens.
•Focal length: distance from the principal focus and the optical centre.
•Principal axis: the line that goes through the optical centre, and the 2 foci.
•Optical centre: the centre of the lens
This is a real image (when the object is further away from the optical centre then F’is):
A) A ray through the centre of the lens passes
straight through the lens.
B) A ray parallel to the principal axis passes
through the focus on the other
side of the lens
C) A ray through F’ will leave the lens parallel to
the principal
axis.
•This is a virtual image (when the object is
closer to the optical centre than
F’ is):

•Magnifying glass: when a convex lens is used like this - an object is closer to a
convex (converging) lens than the principal focus (like the diagram above), the rays
never converge. Instead, they appear to come from a position behind the lens. The
image is upright and magnified, it is a virtual image.

3.2 (d) Dispersion of light

•Refraction by a prism: When light is refracted by a prism, the incidence ray
is not parallel to the emergent ray, since the prism’s sides are not parallel. If
a beam of white light is passed through a prism it is dispersed into a
spectrum. White light is a mixture of colours, and the prism refracts each
colour by a different amount – red is deviated the least and violet the most.

3.2 (e) Electromagnetic spectrum

•All electromagnetic waves:
-travel at the speed of light: 3 × 108m/s
-do not need a medium to travel through i.e. can travel through a vacuum
-can transfer energy
-are produced by particles oscillating or losing energy in some way
-are transverse waves
•Uses
:
Radio waves –radio and television communications
Microwaves –satellite television and telephones
Infrared – electrical appliances (radiant heaters and grills), remote controllers
for televisions and intruder alarms X-rays – medicine (x-ray photography and
killing cancer cells) and security •Safety issues:
X-rays –is a mutagen, it cause cancer (mutations)
Microwaves –cause internal heating of body tissues
•Monochromatic: light of a single wavelength and colour (used in lasers)
 3.3 Sound
•Production: sound waves come from a vibrating source for example a loudspeaker.
As the loudspeaker cone vibrates, it moves forwards and backwards, which squashes
and stretches the air in front. As a result, a series of compressions (squashes) and
rarefactions (stretches) travel out through the air, these are sound waves.
•Sound waves are longitudinal: they have compressions and
rarefactions and oscillate backwards and forwards. •Humans can hear
frequencies between 20 and 20 000Hz.
•Sound waves need a medium (a material) to travel
through.

•Experiment: When sound reflects off of a wall, it will come back to you. This is what you
hear as an echo. If you know the distance between you and the wall, and measure how long
it takes for the echo to sound, you can figure out the speed of sound in air. Remember to
take into account that the sound has gone there and back
•Higher frequency → a higher pitch
Larger amplitude → louder sound
• Compression: high pressure section of the wave
Rarefaction: low pressure section of the wave

•Speed of sound is highest in solids (concrete: 5000m/s) then in liquids (pure

water: 1400m/s) and slowest in gases (air: 330m/s).

4. Electricity and magnetism

4.1 Simple phenomena of magnetism
•Magnets have these properties:
-has a magnetic field around it
-has 2 opposite poles(North or north-seeking pole and South or south-seeking pole) which
exert forces on other magnets. Like poles repel and unlike poles attract.
-will attract magnetic materials by inducing (permanent or temporary)
magnetism in them. -will exert little or no force on a non-magnetic material
•Induced magnetism: magnets attract materials by inducing magnetism in them, in other words
the material becomes a magnet as well. The side of the material facing the magnet will become
the opposite pole as the magnet.
•Ferrous material: magnetic – anything which contains iron, nickel, or cobalt can be magnetized
•Non-ferrous material: non-magnetic e.g. copper, grass, ketchup, butter, wood, ass-gravy (poop)
etc. •Magnetisation methods:
-inducing magnetism produces a weak magnet. It can be magnetized strongly by stroking with
one end of a magnet, in one direction.
-the most effective method is to place the metal in a long coil of wire (solenoid) and pass a large
DC (direct current) through the coil.
•Demagnetisation methods:
-SMASH IT WITH A HAMMER, dropping etc.
-heating to a high temperature
-solenoid method but with alternating current and then slowly removing from coil
•Iron vs. steel: iron is a soft ferromagnetic material meaning it will magnetize and demagnetise easily. Steel
is a hard ferromagnetic material meaning it is hard to magnetize and demagnetise. Soft ferromagnetic
materials are used to create temporary magnets. Hard ferromagnetic materials are used to create permanent
magnets like fridge magnets, horse-shoe magnets. The magnetic field lines go from north to south. The north
pole of a a magnet can be found by placing a compass near the magnet. The needle will point the direction
of the magnetic field line.

•Conductors: materials that let electrons pass through them. Metals are the best electrical conductors as they
have free electrons. This also makes them good thermal conductors
•Insulators: materials that hardly conduct at all. Their electrons are tightly held to atoms and
hardly move, but they can be transferred by rubbing
•The SI unit of charge is the Coulomb (C).

Electric field lines :

Charge: a
charge that “appears” on an uncharged object because of a charged object nearby, for example if a positively
charged rod is brought near a small piece of aluminium foil. Electrons in the foil are pulled towards the rod, which
leaves the bottom of the foil with a net positive charge. The attraction is stronger than the repulsion because the
attracting charges are closer than the repelling ones.
 4.2 (b) Current
•Current: a flow of charge, the SI unit is the Ampere(A).
•An ammeter measures the current in a circuit. It is connected in series, the current is a rate
of flow of charge.

Charge (C) = current (A) x time (s)

Q=Ixt

•The conventional current direction is the direction the positive particles would travel in. This is the
opposite of what actually happens, as it is the negative particles (electrons) that move. Conventional
current is indicated with arrows on the lines (wires). Conventional current goes from the positive side
(long line in cell drawing) to the negative side (short line in cell drawing). Actual current goes from the
negative side (short line in cell drawing) to the positive side (long line in cell drawing).

4.2 (c) Electro-motive force

•The maximum voltage a cell can produce is called the electromotive force (EMF), measured in
volts. When a current is being supplied, the voltage is lower because of the energy wastage inside the
cell. A cell produces its maximum PD when not in a circuit and not supplying current.

4.2 (d) Potential Difference

•Potential difference, or PD for short, is also known as voltage. Voltage is the amount of energy
the cell gives the electrons it pushes out. Voltage is measured in volts (V) and is measured by a
voltmeter (connected in parallel). If a cell has 1 Volt, it delivers 1 Joule of energy to each coulomb
of charge (J/C).

Voltage = Energy / Charge

Volts = Joules / Coulomb
V=E/C

4.2 (e) Resistance

Resistance (Ω) = potential difference (V) / current (A)

R=V/I

•Factors affecting resistance:

-Length
Double the length = double the resistance (proportional)

-Cross-sectional area
Half the cross-sectional area = double the resistance (inversely proportional)

-Material
Better conductor = less resistance
-Temperature

For metal conductors higher temperature = more resistance

For semi-metal conductors higher temperature = less resistance
The V =IR law can be investigated with the following apparatus:

4.2 (f) Electrical energy

Electrical power = Voltage (V) × Current (A)
P=V×I
Electrical energy (J) = power (W) × time (s)
E=P×t
Electrical energy (J) = Voltage (V) × Current (A) × time (s)
E=V×I×t
4.3 Electrical circuits
4.3 (a) Circuit diagram
4.3 (b) Series and parallel circuits
•The current at any point in a series circuit is the same
• The current splits at each branch in a parallel circuit so the total
current is always greater than the current in one branch

•Combining Resistors:
In series:
Rtotal = R1+ R2
In parallel:
Rtotal = 1/(1/R1+ 1/R2)

•The combined resistance of 2 resistors in parallel is less than that of either resistor by
itself •The advantages of putting lamps in parallel are:
 1. if one lamp breaks, the other still works
2. each lamp gets maximum PD
•in series: PD across the supply = PD across all the components
combined •in parallel: Current across the source = sum of currents in
the separate branches

4.3 (c) Action and use of circuit components

•A potential divider divides the voltage into smaller parts. To find the voltage (at
Vout) we use the following formula: Vout = Vin x ( R2/ Rtotal )

•A variable potential divider (potentiometer) is the same as the one above but using a
variable resistor; it acts like a potential divider, but you can change the output voltage.
•Thermistor: It is a temperature-dependent resistor. At higher temperatures there is
less resistance.
•Light dependent resistor (LDR): input sensor and a transducer. When
light intensity increases, resistance decreases.
•Capacitor: store small amounts of electric charge. They are used in time-delay
circuits.
•Relay: a switch operated by an electromagnet
•Diode: a device that has an extremely high resistance in one direction and a low resistance in
the other, therefore it effectively only allows current to flow in 1 direction (the arrow on it is pointing
in the conventional current direction).
It can be used in a rectifier. A rectifier turns AC current into DC current.

4.3 (d) Digital electronics

•Analogue uses a whole range of continuous variations to transmit a signal. Digital
signals use only 2 states, on and off. With on and off signals logic gates can be used to
manipulate these.
Logic gates are processors (manipulate the signals) that are circuits containing transistors
and other components.
Here are the logic gates that you need to know:

4.4 Dangers of electricity

•Damaged insulation: contact with the wire (live wire especially) due to gap in the insulation
causes electric shock which can cause serious injury or shock.
•Overheating of cables: when long extension leads are coiled up, they may overheat. The current
warms the wire, but the heat has less area to escape from a tight bundle. This might cause a fire.
•Damp conditions: water can conduct a current, so if electrical equipment is wet someone might get
Electrocuted.
•Fuses: a thin piece of wire which overheats and melts (the fuse ‘blows’) if the current is too high. It is
placed on the live wire before the switch. This prevents overheating and catching fire. A fuse will have a
specific current value (e.g. 13A) so when choosing a suitable fuse you must use the one which can have the
lowest current value but over/a little above from the current value of the appliance.

•Circuit breakers: an automatic switch which if the current rises over a specified value, the electromagnet
pulls the contacts apart, breaking the circuit. The reset button is to rest everything. It works like a fuse but is
better because it can be reset.

The current and EMF direction can be reversed by:

-moving the wire in the opposite direction
-turning the magnet round so that the field direction is reversed
The current direction is given by Fleming’s right-hand rule:
2. A bar magnet is pushed into a coil. If the coil is part of a circuit, a current will flow;

The induced EMF (and current) can be increased by:

-moving the magnet faster
-using a stronger magnet
-increasing the number of turns in the coil

- If the magnet is pulled away, the direction of the induced EMF (and current) is reversed
- using the S pole instead of the N pole reverses the direction of the induced
EMF (and current)
- if the magnet is held still, there is no EMF

An induced current always flows in a direction such that it opposes the change which produced it.

When a magnet is moved towards a coil the pole of the coil and magnet next to each other
are the
same. When the magnet is moved away the poles are opposite (opposite poles attract). The
pole-type (north or south) is controlled by the direction in which the current is induced.
The direction of the current in a solenoid (coil) is given by the right-hand grip rule:

The fingers point in the conventional current direction and the thumb gives the
North Pole.
4.5 (b) A.C. generator
• The coil is made of insulated copper wire and is rotated by turning the shaft. The slip rings are
fixed to the coil and rotate with it. The brushes are 2 contacts which rub against the slip rings and
keep the coil connected to the outside part of the circuit, usually made of carbon. When the coil is
rotated, it cuts magnetic field lines, so an EMF is generated, which makes a current flow. Each
side of the coil travels upwards then downwards then upwards etc. so the current flows backwards
then forwards then backwards etc. so it is an alternating current. The current is maximum when
the coil is horizontal since field lines are being cut at the fastest rate and 0 when the coil is
vertical, since it is cutting NO field lines.

The EMF can be increased by:

-increasing the number of turns on the coil
-increasing the area of the coil
-using a stronger magnet
-rotating the coil faster

4.5 (c) Transformer

•AC currents (only, not DC) can be increased or decreased by using a transformer.
•A transformer is made of a primary/input coil, a secondary/output coil and an iron core. The iron
core gets magnetized by the incoming current. This magnetism then creates a current in the
leaving wire. The power is the same on both sides (since we assume 100% efficiency and that all
the field lines pass through both coils). You can figure out the number of coils and the voltage
with:
Output voltage / Input voltage = Turns on output coil / Turns on input coil
V2
/ V1= n2
/ n1
Input voltage × input current = output voltage × output current
V1 × I1= V2× I2 (for 100% efficiency)
Power1= Power2
A transformer works by electromagnetic induction. As you saw before, an EMF (and current)
can be induced by moving a magnetic field. A changing magnetic field can have the same effect.
Turning an electromagnet next to a coil on or off will induce a very short-lasting EMF in the coil,
but leaving the electromagnet on will not, since the magnetic field is not changing. Switching the
electromagnet off will induce an EMF in the opposite direction of switching it on. The EMF can be
increased if the core of the electromagnet goes right though the second coil or by increasing the
number of coils in the second coil. An alternating current in a transformer’s primary coil creates an
alternating magnetic field in the core and therefore in the second coil. The alternating magnetic
field creates an alternating voltage in the second coil.

4.5 (d) The magnetic effect of a current

•Magnetic field around a current carrying wire and a solenoid:
1. Increasing the current increases the strength of the field
2. Increasing the number of turns of a coil increases the strength.
3. Reversing the current direction reverses the magnetic field direction (right-hand rule).
•The magnetic effect of current is used in a relay and a circuit breaker.

4.5 (e) Force on a current-carrying conductor

•If a current carrying conductor is in a magnetic field, it warps the field lines. The field lines
from the magnet want to straighten out naturally. This causes a catapult-like action on the
wire creating a force. The direction of the force, current or magnetic field is given by
Fleming’s left-hand rule:
-if you reverse the current, you will reverse the direction of the force
-if you reverse the direction of the field, you will reverse the direction of the force.
• “Describe an experiment to show the corresponding force on beams of charged
particles” An electron gun creates a beam of electrons. The screen is coated with a
fluorescent material which glows when electrons strike it. Current is passed through a pair
of coils, to create a magnetic field. NOTE: the direction of the electron beam is the
opposite to the conventional current direction so when using the left-hand rule you have to
point in the opposite direction of the electron beam.
•The turning effect can be increased by:
-increasing the current
-using a stronger magnet
-increasing the number of coils (increases the length of coil)
-increasing the area of the coil (increases the length of coil)
•Reversing the rotation can be done by:
-reversing the battery
-reversing the poles
This equation isn’t needed but is useful for remembering the ways to increase the
turning effect: Force exerted on wire = magnetic field strength ×
current × length of wire
5. Atomic physics
5.1 Radioactivity
5.1 (a) Detection of radioactivity
•Background radiation: the small amount of radiation around us all the time because of
radioactive materials in the environment. It mainly comes from natural sources such as
soil, rocks, air, building materials, food and drink – and even space.
•Detection:

Alpha, Beta and Gamma – the Geiger-Müller (GM) tube

The “window” end is thin enough for alpha particles to pass through. If an alpha particle
enters the tube, it ionizes the gas inside. This sets off a high-voltage spark across the gas
and a pulse of current in the circuit. A beta particle or gamma radiation has the same
effect. It can be connected to a ratemeter (tells the counts per seconds), a scaler (tells the
total number of particles or bursts of gamma radiation) or an amplifier or loudspeaker
(makes a click for every particle/burst of radiation.
5.1 (b) Characteristics of the three kinds of emission

5.1 (c) Radioactive decay

Radioactive decay: A radioisotope (an unstable arrangement of neutrons and protons in a
nucleus) is altered to make a more stable arrangement. The parent nucleus becomes a
daughter nucleus and a particle (decay products). Words and symbol equations using
examples:
•Alpha decay: An element with a proton number 2 lower and nucleon number 4 lower,
and an alpha particle is made (2p + 2n)
e.g. Words: Radium-226 nucleus (parent nucleus) → Radon-222 (daughter nucleus)
helium-4 nucleus (alpha particle)
Symbols:

•Beta decay:
A neutron changes into a proton, an electron and an antineutrino so an element with the
same nucleon number (just 1 neutron is now a proton but the mass is the same) but with
a proton number 1 higher e.g.

Words: iodine-131 nucleus → xenon-131 nucleus + antineutrino + beta particles (electron) :

•Gamma emission:
With some isotopes, the emission of an alpha or beta particle from a nucleus leaves the
protons
and neutrons in an “excited” arrangement. As the protons and neutrons rearrange to
become more
stable, they lose energy. This is emitted and the mass and atomic number are uncharged.
Gamma emission by itself causes no change in mass number or atomic number.
5.1 (d) Half-life
•Half-life of a radioisotope: is the time taken for half the nuclei present in any given
sample to decay. Some nuclei are more stable than others.
5.1 (e) Safety precautions
•radioactive stuff is stored in a lead container, in a locked cabinet
•picked up with tongs, not your feet
•kept away from the body, not pointed at people
•left out of its container for as short a time as possible
5.2 The nuclear atom
5.2 (a) Atomic model
•Atoms consist of:
A nucleus – the central part of the atom made of protons (positively charged) and
neutrons.
These two types of particles are called nucleons. They are bound
together by the strong nuclear force.
Electrons – almost massless particles which orbit the nucleus in shells.
Rutherford’s experiment: Thin gold foil is bombarded with alpha particles, which are
positively charged. Most passed straight through, but few were repelled so strongly that
they were bounced back or deflected at large angles. Rutherford concluded that the atom
must be largely empty space, with its positive charge and most of
its mass concentrated in a tiny nucleus.

5.2 (b) Nucleus

•The nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons.
•Proton number: is the number of protons in an atom (you don’t say)
•Nucleon number: the number of nucleons (protons and neutrons)
in an atom
5.2 (c) Isotopes
Isotope: atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons
e.g. Carbon 12 and Carbon 14.
-There are non-radioactive isotopes and radio-isotopes. Radio isotopes are
unstable atoms, which break down giving radiation.
-Medical use: cancer treatment (radiotherapy) –rays kill cancer cells using
cobalt-60.
Industrial use: to check for leaks – radioisotopes called tracers are added to oil or gas. At
the leaks radiation is detected using a Geiger counter, (if you need to name an element
then say carbon 14 – used for carbon dating).

This might be useful:

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