SOIL MECHANICS IB-EECQ 3271

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING IN CIVIL

ENGINEERING

Dr. George Okwadha

 Cohesion
• When a vertical cut is made through some silts and
clay, it remains standing
• When a cut is made on a dry sand it slumps until its
slope is equal to an angle known as the angle of
repose or an angle of shearing resistance or an angle
of internal friction
• The factor that holds silts and clay together is called
cohesion
• Cohesion results from the mutual attraction existing
between fine grained particles that holds them
together in a soil mass without the application of
external forces
 Cohesion Cont’
• In terms of the Mohr
diagram, the shear τ
envelop for clay soil for
undrained conditions no
longer goes through the
𝛕𝐟 = 𝑐
origin but intercepts the
shear stress axis. c
• The intercept to the
same scale as σn σ
gives a measure of the
unit cohesion
available and is given
by the symbol C
 Coulomb’s law of soil shear strength
• The shear resistance offered by • In 1776, Coulomb suggested
a particular soil is made of that the shear strength
– Cohesion envelop of a soil could be
– Friction expressed by a straight line
equation given by
• Friction resistance, τ varies
with the value of normal 𝝉𝒇 = 𝒄 + 𝛔𝐭𝐚𝐧ϕ
stress, • Where
𝛔𝐧 acting on the shear plane – 𝛕𝐟 is shear stress at failure
• Cohesive resistance has a – σ is total normal stress at
constant value which failure
independent of the value of 𝛔𝐧 – ϕ is angle of shearing
resistance (or angle of
internal friction)
– c is unit cohesion
 Coulomb’s law of soil shear strength
• The equation 𝝉𝒇 = 𝒄 + 𝛔𝐭𝐚𝐧ϕ is very accurate in
predicting the shear strength of sands and gravels
but less accurate in silts and clays due drainage
conditions and rate of applied loading
• Other factors affecting shearing resistance are
– Type of soil
– Amount of friction between the soil particles
– The shape of the particles
– The degree of interlock between the particles
– The density of the soil
– Previous stress history
 ′
Effective Stress, σ
• The effect of effective stress, 𝛔′ is known from the work of Karl
Terzaghi in 1925
• When an undrained saturated soil is subjected to an increase in
applied normal stress, Δσ, the pore water pressure within the soil
increases by Δu.
• The value of Δu is equal to the value of Δσ.
• This increase in u causes no measurable changes in either the
volumes or the strengths of the soil tested.
• The pore water pressure, u is therefore referred to as neutral
stress.
• Terzaghi then concluded that the balance between the applied
stresses σ and the neutral stresses, u controls measurable
changes in soil behavior.
• These balancing stresses are called effective stresses, 𝛔′
 Effective Stress, σ ′
• At any point in a saturated soil, each of the three (3)
principal stresses consists of two (2) parts.
– The neutral stress, u acting in both the water and in the solid
skeleton in every direction with equal intensity
– The balancing pressures (σ1-u), (σ2-u) and (σ3-u)
– Therefore,

𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = Principal 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 − 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

• That is,
σ1′ = σ1-u
σ′2 = σ2-u and
σ′3 = σ3-u
Where the superscript presents effective stress
 ′
Effective Stress, σ
• If a saturated soil fails by shear, the normal stress on the
plane of failure, σ also consists of the neutral stress, u and
an effective stress which led to the equation
• 𝜎′ = 𝜎 − 𝑢
 Modified Coulomb’s Law
• Shear strength depends upon effective stress and not total stress
• A modification of the Coulomb’s equation in terms of effective stress
is therefore required, and is given by
• 𝛕𝐟 = 𝐜 ′ + 𝛔′ 𝐭𝐚𝐧ϕ′ where
– 𝐜 ′ is unit cohesion with respect to effective stress
– 𝛔′ is effective normal stress acting on failure plane
– ϕ′ is the angle of shearing resistance with respect to effective stress
• Depending upon the loading and drainage conditions, a clay soil may
exhibit
– purely frictional shear strength (i.e. act as a ‘𝐜 ′ = 0’ or ‘ϕ′ ’ - soil)
when its loaded in drained conditions
– only cohesive strength (i.e. to act as a ‘ϕ′ = 0’ or ‘𝒄- soil) when it
is loaded under undrained conditions. The same applies to granular
soils
 Mohr-Coulomb yield theory
• This is one of the theories which has been proposed for soil
strength determination
• It does not consider
– The effect of strains or volume changes a soil undergoes on its
way to failure
– The effect of intermediate principal stress, σ2
– The theory assumes that the difference between the major and
minor principal stresses is a function of their sum i.e.

(σ1-σ3) = f(σ1+σ3) ignoring the effect of σ2

• The intercept referred to as the Cohesion, c on the shear stress axis

of the strength envelope is the intrinsic pressure i.e. the strength of
the material when under zero normal stress
Mohr-Coulomb yield theory Cont’

A B
 Mohr-Coulomb yield theory Cont’
• Also,
Determination of shear strength parameters
• The shear strength of a soil is controlled by the effective stress
• Analysis involving the operative strength of a soil must be carried
out in terms of the effective stress parameters 𝐜 ′ and ϕ′
• However, a fully saturated clay subjected to undrained loading is
analyzed using total stress values c and ϕ
• The values of the undrained parameters c and ϕ and of drained
parameters 𝐜 ′ and ϕ′ are generally required from laboratory tests
mimicking as possible loading and drainage conditions in the field.
• The tests in general use are
– The direct shear box test
– The triaxial test
– The unconfined compression test – an adaptation of the triaxial
test
 The direct shear box test
• The apparatus (RHS) consists of
a brass box split horizontally at
the centre of the soil specimen.
• The soil is gripped by
perforated metal grilles behind
which porous discs can be
placed if required to allow the
sample to drain
• The usual plan size of the • As the shear plane is pre-
specimen is 60x60mm2 but for determined in the horizontal
gravels or stony clay, a larger direction, the vertical load is also
box of 300x300mm2 or greater the normal load on the plane of
is used failure
• A vertical load is applied to the • A shearing force is gradually
top of the sample by means of exerted on the box from an
weights electronically driven scewjack
 The direct shear box test Cont’
• The shear force is measured by means of a load transducer
connected to a computer or by a proving ring fitted with a
gauge
• By means of another transducer (fixed to the shear box) or a
gauge, the strain on the test sample at any point during shear
is determined
• The load reading is taken at fixed displacements, and failure
of the soil specimen is indicated by a sudden drop in the
magnitude of the reading or a levelling off in successive
readings
• Graphs of shearing force against strain are plotted manually
or by a computer real time.
Example 1
Solution
Example 2
 Example 2 Cont’

• Solution
 Example 2 Cont’

Shear Stress (kNm-2),

Shear force (N)

C=13 ϕ = 25o

Normal Stress (kNm-2) σ

Strain (%)
• From the graph, the shear
• The shear stress envelope is strength parameters are
obtained by drawing a best – ϕ = 25o
straight line through the – C = 13kNm-2
points
 The Triaxial Test
• This test subjects the soil sample to 3 compressive stresses at right
angles to each other.
• One of the 3 stresses is increased until the sample fails in shear
• Its great advantage is that the plane of shear is not predetermined as in
the shear box test
• A cylindrical soil sample with a height equals twice its diameter is
tested
• The test sample is first placed on the pedestal of the base of the
triaxial cell and a loading cap is placed on its top
• A thin rubber membrane is then placed over the sample including the
pedestal and the loading cap, and made water tight by the application
of tight rubber ring seals known as ‘O’ rings around the pedestal and
the loading cap
• The perpex made cylindrical upper part of the cell is then fixed to the
base and the assembled cell is filled with water
 The Triaxial Test Cont’

• The water is then subjected to a

pedestal value of pressure known as
the cell pressure (i.e. the All round
pressure, σ3) kept throughout the • The axial load is gradually increased at a
length of the test. It’s the water that constant rate of strain and the sample
subjects the sample to an all-round suffers continuous compressive
pressure deformation
• The additional axial stress is created • Readings of deformation and
by an axial load applied through the corresponding axial load are taken and
load transducer or dial gauge plotted
 Determination of additional axial stress
• During the application of the additional axial load, the
sample experiences shortening in the vertical direction
with a corresponding expansion in the horizontal
direction
• The cross sectional area of the sample therefore varies
• The cross sectional area of the sample can then be
evaluated assuming that the volume is constant. Thus
– 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ−𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
 Principal Stresses
• The intermediate principal stress, σ2, and the minor principal stress,
σ3 are equal and are the radial stresses caused by the cell pressure
pc.
• The major principal stress, σ1, consists of two parts
• The cell water pressure acting on the ends of the sample, σ3
• The additional axial stress from the load transducer or dial gauge
σ1 σ3 σ1-σ3
• = +

σ3 σ3 σ3 σ3

σ1 σ3
• The triaxial test therefore happens in two stages σ1-σ3
• Application of the cell pressure, σ3
• Application of the deviator stress, q i.e. (σ1-σ3)
 Principal Stresses Cont’
• The deviator stress is plotted against vertical strain and the
point of failure of each sample is obtained
• Mohr circles for each sample are then drawn and the best
common tangent to the circles is taken as the shear strength
envelope.

σ3 σ1
 The unconfined compression test
• This is a special case of the triaxial test in which the all-round
pressure on the sample is zero and no rubber membrane is
necessary to encase the specimen
• The test is normally done on cohesive soils
• The test specimen is loaded through a calibrated spring by a
simple manually-operated screwjack at the top of the machine
• In order to test soils of varying strengths, a range of springs is
supplied generally with stiffness in the order of 2, 4, 8 and 16
Nmm-1 extension.
• By means of an autographic recording arm, the graph of load
against deformation is drawn directly on to a sheet of paper
• Knowing the vertical deformation, the area of the sample at
failure can be obtained and hence the stress.
 The unconfined compression test
• In common practice, the
cohesion of the soil is
1
taken to be σ (one half
2
stress) at failure
• The angle of shearing
resistance is assumed to
be zero. That is, ϕ = 0.
• Unconfined compression
is recorded to the nearest
2 kNm-2 for values up to
50 kNm-2, to the nearest 5
kNm-2 for values 50-100
kNm-2 and to the nearest
10 kNm-2 for values
above 100 kNm-2
Determination of the Total stress parameters
• The Undrained Shear Test
– This is the simplest method for determining ϕ and c
– The soil sample is prevented from draining during shear
– Shearing is done immediately after the application of the normal
load (in the shear box) or immediately after the application of the
cell pressure (in the triaxial apparatus)
– Is quick since a sample can be tested in 15min or less so that
there is no time for any pore pressures developed to dissipate or
to distribute themselves evenly throughout the sample
– Pore water pressure measurements are therefore not possible and
the results are expressed in terms of total stress.
– The unconfined compression apparatus is only capable of
carrying out an undrained test on clay soil with no radial pressure
applied. The test takes a minute
– Cannot test silts and sands in the shear box
Example 1
Example 1 Cont’
Example 1 Cont’
Example 2
 Example 2 Cont’

σ1 −σ3
• Recall σ1 − σ3 = 2𝐶𝑐𝑜𝑠ϕ + σ1 + σ3 𝑆𝑖𝑛ϕ. If ϕ = 0o, then σ1 −σ3 = 2𝐶 ⇒ 𝐶 =
2
Determination of the effective stress parameters
• Two triaxial tests are normally used to determine 𝑐 ′ and ϕ′ .
The tests are
– The consolidated drained test
– The consolidated undrained test
• The Consolidated drained test
– This is the slow test
– A porous disc is placed on the pedestal before the test sample is
placed in position so that water can drain out from the soil
– The triaxial cell is then assembled, filled with water and
pressurized
– The cell pressure creates a pore water pressure within the soil
sample and the apparatus is left until the sample has consolidated
i.e. until the pore water pressure has been dissipated by water
seeping out through the porous disc into the burette
 The Consolidated drained test

• During consolidation, the water level in a half full burette connected to

the base of the sample is monitored
• When the water level stops rising, the sample is fully consolidated
• For a partially consolidated soil, drainage is allowed into the burette
from one end of the sample and the other is connected to a pore water
pressure measuring device.
 The Consolidated drained test
• When the pore water pressure reaches zero, the sample is
consolidated
• When the consolidation has been completed, the sample is
sheared by applying deviator stress (σ1 − σ3 ) at such a low
rate of strain that any pore water pressure induced in the
sample have time to dissipate through the porous discs
• The pore water pressure is always zero and the effective
stresses are consequently equal to applied stresses
• The tests may take as long as 3 days but may take even
longer with some soils (2 weeks)
 The Consolidated undrained test
• This is the most common form of triaxial test used in soils
laboratories to determine 𝑐 ′ and ϕ′
• It is commonly referred to as the quick test (shearing takes 2-3 hrs)
• The samples are allowed to consolidate under an applied pressure
as in the previous test and then sheared under conditions of no
drainage.
• The application of the deviator stress induces the pore water
pressure (which is measured)
• The effective deviator stress is simply the total deviator stress less
pore water pressure
• The rate of shear must be slow to allow pore water pressure
developed to dissipate evenly throughout the sample
• For most soils a strain rate of 0.05mm/min is satisfactory and the
soil can be sheared in less than 3 hrs
Example 1
Example 1 Cont’
Example 2 Cont’
 Example 2 Cont’

Cell Deviator Pore water Major principal Major principal

pressure stress pressure total stress σ3’ = σ3-u effective stress
(kNm-2) at failure (kNm-2), u (kNm-2) (kNm-2), (σ1’ - σ3’)
σ3 (kNm-2) σ1= σ3+(σ1-σ3) σ1’ = σ1-u (kNm-2)
(σ1-σ3)
200 118 110 318 90 208 118
400 240 220 640 180 420 240
600 353 320 953 280 633 353
Example 2 Cont’
 End

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