Lab session -1

1.1 Objective
To analyze the variation in experimental and theoretical deflection both (horizontal and
vertical) of a quarter circular beam.

1.2 Apparatus
i. Curved Bar Apparatus
ii. Weight
iii. Quarter circular beam apparatus
iv. Dial gauge
v. Vernier Caliper

Figure 1-1 Quarter Circular Curved Bar Apparatus

1.3 Summary of Theory:

1.3.1 Curved bars / deflection of curved bars
A body whose geometric shape is formed by the motion in space of a plane figure is called the
cross section of the curved beam); its center of gravity always follows a certain curve (the axis),
and the plane of the figure is normal to the curve. A distinction is made between curved beams
with constant cross section (for example, the link of a chain composed of oval or circular rings)
and with variable cross section (for example, the hook of a crane) and between plane beams
(with a plane axis) and three-dimensional beams (with a three-dimensional axis). A special
variety of curved beam is the naturally twisted curved beam, whose plane cross-sectional figure
moves along its axis and simultaneously rotates around a tangent to the axis (for example, the
blade of an aircraft propeller or fan).
The design of a plane curved beam (Figure 1) with a symmetrical cross section (the axis of
symmetry lies in the plane of curvature) taking into account the effect of a load lying in the
plane of symmetry consists in the determination of stresses normal to the cross section
according to the formula.
𝑁 𝑀𝑦
𝜎= +
𝐹 𝑆 𝑧𝜌
where F is the area of the cross section, N is the longitudinal force, M is the bending moment
in the cross section defined with respect to the axis Z0 passing through the center of gravity of
the cross section (C), y is the distance from the fiber being examined to the neutral axis z, p is
the radius of curvature of the fiber being examined, and Sz = Fy0 is the static moment of the
cross-sectional area with respect to the axis z. The displacement Y0 of the neutral axis relative
to the center of curvature of the curved beam is always directed toward the center of curvature
of the curved beam and is usually determined from special tables. For a circular cross section,
Y0 ≈ d2/16R; for a rectangular cross section, Y ≈ h2/12R (R is the radius of curvature of the
axis of the curved beam; d and h are the diameter and height of the cross section of the beam,
respectively). Normal stresses in a curved beam have their maximum values (in absolute
magnitudes) near the concave edge of a beam and vary in the cross section according to a
hyperbolic law. For small curvatures (R > 5h) the determination of normal stresses can be made
in the same way as for a straight beam.

Figure 1-2 Deflection of curved bars.

1.3.2 Castiglione’s Theorem

Determining the deflection of beams typically requires repeated integration of singularity
functions. Castigliano’s Theorem lets us use strain energies at the locations of forces to
determine the deflections. The Theorem also allows for the determining of deflections for
objects with changing cross-sectional areas.
Whenever a load is applied to a spring it will show some deflection. This deflection is directly
related to the force applied on the spring to produce that deflection. The force deflection
relationship is most conveniently obtained using Castigliano's theorem. Which is stated as
“When forces act on elastic systems subject to small displacements, the displacement
corresponding to any force collinear with the force is equal to the partial derivative to the
total strain energy with respect to that force.”
And It is given as
𝜕𝑈
𝛿 = 𝜕𝑃
In order to derive a necessary formula which governs the behavior of springs, consider a closed
coiled spring subjected to an axial load W.
Let,
W = Axial Load
D = Mean Coil Diameter
d = Diameter of Spring Wire N = Number of Active Coils
l = Length of Spring
Wire = πDN
G = Modulus of Rigidity
∆ = Deflection of Spring
Φ = Angle of twist
In 1879, Alberto Castigliano’ an Italian railroad engineer, published a book in which he
outlined a method for determining the displacement / deflection & slope at a point in a body.
This method which referred to Catigliano’s Theorem is applied to the bodies, having constant
temperature & material (homogeneous) with linear elastic behavior.
It states that “The derivative of the strain energy with respect to the applied load gives the
deformation corresponding to that load. For a helical spring, the partial derivative of the strain
energy w.r.t. the applied load gives the deflection in the spring i.e. ∂U / ∂W = deflection.
Consider a helical compression spring made up of a circular wire and subjected to axial load
W as shown in the figure above.
Strain Energy is given by:
U=½T*Φ (ii)
Whereas,
 T=½W*D (iii)
Φ = Tl / JG (iv)
(From Torsion formula) putting the values from eqs. # (i), (iii) & (iv) in eq. # (ii) and
simplifying, we get;
T= 4 W2D 3N / d4G (v)
Now applying the castigliano’ theorem by taking the partial derivative of the strain energy with
respect to the applied load
∂U / ∂W = ∆ = 8 WD3N / d4G (v)
W / ∆ = d4G / 8 D3N
1.3.3 Derivation of the Castigliano’s Theorem for Quarter Circular Bar
The general expression of Castigliano’s theorem is as follows:
𝑆 𝑆
𝛿 = ∫ 𝑀/𝐸𝐼 ∗ 𝑑𝑀 ∗ 𝑑𝑠 => 1 ∗ ∫ 𝑀 ∗ 𝑑𝑀 ∗ 𝑑𝑠
0 0
𝑑𝑊 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑊

where
M = is the moment induced by the force of loading,
E = is the elastic modulus of the beam material,
I = is the moment of inertia of the beam,
dM/dW = is the change in moment with respect to the force of loading and
ds = is the finite quantity of the beam over which integration is to take place. Because the
modulus = E and the moment of inertia = I am constants, they are factored out of the integral.
The work of deformation, or the moment, can be expressed as the product of the loading force,
P, the radius from the center of curvature of the beam R
and the sine of the angle of curvature.
The moment can be expressed by the following equation:
𝑀 = 𝑃𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
The integrating factor ds of the general Castigliano equation can be expressed as follows:
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑅𝑑𝜃
The partial derivative of the work of deformation with respect to the component of the force is
expressed as a function of the radius of the beam and angle of the deflected beam. For the
vertical deflection, the partial derivative is written as:
𝑑𝑀
( ) = 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝑊 𝑉
and for the horizontal deflection of a curved beam, the partial derivative is written as:
 𝑑𝑀 = 𝑅(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
( )
𝑑𝑊 𝐻

Figure 1-3 Deflection of quater circle

The calculations for the vertical and horizontal deflection of the davit differs lightly from those
of the semicircular beam. The davit consists of a quarter circle curved beam and a straight leg
that connects to the base as seen in Figure 2. This means that the calculations of deflection
must be broken into two parts: one integral for the curved section of the beam and another for
the straight leg of the beam. The integration of the curved section of the davit is bound by zero
and π/2 because it is a quarter -circle and the integration of the leg is bound by zero at the base
of the beam and the length L of the straight segment of the beam.
To calculate the vertical deflection caused by a force of loading for a davit, the general equation
of Castigliano’s theorem is modified to account for the straight segment of the beam. Substitute
Equations 2, 3 and 4 into the general Castigliano equation and append an integral that expresses
the moment endured by the straight segment.
𝜋
𝐿
∆𝑉 = 1 ∗ [∫ 𝑃𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∗ 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∗ 𝑅𝑑𝜃 + ∫ 𝑃𝑅 ∗ 𝑅𝑑𝑦]
2

𝐸𝐼 0 0
Factoring out the constants P and R yields the following expression:
𝜋/2 𝐿
∆𝑉 = 1 ∗ [𝑃𝑅3 ∫ sin2 𝜃𝑑𝜃 + 𝑃𝑅2 ∫ 𝑑𝑦]
𝐸𝐼 0 0
Integrating with respect to theta and the y direction yields the following expression
 1 ∗ [𝑃𝑅3 𝜋
∆𝑉 = ( ) + 𝑃𝑅2 𝐿]
𝐸𝐼 4
and can be tidied up a little and the equation for the vertical deflection of the davit can be
written as follows:

[𝜋𝑃𝑅3] [𝑃𝑅2𝐿]
∆𝑉 = [4𝐸𝐼] +
[𝐸𝐼]

But as in this case we are neglecting the length l of the straight segment of the beam because
in our apparatus the beam is tied from the starting section of the quarter circular beam so L =
0 which will yield us the following final relation
[𝜋𝑃𝑅3]
∆𝑉 =
[4𝐸𝐼]
The straight segment of the davit must be accounted for in much the same way as it was for the
vertical deflection in the formulation of the horizontal deflection calculation.
∆𝐻 = 1 𝜋/2
∗ [∫ [𝑃𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝐻𝑅(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)][𝑅(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)]𝑅𝑑𝜃
𝐸𝐼 0
𝐿
+ ∫ [𝑃𝑅 + 𝐻(𝑅 + 𝑦][𝑅 + 𝑦]𝑑𝑦
0

Substituting Equations 2, 3 and 5 into the general expression of Castigliano’s theorem and
appending an integral to describe the deflection in the straight segment of the davit yields the
following: Factoring out the constants P and R and letting the dummy variable H equal zero,
previous Equation becomes the following:
𝜋/2 𝐿
∆𝐻 = 1 ∗ [𝑃𝑅3 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝜃 + 𝑃 ∫ (𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑦)𝑑𝑦
𝐸𝐼 0 0
Integrating for the curvature and straight segment yields the following expression
1 𝑃𝑅3 𝑃𝑅𝐿2
∗[ ]
∆𝐻 = 𝐸𝐼 2 + 𝑃𝑅2𝐿 + 2
Distributing the modulus of elasticity E and moment of inertia I into this Equation yields
𝑃𝑅3 𝑃𝑅2𝐿 𝑃𝑅𝐿2
∆𝐻 = [ ]+[ ]+[ ]
2𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼
Tidied up a little further, the equation for the horizontal deflection of a davit can be written as
follows
 𝑃𝑅3 𝑃𝑅𝐿
∆𝐻 = [ 2𝐸𝐼 ] + [ 2𝐸𝐼 ] [2𝑅 + 𝐿]
But as in this case we are neglecting the length l of the straight segment of the beam because
in our apparatus the beam is tied from the starting section of the quarter circular beam so L =
0 which will yield us the following final relation
𝑃𝑅3
∆𝐻 = [ ]
2𝐸𝐼
1.4 Procedure:
i. Adjust the quarter circular bar.
ii. Attach two dial gauges for finding vertical as well as horizontal deflection
iii. Load the bar for number of times by an equal amount of 1N each time and note the
corresponding readings from dial gauges attached to the apparatus, for vertical and
horizontal deflection.
iv. Multiply those observations with the least count of the dial gauges and note out the
final deflections.
1.5 Observations & Calculations:
Radius of curved bar = R = 100mm
Thickness of the bar = d = 3.175 mm
Moment of Inertia= I= 3.3 x 10-11 m4
Modulus of Elasticity = E= 207 GN/m2
1.6 Specimen calculations

P=1N
R = 100mm = 0.1m
E = 207 GN/m2
I = 3.3 x 10-11 m4
Δ H = PR3 / 2EI = 1N * (0.1m)3 / ( 2 * 207 * 109 N/m2 * 3.3 x 10-11 m4 )
Δ H = 0.0000731 m = 0.0731 mm
Δ V = πPR3 / 4EI = 3.14 * 1N * (0.1m)3 / ( 4 * 207 * 109 N/m2 * 3.3 x 10-11 m4 )
Δ V = 0.0001149 m = 0.1149 mm

1.7 Graph
On graph I plot the deflection against load for horizontal & vertical deflection for the theoretical
& practical results. I Draw the best fit straight lines through the points.
 Figure 1-4 Graph between load and vertical deflection

Figure 1-5 graph between load and horizontal deflection

Table 1-1: Calculation of horizontal and vertical deflection with load

Load Experimental Theoretical deflection(mm)
W (N) deflection(mm)
Sr. No.

Δh Δv Δh= wr3/2ei Δv=πwr3/4ei

1
2
3
4
5
1.8Statistical Analysis
1
𝑋𝑎𝑣 = (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3)
𝑛

𝑆𝑥 = √ 1 ((𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑎𝑣)2 + (𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑎𝑣)2 + (𝑥3 − 𝑥𝑎𝑣)2)

𝑛−1
δHavg = 0.12166
δVavg = 1.83
SH = 0.102
SV =1.65
1.9Industrial Applications:
i. Chains
ii. Hooks
iii. Loops
iv. Bridges
1.10 Conclusion:
Vertical Deflection are very high as compared to the horizontal deflections. The Reason of large vertical
deflections is the weight is being applied vertically. The gravity is also acting in this direction. Applying
a horizontal load will cause deflections in horizontal deflections moreprominent
 Lab Session – 2
2.1 Objective
To find out the horizontal and vertical deflection of semicircular beam loaded by vertical load
using the curved beam apparatus.
2.2 Apparatus
 Curved Bar Apparatus
 Weight
 Semicircular beam apparatus
 Dial gauge
 Vernier Caliper.

Figure 2-1
0-1 Semi Circular Curved Bar Apparatus

2.3 Summary of Theory:

2.3.1 Curved Bars
A body whose geometric shape is formed by the motion in space of a plane figure (called the
cross section of the curved beam); its center of gravity always follows a certain curve (the axis),
and the plane of the figure is normal to the curve. A distinction is made between curved beams
with constant cross section (for example, the link of a chain composed of oval or circular rings)
and with variable cross section (for example, the hook of a crane) and between plane beams
(with a plane axis) and three-dimensional beams (with a three-dimensional axis). A special
variety of curved beam is the naturally twisted curved beam, whose plane cross-sectional figure
moves along its axis and simultaneously rotates around a tangent to the axis (for example, the
blade of an aircraft propeller or fan).
The design of a plane curved beam (Figure 1) with a symmetrical cross section (the axis of
symmetry lies in the plane of curvature) taking into account the effect of a load lying in the
plane of symmetry consists in the determination of stresses normal to the cross section
according to the formula.

where F is the area of the cross section, N is the longitudinal force, M is the bending moment
in the cross section defined with respect to the axis Z0 passing through the center of gravity of
the cross section (C), y is the distance from the fiber being examined to the neutral axis z, p is
the radius of curvature of the fiber being examined, and Sz = Fy0 is the static moment of the
cross-sectional area with respect to the axis z. The displacement Y0 of the neutral axis relative
to the center of curvature of the curved beam is always directed toward the center of curvature
of the curved beam and is usually determined from special tables. For a circular cross section,
Y0 ≈ d2/16R; for a rectangular cross section, Y ≈ h2/12R (R is the radius of curvature of the
axis of the curved beam; d and h are the diameter and height of the cross section of the beam,
respectively). Normal stresses in a curved beam have their maximum values (in absolute
magnitudes) near the concave edge of a beam and vary in the cross section according to a
hyperbolic law. For small curvatures (R > 5h) the determination of normal stresses can be made
in the same way as for a straight beam.

Figure 2-2 Deflection of curved bar

2.4 Derivation of formula

2.4.1 Derivation of the Castigliano’s Theorem for Semi-Circular Bar
The general expression of Castigliano’s theorem is as follows:
Where;
M ► is the moment induced by the force of loading,
E ► is the elastic modulus of the beam material,
I ► is the moment of inertia of the beam,
dM/dW ► is the change in moment with respect to the force of loading and
ds ► is the finite quantity of the beam over which integration is to take place. Because the
modulus ► E and the moment of inertia ►I are constants, they are factored out of the integral.
The work of deformation, or the moment, can be expressed as the product of the loading force,
P, the radius from the center of curvature of the beam R
and the sine of the angle of curvature.
The moment can be expressed by the following equation:

The integrating factor ds of the general Castigliano equation can be expressed as follows:

The partial derivative of the work of deformation with respect to the component of the force is
expressed as a function of the radius of the beam and angle of the deflected beam. For the
vertical deflection, the partial derivative is written as:

and for the horizontal deflection of a curved beam, the partial derivative is written as:

To calculate the vertical deflection of a semicircular

beam, substitute Equations 2,3 and 4 into the general expression of Castigliano’s theorem
(Equation 1). The integration is bounded by zero and π because the beam is a semicircle. This
process will yield the following equation.
 Figure 2-3 Deflection of semi-circular bar

The loading force P, the radius R, the elastic modulus E and the moment of inertia I, are all
constants and can be factored out of the integral. Integrating with respect to theta yields the
following equation for the vertical deflection of semicircular beam:
And thus, the final relation will be

To calculate the horizontal deflection of a semicircular beam, a dummy variable H must m

employed as seen in Figure 1. H represents a fictitious loading force in the horizontal direction.
Inserting the dummy variable allows for the integration in the horizontal direction. Substituting
Equations 2, 3 and 5 into the general expression of Castigliano’s theorem yields the following
expression.

Factoring out the constants P and R, and letting H equal zero, this equation becomes:

Integrating this equation with respect to theta yields the equation for the horizontal deflection
of a curved beam.
And thus, the final relation will be
2.5 Procedure
i. Adjust the semicircular bar.
ii. Attach two dial gauges for finding vertical as well as horizontal deflection
iii. Load the bar for number of times by an equal amount of 1N each time and note the
corresponding readings from dial gauges attached to the apparatus, for vertical and
horizontal deflection.
iv. Multiply those observations with the least count of the dial gauges and note out the
final deflections

2.6 Observations & Calculations

Radius of curved bar = R = 100mm
Width of the bar = b = 3.3 x 10-11 m4
Thickness of the bar = d = 207 GN/m2
Modulus of Elasticity = E= 12.7mm
Moment of Inertia= I= 3.175 mm

4.6.1 Specimen calculations

P=1N
R = 100mm = 0.1m
E = 207 GN/m2
I = 3.3 x 10-11 m4
Δ H = PR3 / 2EI = 1N * (0.1m)3 / ( 2 * 207 * 109 N/m2 * 3.3 x 10-11 m4 )
Δ H = 0.0000731 m = 0.0731 mm
Δ V = πPR3 / 4EI = 3.14 * 1N * (0.1m)3 / ( 4 * 207 * 109 N/m2 * 3.3 x 10-11 m4 )
Δ H = 0.0001149 m = 0.1149 mm
 Table 4-1: Variation of deflection with load of a semi-circular beam

LOAD ExperimentalD
Theoretical Error
W (N) eflection (mm)
Sr. Deflection %
No. (mm)
δH= δV== %
δH δV
7WR3/4EI ΠWR3/2EI
1
2
3
4
5

4.6.2 Graph
On graph plot the deflection against load for horizontal & vertical deflection for the theoretical
& practical results. Draw the best fit straight lines through the points.

Graph between Load and δH ( Exp. + Theo)

0.25

0.2
δH in mm

0.15

0.1 Experimental
Theorectical
0.05

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Load in N

Figure 2-4: Graph between horizontal deflection and load

 Graph between Load and δV ( Exp. + Theo)
0.6

0.5

0.4
δV in mm

0.3
Experimental
0.2 Theorectical

0.1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Load in N

Figure 2-5: Graph between vertical deflection and load

2.7 Statistical Analysis

X Δh =0.27
X Δv =0.18
S Δh= 0.26
S Δv=0.15

2.8 Industrial Applications

 Chains.
 Links.

2.9 Comments
From analytical values it was observed that, as the load increases horizontal and
vertical deflections both increase significantly. The horizontal deflection is more
compared to vertical deflection.
With using the Castigliano’s Theorem Method in calculate the bar deflection, it easierif
compared with other method. The result of deflection value is not far between experimental
and theoretical. This experiment is successful that is the deflection bar formula according to
the Castigliano’s Theorem can be approved it punctuality for getting the beam deflection