University of Technology

Department of Electrical Engineering

Electronic Engineering Branch

Antennas Lectures
Third Year – Semester 2 (2022-2023)
Prepared by: Dr. Nuha H. Abdulghafoor
Lecture 1: Antenna Basics and its types

1.1 Terminology
The words antenna and aerial are used interchangeably. Occasionally the equivalent
term “aerial” is used to specifically mean an elevated horizontal wire antenna. The origin of
the word antenna relative to wireless apparatus is attributed to Italian radio
pioneer Guglielmo Marconi. In the summer of 1895, Marconi began testing his wireless
system outdoors on his father's estate near Bologna and soon began to experiment with long
wire "aerials" suspended from a pole. Until then wireless radiating transmitting and receiving
elements were known simply as “terminals”. Because of his prominence, Marconi's use of the
word antenna spread among wireless researchers and enthusiasts, and later to the general
public.
Antenna may refer broadly to an entire assembly including support structure, enclosure
(if any), etc., in addition to the actual functional components. A receiving antenna may
include not only the passive metal receiving elements, but also an integrated preamplifier
or mixer, especially at and above microwave frequencies.

Electronic Symbol of Antenna

Why do we need Antennas?

There are several different reasons to explain that why we need or why we use
antennas, but the most important reason to use antennas is that they provide a
simple way to transfer signals (or data) from sender part to receiver part where
other methods are impossible. For example, take the case of an aeroplane. The
pilot needs to frequently communicate with the ATC personnel.
Wireless communication is the only feasible option to communicate but Antennas
are the gateway for that communication. There are many situations or
applications where cables are preferred over wireless communication with
antennas (like high speed Ethernet or the connection between gaming console and
the T.V., for example).
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Lecture 1: Antenna Basics and Types Dr. Nuha Hashem
1.2 Fundamental Concepts
An antenna (or aerial) is an electrical device which converts electric power into radio
waves, and vice versa. It is usually used with a radio transmitter or radio receiver. In
transmission, a radio transmitter supplies an oscillating radio frequency electric current to the
antenna's terminals, and the antenna radiates the energy from the current as electromagnetic
waves (radio waves). In reception, an antenna intercepts some of the power of an
electromagnetic wave in order to produce a tiny voltage at its terminals that is applied to a
receiver to be amplified.
Antennas are essential components of all equipment that uses radio. They are used in
systems such as radio broadcasting, broadcast television, two-way radio, communications
receivers, radar, cell phones, and satellite communications, as well as other devices such as
garage door openers, wireless microphones, bluetooth enabled devices, wireless computer
networks, baby monitors, and RFID tags on merchandise.
 Typically an antenna consists of an arrangement of metallic conductors ("elements"),
electrically connected (often through a transmission line) to the receiver or transmitter.
 Antennas act as transformers between conducted waves and electromagnetic waves
propagating freely in space.
 Their name is borrowed from zoology, in which the Latin word antennae is used to
describe the long, thin feelers possessed by many insects. a rigid metallic structure is
called an "antenna" while the wire form is called an "aerial". let us see some common
types of antennas that are in use
 In wireless communication systems, signals are radiated in space as an electromagnetic
wave by using a receiving transmitting antenna and a fraction of this radiated power is
intercepted by using a receiving antenna.
 An antenna can also be thought of as a transitional structure between free space and a
guiding device (such as transmission line or waveguide). Usually antennas are metallic
structures, but dielectric antennas are also used now a day.

1.3 Basic Types of Antennas

Antennas may be divided into various types depending upon −
 The physical structure of the antenna.
 The frequency ranges of operation.
 The mode of applications etc.
1.3.1 Physical structure
Following are the types of antennas according to the physical structure.
1. Wire antennas: (Fig. 1, 2 and Fig. 3 single element)
 Dipole, monopole, loop antenna, helix

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Lecture 1: Antenna Basics and Types Dr. Nuha Hashem
 Usually used in personal applications, automobiles, buildings, ships, aircrafts and spacecraft.
2. Aperture antennas: (Fig. 4, 5)
 Horn antennas, waveguide opening
 Usually used in aircrafts and space crafts, because these antennas can be flush mounted.

3. Reflector antennas: (Fig. 6)

 parabolic reflectors, corner reflectors
 These are high gain antennas usually used in radio astronomy,
microwave communication and satellite tracking.

4. Microstrip antennas (Fig. 7)

 Rectangular, circular etc. shaped metallic patch above a ground plane
 Used in aircraft, spacecraft, satellites, missiles, cars, mobile phones etc.

5. Lens antennas (Fig. 8)

 Convex-plane, convex-convex , convex-concave and concave-plane lenses
 These antennas are usually used for very high frequency applications.

6. Array antennas
 Yagi-Uda antenna, microstrip patch array, aperture array, slotted waveguide array.
Used for very high gain applications with added advantage, such as, controllable radiation pattern.

1.3.2 Frequency of operation

Following are the types of antennas according to the frequency of operation.
 Very Low Frequency (VLF)
 Low Frequency (LF)
 Medium Frequency (MF)
 High Frequency (HF)
 Very High Frequency (VHF)
 Ultra High Frequency (UHF)
 Super High Frequency (SHF)
 Micro wave
 Radio wave

For example, Whip monopole is used on mobile and portable radios in VHF/UHF bands and
usually have a flexible, telescoping rod, Yagi-Uda (dipole) is most common directional
antennas at HF, VHF, and UHF frequencies as a unidirectional antenna with a narrowband
and used as rooftop TV antennas and long distance shortwave communication

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Lecture 1: Antenna Basics and Types Dr. Nuha Hashem

1.3.3 Mode of Applications

Following are the types of antennas according to the modes of applications:-
 Point-to-point communications
 Broadcasting applications
 Radar communications
 Satellite communications

1.4 Radiation Mechanism:

The sole functionality of an antenna is power radiation or reception. Antenna
(whether it transmits or receives or does both) can be connected to the circuitry at the station
through a transmission line. The functioning of an antenna depends upon the radiation
mechanism of a transmission line.
A conductor, which is designed to carry current over large distances with minimum losses, is
termed as a transmission line. For example, a wire, which is connected to an antenna. A
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Lecture 1: Antenna Basics and Types Dr. Nuha Hashem
transmission line conducting current with uniform velocity, and the line being a straight one
with infinite extent, radiates no power. When electric charges undergo acceleration or
deceleration, electromagnetic radiation will be produced. Hence it is the motion of charges,
that is currents, is the source of radiation. Here it may be highlighted that, not all current
distributions will produce a strong enough radiation for communication. To give a
mathematical flavor to it, The radiated power is proportional to the square of.
I L or Q v
Where I = Time changing current in Amps/sec
L = Length of the current element in meters
Q= Charge in Coulombs
v= Time changing velocity
𝜇𝐼𝑑𝑙
𝐴= --------------1.1
4𝜋𝑟
𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝑣
And 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑙𝑞 = 𝑑𝑙𝑞𝑎 ----------1.2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝐴 𝜇𝑑𝑙 𝜕𝐼 𝜇𝑑𝑙
So 𝐸 = −∇𝑉 − = −∇𝑉 − = −∇𝑉 − 𝑞𝑎 -----------1.3
𝑑𝑡 4𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑡 4𝜋𝑟
 As shown in these equations, to create radiation (electric field), there must be a time
varying current dI/dt or an acceleration (or deceleration) a of a charge q.
 If the charge is not moving, a current is not created and there is no radiation.
 If a charge is moving with an uniform velocity:
 there is no radiation if the wire is straight, and infinite in extent
 there is radiation if the wire is curved, bent, discontinuous, terminated, or truncated‫ز‬
 If the charge is oscillating in a time-motion, it radiates even if the wire is straight.
These situations are shown in Fig. 11.
 If this transmission line has current, which accelerates or decelerates with a time
varying constant, then it radiates the power even though the wire is straight.
 The device or tube, if bent or terminated to radiate energy, then it is called
as waveguide. These are especially used for the microwave transmission or reception.

Fig. 11: Conditions for radiation

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Lecture 1: Antenna Basics and Types Dr. Nuha Hashem

Fig. 11: Antenna radiation mechanism

Transmission line opened out in a Tapered fashion as Antenna:
a) As Transmitting Antenna: –Here the Transmission Line is connected to source or
generator at one end. Along the uniform part of the line energy is guided as Plane TEM
wave with little loss. Spacing between line is a small fraction of λ. As the line is
opened out and the separation b/n the two lines becomes comparable to λ, it acts like
an antenna and launches a free space wave since currents on the transmission Line
flow out on the antenna but fields associated with them keep on going. From the circuit
point of view the antennas appear to the tr. lines. As a resistance Rr, called Radiation
resistance.
b) As Receiving Antenna –Active radiation by other Antenna or Passive radiation from
distant objects raises the apparent temperature of Rr .This has nothing to do with the
physical temperature of the antenna itself but is related to the temperature of distant
objects that the antenna is looking at Rr may be thought of as virtual resistance that
does not exist physically but is a quantity coupling the antenna to distant regions of
space via a virtual transmission line.

Figure12: Antenna as a a) Transmission Mode b) Receiving Mode

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Lecture 1: Antenna Basics and Types Dr. Nuha Hashem
1.5 Current and voltage distribution.
a) A current flowing in a wire of a length related to the RF produces an
electromagnetic field. This field radiates from the wire and is set free in space.
The principles of radiation of electromagnetic energy are based on two laws.
(1) A moving electric field creates a magnetic (H) field.
(2) A moving magnetic field creates an electric (E) field.
b) In space, these two fields will be in-phase and perpendicular to each other at
any given moment. Although a conductor is usually considered to be present
when a moving electric or magnetic field is mentioned, the laws governing these
fields do not say anything about a conductor. Thus, these laws hold true whether a
conductor is present or not.

c) The current and voltage distribution on a half-wave Hertz antenna is shown in

Figure 13.In view A, a piece of wire is cut in half and attached to the terminals of
a high frequency (HF), alternating current (AC) generator. The frequency of the
generator is set so each half of the wire is one-quarter wavelength of the output.
The symbol for wavelength is the Greek letter lambda (D). The result is the
common dipole antenna.

d) At a given moment, the generator's right side is positive and its left side is
negative. A law of physics states that like charges repel each other. Consequently,
electrons will flow away from the negative terminal as far as possible while the
positive terminal will attract electrons. View B of Figure 13 shows the direction
and distribution of electron flow. The distribution curve shows that most current
flows in the center and none flows at the ends. The current distribution over the
antenna is always the same, regardless of how much or how little current is
flowing. However, current at any given point on the antenna will vary directly
with the amount of voltage that the generator develops.
e) One-quarter cycle after the electrons begin to flow, the generator develops it;
minimum voltage and the current decreases to zero. At that moment, the
condition shown in view C of Figure 12 will exist. Although no current is
flowing, a minimum number of electrons are at the left end of the line and a

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Lecture 1: Antenna Basics and Types Dr. Nuha Hashem
minimum number are at the right end. The charge distribution along the wire
varies as the voltage of the generator varies (view C).

Figure 13. Current and voltage distribution on an antenna

1. A current flows in the antenna with an amplitude that varies with the generator
voltage.
2. A sine wave distribution of charge exists on the antenna. The charges reverse
polarity every half cycle.
3. The sine wave variation in charge magnitude lags the sine wave variation in
current by one-quarter cycle.

Reciprocity is the ability to use the same antenna for both transmitting and
receiving. The electrical characteristics of an antenna apply equally, regardless of
whether you use the antenna for transmitting or receiving. The more efficient an
antenna is for transmitting a certain frequency, the more efficient it will be as a
receiving antenna for the same frequency. This is illustrated by Figure 13, view
A. When the antenna is used for transmitting, maximum radiation occurs at right
angles to its axis. When the same antenna is used for receiving (view B), its best
reception is along the same path; that is, at right angles to the axis of the antenna.

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Lecture 1: Antenna Basics and Types Dr. Nuha Hashem

Figure 2. Reciprocity of Antenna