1.

Write short note on Lung volumes

 Lung volumes are also known as respiratory volumes.
 It refers to the volume of gas in the lungs at a given time during the
respiratory cycle.
 Summation of different lung volume is used to derive the lung
capacity.
 Lung volumes measurement is an integral part of pulmonary function
test.
 These volumes tend to vary, depending on the depth of respiration,
ethnicity, gender, age, body composition and in certain respiratory
diseases.
 A number of the lung volumes can be measured by Spirometry.
 There are 4 types of volumes:
 Tidal volume (TD)
 Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
 Expiratory reserve volume. (ERV)
 Residual volume (RV)
 Tidal Volume
It is the amount of air that can be inhaled or exhaled during one
respiratory cycle. This represents the functions of the respiratory
centres, respiratory muscles and the mechanics of the lung and chest
wall. The normal adult value is approximately 300-500ml (6‐8 ml/kg)
 Inspiratory reserve volume
It is the amount of air that can be forcibly inhaled after a normal tidal
volume.IRV is usually kept in reserve, but is used during deep
breathing. The normal adult value is 1900-3300ml.
 Expiratory reserve volume
It is the volume of air that can be exhaled forcibly after exhalation of
normal tidal volume. The normal adult value is 700-1200ml. ERV is
reduced with obesity, ascites or after upper abdominal surgery
 Residual Volume
It is the volume of air remaining in the lungs after maximal exhalation.
Normal adult value is averaged at 1200ml (20‐25 ml/kg) .It is
indirectly measured from summation of FRC and ERV and cannot be
measured by spirometry.
2. Write a short note on Lung Capacity.
 Lung capacity or total lung capacity (TLC) is the volume of air in the
lungs upon the maximum effort of inspiration.
 The average total lung capacity of an adult human male is about
6 litres of air.
 Age, gender, body composition, and ethnicity are factors affecting the
different ranges of lung capacity among individuals.
 There are four types of lung capacity
 Inspiratory Capacity (IC)
 Total Lung Capacity (TLC)
 Vital Capacity (VC)
 Function Residual Capacity (FRC)
 Inspiratory Capacity (IC)
It is the maximum volume of air that can be inhaled following a
resting state. It is calculated from the sum of Inspiratory reserve
volume and tidal volume. IC = IRV+TV.
 Total Lung Capacity (TLC)
It is the maximum volume of air the lungs can accommodate or sum of
all volume compartments or volume of air in lungs after maximum
inspiration. The normal value is about 6,000mL (4‐6 L). TLC is
calculated by summation of the four primary lung volumes (TV, IRV,
ERV, and RV).
 Vital Capacity (VC)
It is the total amount of air exhaled after maximal inhalation. The
value is about 4800mL and it varies according to age and body size. It
is calculated by summing tidal volume, Inspiratory reserve volume,
and expiratory reserve volume. VC = TV+IRV+ERV.
 Function Residual Capacity (FRC)
It is the amount of air remaining in the lungs at the end of a normal
exhalation. It is calculated by adding together residual and expiratory
reserve volumes. The normal value is about 1800 – 2200mL. FRC =
RV+ERV.
3. Write a short note on Ventilator
 A ventilator is a device that supports or recreates the process of breathing
by pumping air into the lungs.
 Sometimes, people refer to it as a vent or breathing machine.
 Doctors use ventilators if a person cannot breathe adequately on their
own. This may be because they are undergoing an illness that affects
their breathing.
 There are different types of ventilator, and each provides varying levels
of support. The type a doctor uses will depend on a person’s condition.
 Ventilators play an important role in saving lives, in both hospitals and
ambulances. People who require long-term ventilation can also use them
at home.
 There are several ways a person can receive ventilator support. These
include:
 Face mask ventilators
A face mask ventilator is a non-invasive method of supporting a
person’s breathing and oxygen levels. To use one, a person wears
a mask that fits over the nose and mouth while air blows into their
airways and lungs.
 Mechanical ventilators
Mechanical ventilators are machines that take over the breathing
process entirely. Doctors use these when a person cannot breathe
on their own. Mechanical ventilators work via a tube in a person’s
throat, pumping air into the lungs and transporting carbon dioxide
away.
 Manual resuscitator bags
Manual resuscitator bags are pieces of equipment that allow
people to control the airflow of their ventilator with their hands.
These devices consist of an empty bag, or “bladder,” that a person
squeezes to pump air into the lungs.
 Tracheostomy ventilators
A Tracheostomy is a procedure where a doctor creates an opening
in the windpipe and inserts a tube, which allows air to flow in and
out. This enables a person to breathe without using their nose or
mouth.
4. What is meant by a spirometer
 A spirometer is an apparatus for measuring the volume of air inspired and
expired by the lungs.
 A spirometer measures ventilation, the movement of air into and out of
the lungs.
 The spirogram will identify two different types of abnormal ventilation
patterns, obstructive and restrictive.
 There are various types of spirometers that use a number of different
methods for measurement.
 Basic Incentive Spirometer: . This is a very basic device, which operates
via a piston system
 Professional Spirometer: Professional grade spirometers often operate
with the same type of pressure sensor technology as the SpiroLink.
 Digital Peak Flow Meter: Unlike an incentive Spirometer, peak flow
meters measure exhaled air from the lungs.
 Other Digital Smart Spirometers: Similar to Digital Peak Flow meters,
Digital Smart Spirometers (other than SpiroLink) only measure PEF and
FEV1 and are not rechargeable.
 SpiroLink (Digital Smart Spirometer): SpiroLink is an innovative, digital
spirometry device designed for at-home and on-the-go use.
Chapter 5
1. What are X-rays? Illustrate using diagram of X-ray tube.
 We can define X-Rays or X-radiation as a form of electromagnetic
radiation.
 They are powerful waves of electromagnetic energy. Most of them have
a wavelength ranging from 0.01 to 10 nanometres and energies in the
range 100 eV to 100 keV.
 Since the discovery of X-radiation, they are used in various fields and for
various purposes. Some key uses of X-Ray are given below.
o Medical Science
o Security
o Astronomy
o Industry
o Restoration

 The x-ray tube contains two principal elements:

o filament (also acts as cathode): boils off electrons by thermionic
emission
o target (also acts as anode): electrons strike to produce x-rays

Additional components include:

o expansion bellows (provide space for oil to expand)
o tube envelope (evacuated)
o tube housing
o cooling dielectric oil
o rotor
o induction stator
o tube window: usually made from beryllium, not glass
 In x-ray tubes, the anode and target are contained in an envelope, which
provides vacuum, support and electrical insulation.
 The envelope is most often made from glass, although some tubes
contain envelopes formed from ceramic or even metal.
 For some demanding application, such as dual energy CT, rotating
envelope tubes (RET) are used. Rotating envelope tubes allow for
improved heat conduction and increased performance.
 The anode is in direct contact with the liquid coolant, resulting in
improved heat conduction and increased performance.
 The energy used for this process is provided from a generator, connected
by an electrical circuit connected to the x-ray tube.
 This is because they must ensure there is a constant flow of electrons
from the positive charged cathode to the negatively charged anode.
 The generator also needs to convert the mains supplied alternating
current (AC) into direct current (DC), as needed by the tube.