GNR402: Introduction to Geographic Information

Systems: Coordinate Systems and Datums

Surya S. Durbha, PhD

Professor
CSRE, IITB

 Outline

❖ Background
❖ Coordinate Systems
❖ Datum
s

Outline
Outline
Outline
 Coordinate Systems and Datums

What is the shape of the Earth

❑ Sphere
o From space, the Earth looks like a sphere
❑ Ellipsoid
o Centrifugal force cause the equator to bulge and
the poles to flatten slightly (polar flattening
❑ Geoid
o The earth is “lumpy” due to irregularities in the
density of earth’s crust
?

 Shape of the Earth

It is actually a Ellipsoid,
We think of the
slightly larger in radius at
earth as a sphere
the equator than at the

poles
 Ellipsoid or Spheroid

Rotate an ellipse around an axis

b
a O a Y
X

Rotational axis
 Ellipsoid or Spheroid


❑ A spheroid is defined by either the

semimajor axis, a, and the semiminor
axis, b, or by a and the flattening.
❑ The flattening is the difference in
length between the two axes.
❑ The flattening, f, is:
f = (a - b) / a
❑ The flattening is a small value,
so usually the quantity 1/f is used
instead.
❑ The spheroid parameters for the World Geodetic System of
1984 (WGS 1984 or WGS84) are:
a = 6378137.0 meters
b = 6356752.31424 meters
1/f = 298.257223563

 ❑ Equatorial
radius –
6,373,173
❑ Flattening –
1/298
m

 Locational systems
❑ The Earth rotates on its axis (the poles of rotation
❑ Imagine a plane that cuts through the center of the
Eart
o The intersection of this plane with the Earth’s surface is a
great circle
o Any half of a great circle that joins the poles is a line of
longitude or meridian
o The prime meridian runs through Greenwich, England
and starts with a 0.
o Longitude is recorded as degrees E/W of the prime
meridian (up to 180º)
http://webhelp.esri.com/arcgisdesktop/9.2/published_images/graticule.gif
h

 Parallels

❑ Are at right angles to the meridian

❑ A great circle (the equator) is located halfway
between the poles.
❑ Selected small circles, called lines of latitude
or parallels are placed parallel to the equato
❑ Latitude is recorded as degrees N/S of the
equator (up to 90º)

 Graticules
❑ The pattern of meridians and parallels on the
Earth is a graticule
❑ It has the following characteristic
o 1.) Parallels are equally spaced between the equator
and the poles
o 2.) Any two parallels are always the same distance
apart
o 3.) Meridians are spaced farthest apart at the equator
and converge to a single point at the poles
o 4.) Parallels and meridians cross one another at right
angles s

Geographic Coordinates cont.

 Coordinate Systems

Latitude-Longitude System (Geodetic)

Most commonly used

coordinate system.

No transformations necessary
between areas.

 Definition of Latitude, φ

m S
p
n
O φ
q r

(1) Take a point S on the surface of the ellipsoid and

define there the tangent plane, mn
(2) Define the line pq through S and normal to the
tangent plane
(3) Angle pqr which this line makes with the equatorial
plane is the latitude φ, of point S

 Definition of Longitude, λ

λ = the angle between a cutting plane on the prime meridian

and the cutting plane on the meridian through the point, P

180°E, W
-150° 150°

-120° 120°

90°W 90°E
(-90 °) (+90 °)

-60° P λ -60°

-30° 30°
0°E, W

 Length on Meridians and Parallels

(Lat, Long) = (φ, λ)

Length on a
Meridian: R
30 Δλ
AB = Re Δ N R D
(same for all C
Re Δ B
latitudes) 0N Rφe
Length on a Parallel: A
CD = R Δλ = Re Δλ Cos φ
(varies with latitude)

Length on Meridians and Parallels

http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/Papers/Other/3D_GIS/Default_files/image015.png
Example: What is the length of a 1º increment along
on a meridian and on a parallel at 30N, 90W?
Radius of the earth = 6370 km.

Solution:
• A 1º angle has first to be converted to radians
π radians = 180 º, so 1º = π/180 = 3.1416/180 = 0.0175
radians

• For the meridian, ΔL = Re Δφ = 6370 ∗ 0.0175 = 111 km

• For the parallel, ΔL = Re Δλ Cos φ

• = 6370 ∗ 0.0175 ∗ Cos 30
• = 96.5 km
• Parallels converge as poles are approached

 Latitude and Longitude Graticule

Lat and long measured in:
Prime
Meridian degrees° minutes” seconds’
(60”=1’ & 60’=1°)
NW NE UTD: 32° 59’ 16.0798N 96° 44’ 56.9522W
+ - + + 1 second=100ft or 30m. approx.
(lat., or long. at equator)
Decimal degrees, not minutes/seconds,
best for GIS.
dd= d° + m’/60 + s”/3600
Carry enough decimal points for accuracy!
6 decimals give 4 inch (10cm) accuracy
SW SE (but must use double precision storage--
- - - + single precision accurate to only 2m)
UTD: 32.98779994N 96.74915339W
When entering data, be sure to include negative
signs.
(8 decimals-->1 millimeter accuracy!)
(note: 1 meter= 3.2808 feet)

graticule: network of lines on globe or map representing latitude and longitude.

Origin is at Equator/Prime Meridian intersection (0,0)
grid: set of uniformly spaced straight lines intersecting at right angles.
(XY Cartesian coordinate system)
Latitude normally listed first (lat,long), the reverse of the convention for X,Y Cartesian
coordinates

 Time
❑ It becomes one hour when the sun passes over
15º of longitude (360º / 24 hrs
❑ Consequently, when it is noon at Greenwich, it
is midnight at 180º
o Midnight and a new day starts at International
Date Line
❑ Every 15º long. is a time zon
❑ All areas within the time zone adhere to
Coordinated Universal time (UTC)

 Deflection of the vertical

❑ Due to irregularities in the density of the Earth’s

crust, the Earth’s center of gravity and the
Earth’s geometric center are not always the
sam
❑ The difference between the two is the
deflection of the vertical
❑ The deflection of the vertical is taken into
account during a geodetic survey
e

 Geometry of the Ellipsoid

The physical surface of the Earth, slightly irregular,
hence unsuitable for computations is
approximated by various mathematical surfaces to
different degrees of precision

Topographical surface : It is the surface of the land

and sea at any moment of tim

Geoid : It is the equipotential surface of the Mean Sea

Level (MSL) which is smooth and continuous, but
not geometric. Only the heights are conventionally
referred to this surface.
.

 Defining different spheroids for accurate

mapping

❑ The earth is neither a perfect sphere nor a perfect spheroid due to

gravitational and surface feature variations,
❑ Satellite technology has revealed several elliptical deviations; for
example, the South Pole is closer to the equator than the North Pole.
❑ Satellite-determined spheroids are replacing the older ground-measured
spheroids.
❑ For example, the new standard spheroid for North America is the
Geodetic Reference System of 1980 (GRS 1980), whose radii are
6,378,137.0 and 6,356,752.31414 meters.
❑ The GRS 1980 spheroid parameters were set by the International Union
for Geodesy and Geophysics in 1979.

 Geometry of the Ellipsoid

Ellipsoid
❑ It is a mathematical surface that closely
resembles the physical surface of the Earth, with
its axis of rotation coinciding with the rotational
axis of the Earth, the center with the center of
gravity of the geoid. It is defined by the semi-
major axis, a, flattening, f= (a-b)/a, where b is
the semi-minor axis.
❑ The ellipsoidal datum surface that fits the Earth
best is presently defined by Geodetic Reference
System (GRS) 80 (used by the Reference System
for GPS: the WGS84) and one that fits the Indian
subcontinent, by the Everest Ellipsoid with the
dimensions
GRS 80 a = 6378137 1 / f =
298.25722210
Everest (1830) a = 6377301 1 / f =
300.801
7

:
1

:
m
m
Defining different spheroids for accurate
mapping
❑ The Earth has been surveyed many times to better
understand its surface features and their peculiar
irregularities.
❑ The surveys have resulted in many spheroids that
represent the earth. Generally, a spheroid is chosen to
fit one country or a particular area.
❑ A spheroid that best fits one region is not necessarily
the same one that fits another region. Until recently,
North American data used a spheroid determined by
Clarke in 1866.
❑ The semimajor axis of the Clarke 1866 spheroid is
6,378,206.4 meters, and the semiminor axis is
6,356,583.8 meters.

 Ellipse (spheroid) models

• Topographical surface of the earth is the actual surface of land and sea
at some moment in time.

• Sea level is the average surface of the oceans. Tidal forces and gravity
differences cause this smoothed surface to vary.

• Gravity models attempt to describe variations in the gravity field. Local

variations in gravity cause this surface to be irregular.

 Representations of the Earth

Mean Sea Level is a surface of constant
gravitational potential called the Geoid

Sea surface Ellipsoid

Earth surface

Geoid

 Geoid and Ellipsoid

Earth surface

Ellipsoid
Ocean

Geoid Gravity Anomaly

Gravity anomaly is the elevation difference between
a standard shape of the earth (ellipsoid) and a surface
of constant gravitational potential (geoid)

 Definition of Elevation

Elevation Z
P
z = zp
• Land Surface
z=0

Mean Sea level = Geoid

Elevation is measured from the Geoid

1. Ocean
2. Reference ellipsoid
3. Local plumb line
4. Continent
5. Geoid http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Geoida.svg/350px-
Geoida.svg.png

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Geoid_height_red_blue_averagebw.png
 Representations of the Earth

❑ Many different ellipsoids have been defined.

❑ Local ellipsoids have been established to fit the Geoid
(mean sea level) well over an area of local interest,
which in the past was never larger than a continent.
❑ This meant that the differences between the Geoid and
the reference ellipsoid could effectively be ignored, al-
lowing accurate maps to be drawn in the vicinity of the
datum

 Ellipsoids
o Many potential ellipsoids have been developed by
cartographer
o Usually, an ellipsoid is chosen to fit 1 country or 1
region
o An ellipsoid that best fits one region is not the
same as one that best fits anothe
▪ The Earth is not a perfect ellipsoid – surface
irregularities
s

 Which Ellipsoid?
Hundreds have been definedMost commonly encountered
depending upon: are:
❑ Everest (Sir George) 1830
o available measurement technology
o one of the earliest spheroids; India
o area of the globe (e.g North America, o a=6,377,276m b=6,356,075m f=1/300.8
Africa)
❑ Clarke 1886 for North America
o map extent (country, continent or o basis for USGS 7.5 Quads
global) o a=6,378,206.4m b=6,356,583.8m f=1/295
o political issues (e.g Warsaw pact ❑ GRS80 (Geodetic Ref. System, 1980)
versus NATO) o current North America mapping
o conversions via math. formulae o a=6,378,137m b=6,356,752.31414m f=1/298
Earth measurements (approx.) ❑ WGS84 (World Geodetic Survey, 1984)
equatorial radius: 6,378km 3,963m o current global choice
o a=6,378,137 b=6,356,752.31m f=1/298
polar radius: 6,357km
3,950m
(flattened about 13 miles at poles)
i

 The Datums
Any numerical or geometrical quantity or set of such quantities
which serve as a reference or base for other quantities
All horizontal or vertical positions are relative to a specific datum
❑ What is a datum
o When a spheroid approximates the shape of the
Earth a datum defines the position of the spheroid
relative to the center of the Earth
o A local datum aligns the spheroid to fit the Earth’s
surface in a particular area – a point on the surface
of the spheroid is matched to a point on the surface
of the Earth
o An Earth centered (geocentric) datum uses the
Earth’s center of mass as the origin e.g. the most
widely used datum WGS 1984
?

 The Datums

❑ In the last 15 years, satellite data has provided geodesists

with new measurements to define the best earth-fitting
spheroid, which relates coordinates to the earth's center of
mass.
❑ An earth-centered, or geocentric, datum uses the earth's
center of mass as the origin.
❑ The most recently developed and widely used datum is
WGS 1984. It serves as the framework for locational
measurement worldwide.

The Datums
 Datum Shift

http://www.shipwrite.bc.ca/images/datum.jpg
 Datum Shift

http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/datum/gif/shift.gif
 Measuring Elevation
❑ So far focused on horizontal location (“x,y”
❑ Vertical location or elevation (z) also important
❑ Traditional surveying uses “leveling” to measure elevation relative to mean sea
level (MSL
o published on standard paper maps based on NAVD1929 or NAVD88 for US
o MSL is arithmetic mean of hourly water elevations observed over a 19 year cycle
o MSL is different for different countries or locations
o Leveling follows geoid, thus elevations (orthometric height) are relative to geoid
❑ GPS (global positioning systems) knows nothing about geoid so its elevations
(called ellipsoid height) are relative to a spheroid (usually WGS84
❑ The two may be (and usually are) different—by as much as 87 meters worldwide
o in Texas ellipsoid heights are about 27 meters lower than orthometric (geoid) ht.

Geoid99 is a gravity model of the geoid Land surface

for the US and may be used to
“correct” GPS elevations (ellipsoid
Ellipsoid height
height) to correspond to traditional Orthometric
surveyed heights above geoid height
(orthometric height) Geoid spheroid
http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/GEOID/GEOID99/
)

 Elevation

All horizontal or vertical positions are relative to a specific datum

In order to establish the Geoid as reference for heights, the ocean’s

water level is registered at coastal places over several years using tide
gauges (mareographs).
 Projections

❑ Locating a spatial entity on the Earth’s

surface defined in mathematical terms in one
of 2 ways
o Geographical (global) coordinates (longitude
and latitude)
o Planar coordinates using some projection
(going from 3-D to 2-D)
❑ Various projections (depends on one’s
purpose and place)

 Map projections Outline

❖ Background
❖ Map projections:Concep
❖ Various Map Projections
❖ Choosing a Map Projection

 Map projections
❑ A map projection is a systematic rendering
of a graticule of lines of latitude and
longitude on a flat sheet of paper
Choice of map projection is important
 Earth to Globe to Map

Map Scale: Map Projection:

Representative Fraction Scale Factor

Globe distance Map distance
= Earth distance = Globe distance
(e.g. 1:24,000) (e.g. 0.9996)





 Coordinate System

A planar coordinate system is defined by a pair

of orthogonal (x,y) axes drawn through an origin

Origin X

(xo,yo)
(φo,λo)

Geographic and Projected Coordinates

(φ, λ) (x, y)
Map Projection
 Map Projections: the concept

❑ A method by which the curved 3D surface of the earth is

represented on a flat 2D map surface.
❑ A two dimensional representation, using a plane coordinate
system, of the earth’s three dimensional sphere/spheroid
❑ Location on the 3D earth is measured by latitude and longitude;
❑ Location on the 2D map is measured by X,Y Cartesian
coordinates
❑ Unlike choice of spheroid, choice of map projection does not
change a location’s lat/long coords, only its X,Y coords.

Map Projections: the concept

Map Projections: the concept
 Map Projections:
the inevitability of distortion
❑ Because we are trying to represent a 3-D sphere on a 2-D
plane, distortion is inevitable
❑ Thus, every two dimensional map is distorted (inaccurate?)
with respect to at least one of the following:
o area
o shape
o distance We are trying to represent
o direction this amount of the earth on

this amount of map space.

 Reasons for using a projected coordinate system

▪ Globes are large and cumbersome.
▪ They are generally of a scale unsuitable to the
purposes for which most maps are used. Usually
we want to see more detail than is possible to be
shown on a globe.
▪ Standard measurement equipment (rulers,
protractors, planimeters, dot grids, etc.) cannot be
We are trying to represent
used to measure distance, angle, area, or shape
this amount on
of the earth on
a sphere, as these tools have been constructed for
this amount of map space.
use in planar models.
▪ The latitude-longitude spherical coordinate system
can only be used to measure angles, not distances
or areas.
.



 Reasons for using a projected coordinate system
▪ Latitude-longitude is a good system for storing spatial data
but not as good for viewing, querying, or analyzing maps.
▪ You are making a map in which you want to preserve one
or more of these properties: area, shape, distance, and
direction.
▪ You are making a small-scale map such as a national or
world map. With a small-scale map, your choice of map
projection determines the overall appearance of the map.
We are trying to represent
For example, with some projections, lines this
of amount
latitude and
of the earth on
longitude will appear curved; with others, they will appear
this amount of map space.
straight.
▪ Your organization mandates using a particular projected
coordinate system for all maps.

 What type of map projection should you

choose?
❑ Which spatial properties do you want to preserve?

❑ Where is the area you're mapping? Is your data in a polar region?

An equatorial region?

❑ What shape is the area you're mapping? Is it square? Is it wider in

the east–west direction?

❑ How big is the area you're mapping? On large-scale maps, such as

street maps, distortion may be negligible because your map covers
only a small part of the earth's surface.

❑ On small-scale maps, where a small distance on the map

represents a considerable distance on the earth, distortion may
have a bigger impact, especially if you use your map to compare or
measure shape, area, or distance.

 Projected Coordinate Systems

❑ Horizontal lines above the origin have positive values;
vertical lines to the right of the origin have positive values
❑ Map projections transforms 3-D space into 2-D space
• Transformation is mathematical
• Formulae relate spherical coordinates on the globe to flat planar
coordinates
• Different projections result in different types of distortions
• In following image notice how areas near the poles are stretched

Projected Coordinate Systems

 Projection Surfaces

❑ Three types of projection surfaces are commonly

used:
o 1.) Plane
▪ Projections onto a plane surface are known as
azimuthal projections
o 2.) Cone
o 3.) Cylinder
▪ Because these projection surfaces are not flat at the
time the projection is created, but instead can be
flattened by making a cut, they are known as
developable surfaces

 Types of Projections

❑ Conic (Albers Equal Area, Lambert

Conformal Conic) - good for East-West land
areas
❑ Cylindrical (Transverse Mercator) - good for
North-South land areas
❑ Azimuthal (Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area)
- good for global views

 Map Projection Classification

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Cilinderprojectie-
constructie.jpg/800px-Cilinderprojectie-constructie.jpg
 Scale Factor

Scale Factor—The degree of reduction or enlargement necessary to

fit a curved earth onto a flat projection surface. In the following
example, because the curved surface of the earth is longer than the
surface onto which it is projected, features must be reduced in scale
relative to the point of true scale. The default value is 1.0.
The scale factor is most commonly used with cylindrical projections
to redistribute the scale error over a wider area. A scale factor of
0.9996 is common, for example, in UTM or Great Britain National
Grid.

 Map Projection Classification

❑ Equal area projections preserve area. Many thematic

maps use an equal area projection. Maps of the United States
commonly use the Albers Equal Area Conic projection.

Albers equal area conic is the

projection for the national land cover
data 1992 for US.
Lambert Conformal conic projection is
a standard choice for mapping
midlatitude area of greater east-west
than north-south extent.
USGS uses the lambert conformal
conic for many topographci maps.

Lambert cylindrical equal-area projection

 Projections Preserve Some

Earth Properties

❑ Area - correct earth surface area (Albers

Equal Area Conic)
❑ Shape - local angles are shown correctly
(Lambert Conformal Conic)
❑ Direction - all directions are shown correctly
relative to the center (Lambert Azimuthal)
❑ Distance - preserved along particular lines
❑ Some projections preserve two properties

 Light-source Location

❑ Because you are “projecting” you need a light

source
❑ The light source is typically located at one of three
positions:
o 1.) Gnomonic position (center of globe)
o 2.) Stereographic position (antipole i.e. the point
exactly opposite the point of tangency of the projection
surface)
o 3.) Orthographic position (at infinity)

Projection onto a Flat Surface

 Orientation & tangency
❑ The orientation of a projection surface may
be changed as desired
o However, certain orientations are defined as
normal
o For example
▪ A cylinder is normally oriented tangent along the
equator
▪ A cone is normally oriented tangent along a parallel
▪ A plane is normally oriented tangent at the pole
(polar azimuthal)

 Changes in orientation
❑ When the orientation of the projection surface is
changed, you change the point of tangency
❑ When you change the projection surface 90º from
normal, the result is a transverse projection
❑ An oblique projection results if the projection
surface is at an angle between the normal and
transverse position

Planar Projections
 Azimuthal
(Lambert)



Cylindrical Projections
 Standard lines & secant projections

❑ The line of tangency between a projection

surface and the surface of the globe is called the
standard line of the projection
o If it is along a parallel than it is the standard
parallel
❑ Along the standard line there is no distortion
❑ When the projection surface intersects the globe
you get a secant projection (with 2 standard
lines)

 Conic Projections
(Albers, Lambert)



Conic Projections
 Cylindrical Projections
(Mercator)

Transverse

Oblique


 Map Projections by Geometry
Planar/Azimuthal/Zenithal

❑ Map plane is tangent to (touches) globe at single point

❑ Accuracy (shape, area) declines away from this point
❑ Projection point (‘light source’) may be
o earth center (gnomonic)
o opposite side of globe (stereographic)
o infinitely distant (orthographic)
❑ Good for polar mappings: parallels appear as circles

 Azimuthal Projections
Map Projections

• Straight or curved meridians, curved parallels

•Meridians radiate from poles
• Parallels may be equally spaced

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Azimuthal Projections
Map Projections

Simplest is a tangential orthogonal (orthographic) projection.

Adequate for very small areas.
Scale and area distortion increase as distance from tangent center increases.

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Map Projections
Azimuthal Projections

Azimuthal Equidistant

Used to show air-route

distances.

Distances from the center

are true, distortion
radiates out from the
center of the map.

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Map Projections by Geometry

Cylindrical
❑ As with conic projection, map plane is either tangent along
a single line, or passes through the globe and is thus secant
along two lines
❑ Mercator is most famous cylindrical projection; equator is
its line of tangency
❑ Transverse Mercator uses a meridian as its line of
tangency
❑ Oblique cylinders use any great circle
❑ Lines of tangency or secancy are lines of equidistance (true
scale), but other properties vary depending on projection



 Cylindrical Projections
Map Projections

Common Cylindrical Projections

• Straight meridians and parallels
• Peters
• Meridians equally spaced
• Mercator
• Parallels unequally spaced
• Universal Transverse Mercator

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Cylindrical Projections
Map Projections

Mercator

Emphasizes
exaggerations in
the high
latitudes

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Universal Transverse
Mercator

❑ Uses the Transverse Mercator projection

❑ Each zone has a Central Meridian (λo), zones
are 6° wide, and go from pole to pole
❑ 60 zones cover the earth from East to West
❑ Reference Latitude (φo), is the equator



 Map Projections

Cylindrical Projections

Universal Transverse
Mercator

Defines horizontal
positions into 6°
zones.

Each zone has a

central meridian.

Is actually 60
projections

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Cylindrical Projections
Map Projections
The UTM system divides the surface of Earth between 80°S and 84°N
latitude into 60 zones, each 6° of longitude in width. Zone 1 covers
longitude 180° to 174° W; zone numbering increases eastward to zone
60 that covers longitude 174 to 180 East.

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Utm-zones.jpg/800px-Utm-
 Map Projections

❑ Each of the 60 longitude zones in the UTM system uses a

Transverse Mercator Projection, which can map a region
of large north-south extent with low distortion.
❑ By using narrow zones of 6° of longitude (up to 800 km)
in width, and reducing the scale factor along the central
meridian by only 0.0004 to 0.9996 (a reduction of 1:2500),
the amount of distortion is held below 1 part in 1,000
inside each zone.
❑ Distortion of scale increases to 1.0010 at the outer zone
boundaries along the equator.

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Utm-zones.jpg/800px-Utm-zones.jpg

 Map Projections by Geometry

Conical

❑ Map plane is tangent along a line, most commonly a parallel of latitude

which is the map’s standard parallel
❑ Cone is cut along a meridian, and the meridian opposite the cut is the
map’s central meridian
❑ Alternatively, cone may intersect (secant to) globe, thus there will be
two standard parallels
❑ Distortion increases as move away from the standard parallels (towards
poles)
❑ Good for mid latitude zones with east-west extent, with polar area left
off
❑ Examples: Alber’s Equal Area Conic, Lambert’s Conic Conformal



Conic Projections
 Map Projections

Conic Projections

• Straight meridians, curved parallels Common Conic Projections

• Meridians radiate from poles • Albers
• Parallels may be equally spaced • Lambert
• Polyconic

 Map Projections

Conic Projections

Lambert Conic

Direction, area, and

shape distorted away from
the standard parallels.

Areas and directions

are true only in
limited portions of a
map.

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Geometric Models and Projection Parameters

❑ Knowing simply the type of projection is usually insufficient in GIS
❑ Projections parameters must also be known for any set of projected data
❑ These describe the exact transformation used and depend on geometric model
Azimuthal Conic
❑ The lat/long coordinates for the point • Standard Parallel(s)
of tangency – Where cone touches/cuts thru globe
❑ May be – One if tangent, two if secant
o Polar (north or south) • Central meridian
o Equatorial (point on equator) – Down center of cone
o Oblique (any other point) Cylindrical
– Normal: tangent at equator
❑ Note that light source may
– Transverse, therefore must know
o Earth center (gnomonic)
• Central meridian
o Earth opposite (stereographic)
– Oblique, therefore must know
o Parallel rays (orthographic) • Great circle

Additionally must always know:

--origin of axis of coordinate system (‘false origin’ often used)
--measurement units of coordinate system (feet, meters, etc..)

 Compromise Projections

❑ Most maps don’t preserve ANY of the properties

mentioned!
❑ This is because accuracy in one property causes
distortion in the others
❑ Consequently, many maps compromise in
projections.
❑ They don’t preserve any of the properties and
don’t make extreme distortion in any of the
globe’s properties either

 Choosing a Map Projection

❑ Issues to Consider:
o extent of area to map: city, state, country, world?
o location: polar, mid-latitude, equatorial?
o predominant extent of area to map: E-W, N-S, oblique?
❑ Rules of thumb
o Choose a standard for your organization and keep all data that way.
o Also retain lat/long coords in the GIS database if possible
o for small areas, projection is less critical and datum is more critical; reverse for large areas
o use equal-area projections for thematic or distribution maps, and as a general choice for
GIS work
o use conformal projections in presentations
o for navigational applications, need true distance or direction.
o Modern GIS systems are sophisticated in their handling of many projections.

‘Much of the life of the mind consists in applying concepts to things’

(Fodor 1998:24)